README.md

---
datasets:
- bigscience/P3
language: en
license: apache-2.0
widget:
- text: "A is the son's of B's uncle. What is the family relationship between A and B?"
- text: "Reorder the words in this sentence: justin and name bieber years is my am I 27 old."
- text: "Task: copy but say the opposite.\n
PSG won its match against Barca."
- text: "Is this review positive or negative? Review: Best cast iron skillet you will every buy."
- text: "Question A: How is air traffic controlled?
\nQuestion B: How do you become an air traffic controller?\nPick one: these questions are duplicates or not duplicates."
- text: "Barack Obama nominated Hilary Clinton as his secretary of state on Monday. He chose her because she had foreign affairs experience as a former First Lady.
\nIn the previous sentence, decide who 'her' is referring to."
- text: "Last week I upgraded my iOS version and ever since then my phone has been overheating whenever I use your app.\n
Select the category for the above sentence from: mobile, website, billing, account access."
- text: "Sentence 1: Gyorgy Heizler, head of the local disaster unit, said the coach was carrying 38 passengers.\n
Sentence 2: The head of the local disaster unit, Gyorgy Heizler, said the bus was full except for 38 empty seats.\n\n
Do sentences 1 and 2 have the same meaning?"
- text: "Here's the beginning of an article, choose a tag that best describes the topic of the article: business, cinema, politics, health, travel, sports.\n\n
The best and worst fo 007 as 'No time to die' marks Daniel Craig's exit.\n
(CNN) Some 007 math: 60 years, 25 movies (with a small asterisk) and six James Bonds. For a Cold War creation, Ian Fleming's suave spy has certainly gotten around, but despite different guises in the tuxedo and occasional scuba gear, when it comes to Bond ratings, there really shouldn't be much argument about who wore it best."
- text: "Max: Know any good websites to buy clothes from?\n
Payton: Sure :) LINK 1, LINK 2, LINK 3\n
Max: That's a lot of them!\n
Payton: Yeah, but they have different things so I usually buy things from 2 or 3 of them.\n
Max: I'll check them out. Thanks.\n\n
Who or what are Payton and Max referring to when they say 'them'?"
- text: "Is the word 'table' used in the same meaning in the two previous sentences?\n\n
Sentence A: you can leave the books on the table over there.\n
Sentence B: the tables in this book are very hard to read."
- text: "On a shelf, there are five books: a gray book, a red book, a purple book, a blue book, and a black book.\n
The red book is to the right of the gray book. The black book is to the left of the blue book. The blue book is to the left of the gray book. The purple book is the second from the right.\n\n
Which book is the leftmost book?"
- text: "The word 'binne' means any animal that is furry and has four legs, and the word 'bam' means a simple sort of dwelling.\n\n
Which of the following best characterizes binne bams?\n
- Sentence 1: Binne bams are for pets.\n
- Sentence 2: Binne bams are typically furnished with sofas and televisions.\n
- Sentence 3: Binne bams are luxurious apartments.\n
- Sentence 4: Binne bams are places where people live."
---

# Model Description

T0* (pronounce "T Zero") is a series of encoder-decoder models trained on a large set of different tasks specified in natural language prompts. We convert numerous English supervised datasets into prompts, each with multiple templates using varying formulations. These prompted datasets allow for benchmarking the ability of a model to perform completely unseen tasks specified in natural language. To obtain T0*, we fine-tune a pretrained language model on this multitask mixture covering many different NLP tasks.

# Intended uses

You can use the models to perform inference on tasks by specifying your query in natural language, and the models will generate a prediction. For instance, you can ask *"Is this review positive or negative? Review: this is the best cast iron skillet you will ever buy"*, and the model will hopefully generate *"Positive"*.

A few other examples that you can try:
- *A is the son's of B's uncle. What is the family relationship between A and B?*
- *Question A: How is air traffic controlled?<br>
Question B: How do you become an air traffic controller?<br>
Pick one: these questions are duplicates or not duplicates.*
- *Is the word 'table' used in the same meaning in the two previous sentences?<br><br>
Sentence A: you can leave the books on the table over there.<br>
Sentence B: the tables in this book are very hard to read.*
- *Max: Know any good websites to buy clothes from?<br>
Payton: Sure :) LINK 1, LINK 2, LINK 3<br>
Max: That's a lot of them!<br>
Payton: Yeah, but they have different things so I usually buy things from 2 or 3 of them.<br>
Max: I'll check them out. Thanks.<br><br>
Who or what are Payton and Max referring to when they say 'them'?*
- *On a shelf, there are five books: a gray book, a red book, a purple book, a blue book, and a black book.<br>
The red book is to the right of the gray book. The black book is to the left of the blue book. The blue book is to the left of the gray book. The purple book is the second from the right.<br><br>
Which book is the leftmost book?*
- *Reorder the words in this sentence: justin and name bieber years is my am I 27 old.*

# How to use

We make available the models presented in our [paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.08207) along with the ablation models. We recommend using the [T0pp](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/T0pp) (pronounce "T Zero Plus Plus") checkpoint as it leads (on average) to the best performances on a variety of NLP tasks.

|Model|Number of parameters|
|-|-|
|[T0](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/T0)|11 billion|
|[T0p](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/T0p)|11 billion|
|[T0pp](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/T0pp)|11 billion|
|[T0_single_prompt](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/T0_single_prompt)|11 billion|
|[T0_original_task_only](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/T0_original_task_only)|11 billion|
|[T0_3B](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/T0_3B)|3 billion|

Here is how to use the model in PyTorch:
```python
from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModelForSeq2SeqLM

tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained("bigscience/T0pp")
model = AutoModelForSeq2SeqLM.from_pretrained("bigscience/T0pp")

inputs = tokenizer.encode("Is this review positive or negative? Review: this is the best cast iron skillet you will ever buy", return_tensors="pt")
outputs = model.generate(inputs)
print(tokenizer.decode(outputs[0]))
```

If you want to use another checkpoint, please replace the path in `AutoTokenizer` and `AutoModelForSeq2SeqLM`.

# Training procedure

T0* models are based on [T5](https://huggingface.co/google/t5-v1_1-large), a Transformer-based encoder-decoder language model pre-trained with a masked language modeling-style objective on [C4](https://huggingface.co/datasets/c4). We use the publicly available [language model-adapted T5 checkpoints](https://github.com/google-research/text-to-text-transfer-transformer/blob/main/released_checkpoints.md#lm-adapted-t511lm100k) which were produced by training T5 for 100'000 additional steps with a standard language modeling objective.

At a high level, the input text is fed to the encoder and the target text is produced by the decoder. The model is fine-tuned to autoregressively generate the target through standard maximum likelihood training. It is never trained to generate the input. We detail our training data in the next section.

Training details:
- Fine-tuning steps: 12'200
- Input sequence length: 1024
- Target sequence length: 256
- Batch size: 1'024 sequences
- Optimizer: Adafactor
- Learning rate: 1e-3
- Dropout: 0.1
- Sampling strategy: proportional to the number of examples in each dataset (we treated any dataset with over 500'000 examples as having 500'000/`num_templates` examples)
- Example grouping: We use packing to combine multiple training examples into a single sequence to reach the maximum sequence length

# Training data

We trained different variants T0 with different mixtures of datasets.

|Model|Training datasets|
|--|--|
|T0|- Multiple-Choice QA: CommonsenseQA, DREAM, QUAIL, QuaRTz, Social IQA, WiQA, Cosmos, QASC, Quarel, SciQ, Wiki Hop<br>- Extractive QA: Adversarial QA, Quoref, DuoRC, ROPES<br>- Closed-Book QA: Hotpot QA*, Wiki QA<br>- Structure-To-Text: Common Gen, Wiki Bio<br>- Sentiment: Amazon, App Reviews, IMDB, Rotten Tomatoes, Yelp<br>- Summarization: CNN Daily Mail, Gigaword, MultiNews, SamSum, XSum<br>- Topic Classification: AG News, DBPedia, TREC<br>- Paraphrase Identification: MRPC, PAWS, QQP|
|T0p|Same as T0 with additional datasets from GPT-3's evaluation suite:<br>- Multiple-Choice QA: ARC, OpenBook QA, PiQA, RACE, HellaSwag<br>- Extractive QA: SQuAD v2<br>- Closed-Book QA: Trivia QA, Web Questions|
|T0pp|Same as T0p with a few additional datasets from SuperGLUE (excluding NLI sets):<br>- BoolQ<br>- COPA<br>- MultiRC<br>- ReCoRD<br>- WiC<br>- WSC|
|T0_single_prompt|Same as T0 but only one prompt per training dataset|
|T0_original_task_only|Same as T0 but only original tasks templates|
|T0_3B|Same as T0 but starting from a T5-LM XL (3B parameters) pre-trained model|

For reproducibility, we release the data we used for training (and evaluation) in the [P3 dataset](https://huggingface.co/datasets/bigscience/P3). Prompts examples can be found on the dataset page.

*: We recast Hotpot QA as closed-book QA due to long input sequence length.

# Evaluation data

We evaluate our models on a suite of held-out tasks:

|Task category|Datasets|
|-|-|
|Natural language inference|ANLI, CB, RTE|
|Coreference resolution|WSC, Winogrande|
|Word sense disambiguation|WiC|
|Sentence completion|COPA, HellaSwag, Story Cloze|

We also evaluate T0, T0p and T0pp on the a subset of the [BIG-bench benchmark](https://github.com/google/BIG-bench):
- Code description task
- Conceptual combinations
- Hindu knowledge json
- Known unknowns
- Language identification
- Logic grid puzzle task
- Logical deduction
- Common misconceptions
- Movie dialog same or different
- Novel concepts
- Strategyqa
- Formal fallacies syllogisms negation
- VitaminC
- Winowhy multiple choice

# Limitations

- The models of the T0* series are quite large (3B or 11B parameters). Loading them and performing inference requires non-trivial computational resources. When using multiple GPUs, it is possible to use [.parallelize()](https://huggingface.co/transformers/parallelism.html).
- We have observed that different prompts can lead to varying performances. We believe that further research is required to explore the effectiveness of different prompts for a language model.
- Due to design choices in the tokenization, the models are unable to perform inference for tasks involving code or non English text.

# Bias and fairness

Even if we took deliberate decisions to exclude datasets with potentially harmful content from the fine-tuning, the models trained are not bias-free. Based on a few experimentations, T0++ can generate answers that could be categorized as conspiracist or biased:
- Input: `Is the earth flat?` - Prediction: `yes`
- Input: `Do vaccines cause autism?` - Prediction: `yes`
- Input: `Complete this sentence: This man works as a` - Prediction: `Architect`
- Input: `Complete this sentence: This woman works as a` - Prediction: `Nanny`

Language models can reproduce undesirable social biases represented in the large corpus they are pre-trained on. We evaluate our models in two ways: first in their ability to recognize or label gender biases and second in the extent to which they reproduce those biases.

To measure the ability of our model to recognize gender biases, we evaluate our models using the WinoGender Schemas (also called AX-g under SuperGLUE) and CrowS-Pairs. WinoGender Schemas are minimal pairs of sentences that differ only by the gender of one pronoun in the sentence, designed to test for the presence of gender bias. We use the *Diverse Natural Language Inference Collection* ([Poliak et al., 2018](https://aclanthology.org/D18-1007/)) version that casts WinoGender as a textual entailment task and report accuracy. CrowS-Pairs is a challenge dataset for measuring the degree to which U.S. stereotypical biases present in the masked language models using minimal pairs of sentences. We re-formulate the task by predicting which of two sentences is stereotypical (or anti-stereotypical) and report accuracy. For each dataset, we evaluate between 5 and 10 prompts.

<table>
  <tr>
    <td>Dataset</td>
    <td>Model</td>
    <td>Average (Acc.)</td>
    <td>Median (Acc.)</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td rowspan="10">CrowS-Pairs</td><td>T0</td><td>59.2</td><td>83.8</td>
  </tr>
    <td>T0p</td><td>57.6</td><td>83.8</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0pp</td><td>62.7</td><td>64.4</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0_single_prompt</td><td>57.6</td><td>69.5</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0_original_task_only</td><td>47.1</td><td>37.8</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0_3B</td><td>56.9</td><td>82.6</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td rowspan="10">WinoGender</td><td>T0</td><td>84.2</td><td>84.3</td>
  </tr>
    <td>T0p</td><td>80.1</td><td>80.6</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0pp</td><td>89.2</td><td>90.0</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0_single_prompt</td><td>81.6</td><td>84.6</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0_original_task_only</td><td>83.7</td><td>83.8</td>
  <tr>
  </tr>
    <td>T0_3B</td><td>69.7</td><td>69.4</td>
  </tr>
</table>

To measure the extent to which our model reproduces gender biases, we evaluate our models using the WinoBias Schemas. WinoBias Schemas are pronoun coreference resolution tasks that have the potential to be influenced by gender bias. WinoBias Schemas has two schemas (type1 and type2) which are partitioned into pro-stereotype and anti-stereotype subsets. A "pro-stereotype" example is one where the correct answer conforms to stereotypes, while an "anti-stereotype" example is one where it opposes stereotypes. All examples have an unambiguously correct answer, and so the difference in scores between the "pro-" and "anti-" subset measures the extent to which stereotypes can lead the model astray. We report accuracies by considering a prediction correct if the target noun is present in the model's prediction. We evaluate on 6 prompts.

<table>
  <tr>
    <td rowspan="2">Model</td>
    <td rowspan="2">Subset</td>
    <td colspan="3">Average (Acc.)</td>
    <td colspan="3">Median (Acc.)</td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
    <td>Pro</td>
    <td>Anti</td>
    <td>Pro - Anti</td>
    <td>Pro</td>
    <td>Anti</td>
    <td>Pro - Anti</td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td rowspan="2">T0</td><td>Type 1</td>
    <td>68.0</td><td>61.9</td><td>6.0</td><td>71.7</td><td>61.9</td><td>9.8</td>
  </tr>
    <td>Type 2</td>
    <td>79.3</td><td>76.4</td><td>2.8</td><td>79.3</td><td>75.0</td><td>4.3</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td rowspan="2">T0p</td>
    <td>Type 1</td>
    <td>66.6</td><td>57.2</td><td>9.4</td><td>71.5</td><td>62.6</td><td>8.8</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td>Type 2</td>
    <td>77.7</td><td>73.4</td><td>4.3</td><td>86.1</td><td>81.3</td><td>4.8</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td rowspan="2">T0pp</td>
    <td>Type 1</td>
    <td>63.8</td><td>55.9</td><td>7.9</td><td>72.7</td><td>63.4</td><td>9.3</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td>Type 2</td>
    <td>66.8</td><td>63.0</td><td>3.9</td><td>79.3</td><td>74.0</td><td>5.3</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td rowspan="2">T0_single_prompt</td>
    <td>Type 1</td>
    <td>82.3</td><td>70.1</td><td>12.2</td><td>83.6</td><td>62.9</td><td>20.7</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td>Type 2</td>
    <td>83.8</td><td>76.5</td><td>7.3</td><td>85.9</td><td>75.0</td><td>10.9</td>
  </tr>

  </tr>
    <td rowspan="2">T0_original_task_only</td>
    <td>Type 1</td>
    <td>73.7</td><td>60.5</td><td>13.2</td><td>79.3</td><td>60.6</td><td>18.7</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td> Type 2</td>
    <td>77.7</td><td>69.6</td><td>8.0</td><td>80.8</td><td>69.7</td><td>11.1</td>
  </tr>

  </tr>
    <td rowspan="2">T0_3B</td>
    <td>Type 1</td>
    <td>82.3</td><td>70.1</td><td>12.2</td><td>83.6</td><td>62.9</td><td>20.7</td>
  </tr>
  </tr>
    <td> Type 2</td>
    <td>83.8</td><td>76.5</td><td>7.3</td><td>85.9</td><td>75</td><td>10.9</td>
  </tr>
</table>

# BibTeX entry and citation info

```bibtex
@misc{sanh2021multitask,
      title={Multitask Prompted Training Enables Zero-Shot Task Generalization},
      author={Victor Sanh and Albert Webson and Colin Raffel and Stephen H. Bach and Lintang Sutawika and Zaid Alyafeai and Antoine Chaffin and Arnaud Stiegler and Teven Le Scao and Arun Raja and Manan Dey and M Saiful Bari and Canwen Xu and Urmish Thakker and Shanya Sharma Sharma and Eliza Szczechla and Taewoon Kim and Gunjan Chhablani and Nihal Nayak and Debajyoti Datta and Jonathan Chang and Mike Tian-Jian Jiang and Han Wang and Matteo Manica and Sheng Shen and Zheng Xin Yong and Harshit Pandey and Rachel Bawden and Thomas Wang and Trishala Neeraj and Jos Rozen and Abheesht Sharma and Andrea Santilli and Thibault Fevry and Jason Alan Fries and Ryan Teehan and Stella Biderman and Leo Gao and Tali Bers and Thomas Wolf and Alexander M. Rush},
      year={2021},
      eprint={2110.08207},
      archivePrefix={arXiv},
      primaryClass={cs.LG}
}
```