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the handmaids tale season 1 episode 4 recap | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American dystopian drama web television series created by Bruce Miller, based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by the streaming service Hulu as a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, for which production began in late 2016. The plot follows a dystopian future following a Second American Civil War wherein fertile women, called "Handmaids '', are forced into sexual and child - bearing servitude.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes aired on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 25, 2018. At the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, The Handmaid 's Tale won eight awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, becoming the first series on a streaming service to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. It also won Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series -- Drama and Best Actress for Elisabeth Moss.
In May 2018, Hulu announced that the series had been renewed for a third season.
In the near future, fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos, the totalitarian, theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along with a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read. Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an extremist interpretation of a Biblical account. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape by their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the red - clad Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Women are divided into a small range of social categories, each one signified by a similarly - styled plain dress in a specific color: Handmaids wear red, Marthas (who are housekeepers and cooks) wear green, and Wives (who are expected to run their households) wear blue. Econowives, the lower - class women who still have minimal agency, are sort of a mixture of all these categories, and they wear gray (a departure from the book in which Econowives wear stripes). Women prisoners are called Carols and are worked to death clearing toxic waste. Another class of women, Aunts (who train and oversee the Handmaids), wear brown. Additionally, the Eyes are a secret police watching over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes in secret brothels catering to the elite ruling class.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of the Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). Offred is subject to strict rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment. Offred, who is named after her male master like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married and had a daughter, a job, a bank account, and her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in hopes that she can someday live free again and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands upon or modernizes the book. She also played a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer, and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Oakville, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes would cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season consists of 13 episodes and began filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel returned as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned 10 seasons of the show, stating, "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes were released on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo; the first two episodes premiered on April 30, 2017. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, on Channel 4. In Ireland, the series premiered on February 5, 2018 on RTÉ2, with a showing of the first two episodes. RTÉ also become the first broadcaster in Europe to debut Season 2 following its broadcast in the US and Canada.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand, on July 6, 2017.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 96 % based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 8.71 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society following Donald Trump and Mike Pence 's elections as President and Vice President of the United States, respectively. A comparison has also been made to the Salafi / Wahabbi extremism of ISIL, under which enslaved women of religious minorities are passed around and utilized as sex objects and vessels to bear new jihadis.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 8.34 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Beautifully shot but dishearteningly relevant, The Handmaid 's Tale centers its sophomore season tightly around its compelling cast of characters, making room for broader social commentary through more intimate lenses. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
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the hart cellar act of 1965 did all of the following except | Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 - wikipedia
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (H.R. 2580; Pub. L. 89 -- 236, 79 Stat. 911, enacted June 30, 1968), also known as the Hart -- Celler Act, changed the way quotas were allocated by ending the National Origins Formula that had been in place in the United States since the Emergency Quota Act of 1921. Representative Emanuel Celler of New York proposed the bill, Senator Philip Hart of Michigan co-sponsored it, and Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts helped to promote it.
The Hart -- Celler Act abolished the quota system based on national origins that had been American immigration policy since the 1920s. The 1965 Act marked a change from past U.S. policy which had discriminated against non-northern Europeans. In removing racial and national barriers the Act would significantly alter the demographic mix in the U.S.
The new law maintained the per - country limits, but also created preference visa categories that focused on immigrants ' skills and family relationships with citizens or U.S. residents. The bill set numerical restrictions on visas at 170,000 per year, with a per - country - of - origin quota. However, immediate relatives of U.S. citizens and "special immigrants '' had no restrictions.
The Hart -- Celler Act of 1965 marked a radical break from the immigration policies of the past. Previous laws restricted immigration from Asia and Africa, and gave preference to northern and western Europeans over southern and eastern Europeans. In the 1960s, the United States faced both foreign and domestic pressures to change its nation - based formula, which was regarded as a system that discriminated based on an individual 's place of birth. Abroad, former military allies and new independent nations aimed to delegitimize discriminatory immigration, naturalization and regulations through international organizations like the United Nations. In the United States, the national - based formula had been under scrutiny for a number of years. In 1952, President Truman had directed the Commission on Immigration and Naturalization to conduct an investigation and produce a report on the current immigration regulations. The report, Whom We Shall Welcome, served as the blueprint for the Hart -- Celler Act. At the height of the Civil Rights Movement the restrictive immigration laws were seen as an embarrassment. President Lyndon Johnson signed the 1965 act into law at the foot of the Statue of Liberty.
The immigration into the country, of "sexual deviants '', including homosexuals, was still prohibited under the legislation. The INS continued to deny entry to homosexual prospective immigrants on the grounds that they were "mentally defective '', or had a "constitutional psychopathic inferiority '' until the Immigration Act of 1990 rescinded the provision discriminating against gay people.
The Hart -- Celler Act amended the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (McCarran - Walter Act), while it upheld many provisions of the Immigration Act of 1924. It maintained per - country limits, which had been a feature of U.S. immigration policy since the 1920s, and it developed preference categories.
As per the rules under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), U.S. organizations are permitted to employ foreign workers either temporarily or permanently to fulfill certain types of job requirement. The Employment and Training Administration (ETA) under the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is the body that usually provides certification to employers allowing them to hire foreign workers in order to bridge qualified and skilled labor gaps in certain business areas. Employers must confirm that they are unable to hire American workers willing to perform the job for wages paid by employers for the same occupation in the intended area of employment. However, some unique rules are applied to each category of visas. They are as follows:
The Hart -- Celler Act was widely supported in Congress. Senator Philip A. Hart introduced the administration - backed immigration bill which was reported to the Senate Judiciary Committee 's Immigration and Naturalization Subcommittee. Representative Emanuel Celler introduced the bill in the House of Representatives, which voted 320 to 70 in favor of the act, while the Senate passed the bill by a vote of 76 to 18. In the Senate, 52 Democrats voted yes, 14 no, and 1 abstained. Among Senate Republicans, 24 voted yes, 3 voted no, and 1 abstained. In the House, 202 Democrats voted yes, 60 voted no and 12 abstained, 118 Republicans voted yes, 10 voted no and 11 abstained. In total, 74 % of Democrats and 85 % of Republicans voted for passage of this bill. Most of the no votes were from the American South, which was then still strongly Democratic. During debate on the Senate floor, Senator Kennedy, speaking of the effects of the act, said, "our cities will not be flooded with a million immigrants annually... Secondly, the ethnic mix of this country will not be upset ''.
Senator Hiram Fong (R - HI) answered questions concerning the possible change in our cultural pattern by an influx of Asians:
"Asians represent six - tenths of 1 percent of the population of the United States... with respect to Japan, we estimate that there will be a total for the first 5 years of some 5,391... the people from that part of the world will never reach 1 percent of the population... Our cultural pattern will never be changed as far as America is concerned. '' (U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Immigration and Naturalization of the Committee on the Judiciary, Washington, D.C., Feb. 10, 1965, pp. 71, 119.)
(Note: From 1966 to 1970, 19,399 immigrants came from Japan, more than three times Sen. Fong 's estimate. Immigration from Asia as a whole has totaled 5,627,576 from 1966 to 1993. 6.8 % of the American population is currently of Asian birth or heritage.)
Michael A. Feighan and other conservative Democrats had insisted that "family unification '' should take priority over "employability '', on the premise that such a weighting would maintain the existing ethnic profile of the country. That change in policy instead resulted in Chain migration dominating the subsequent patterns of immigration to the United States.
On October 3, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the legislation into law, saying, "This (old) system violates the basic principle of American democracy, the principle that values and rewards each man on the basis of his merit as a man. It has been un-American in the highest sense, because it has been untrue to the faith that brought thousands to these shores even before we were a country ''.
The proponents of the Hart -- Celler Act argued that it would not significantly influence United States culture. President Johnson called the bill "not a revolutionary bill. It does not affect the lives of millions. '' Secretary of State Dean Rusk and other politicians, including Senator Ted Kennedy, asserted that the bill would not affect US demographic mix. However, the ethnic composition of immigrants changed following the passage of the law. Specifically, the Hart -- Celler Act allowed increased numbers of people to migrate to the United States from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. The 1965 act, however, imposed the first cap on immigration from the Americas. This marks the first time numerical limitations were placed on legal immigration from Latin American countries including Mexico.
Prior to 1965, the demographics of immigration stood as mostly Europeans; 68 percent of legal immigrants in the 1950s came from Europe and Canada. However, in the years 1971 -- 1991, immigrants from Hispanic and Latin American countries made 47.9 percent of immigrants (with Mexico accounting for 23.7 percent) and immigrants from Asia 35.2 percent. Not only did it change the ethnic makeup of immigration, but it also greatly increased the number of immigrants -- immigration constituted 11 percent of the total U.S. population growth between 1960 and 1970, growing to 33 percent from 1970 -- 80, and to 39 percent from 1980 -- 90. The elimination of the National Origins Formula and the introduction of numeric limits on immigration from the Western Hemisphere, along with the strong demand for immigrant workers by U.S. employers, led to rising numbers of illegal immigrants in the U.S. in the decades after 1965, especially in the Southwest. Policies in the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 that were designed to curtail migration across the Mexican - U.S. border led many unauthorized workers to settle permanently in the U.S. These demographic trends became a central part of anti-immigrant activism from the 1980s leading to greater border militarization, rising apprehension of migrants by the Border Patrol, and a focus in the media on the criminality of immigrants.
The INA 's elimination of national and ethnic quotas has limited recent efforts at immigration restriction. In January, 2017, president Donald Trump 's Executive Order 13769 temporarily halted immigration from 7 majority - Muslim nations. However, lower federal courts ruled that the Executive Order violated the INA 's prohibitions of discrimination on the basis of nationality and religion. In June, 2017, the US Supreme Court overrode both appeals courts and allowed the second ban to go into effect, but carved out an exemption for persons with "bona fide relationships '' in the U.S. In December, 2017, the US Supreme Court allowed the full travel ban to take effect which excludes people who have a bona fide relationship with a person or entity in the United States. In June 2018, the Supreme Court upheld the travel ban, saying that the president 's power to secure the country 's borders, delegated by Congress over decades of immigration lawmaking, was not undermined by the president 's history of incendiary statements about the dangers he said Muslims pose to the United States.
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who was the artist who cut off his ear | Vincent Van Gogh - wikipedia
Vincent Willem van Gogh (Dutch: (ˈvɪnsɛnt ˈʋɪləm vɑn ˈɣɔx) (listen); 30 March 1853 -- 29 July 1890) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings, most of them in the last two years of his life. They include landscapes, still lifes, portraits and self - portraits, and are characterised by bold colours and dramatic, impulsive and expressive brushwork that contributed to the foundations of modern art. His suicide at 37 followed years of mental illness and poverty.
Born into an upper - middle - class family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet and thoughtful. As a young man he worked as an art dealer, often travelling, but became depressed after he was transferred to London. He turned to religion, and spent time as a Protestant missionary in southern Belgium. He drifted in ill health and solitude before taking up painting in 1881, having moved back home with his parents. His younger brother Theo supported him financially, and the two kept up a long correspondence by letter. His early works, mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant labourers, contain few signs of the vivid colour that distinguished his later work. In 1886, he moved to Paris, where he met members of the avant - garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were reacting against the Impressionist sensibility. As his work developed he created a new approach to still lifes and local landscapes. His paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in the south of France in 1888. During this period he broadened his subject matter to include series of olive trees, wheat fields and sunflowers.
Van Gogh suffered from psychotic episodes and delusions and though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly and drank heavily. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor, when in a rage, he severed part of his own left ear. He spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint - Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers - sur - Oise near Paris, he came under the care of the homoeopathic doctor Paul Gachet. His depression continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver. He died from his injuries two days later.
Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime, and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the public imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius, the artist "where discourses on madness and creativity converge ''. His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his painting style came to be incorporated by the Fauves and German Expressionists. He attained widespread critical, commercial and popular success over the ensuing decades, and is remembered as an important but tragic painter, whose troubled personality typifies the romantic ideal of the tortured artist.
The most comprehensive primary source on Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother, Theo. Their lifelong friendship, and most of what is known of Vincent 's thoughts and theories of art, are recorded in the hundreds of letters they exchanged from 1872 until 1890. Theo van Gogh was an art dealer and provided his brother with financial and emotional support, and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene.
Theo kept all of Vincent 's letters to him; Vincent kept few of the letters he received. After both had died, Theo 's widow Johanna arranged for the publication of some of their letters. A few appeared in 1906 and 1913; the majority were published in 1914. Vincent 's letters are eloquent and expressive and have been described as having a "diary - like intimacy '', and read in parts like autobiography. The translator Arnold Pomerans wrote that their publication adds a "fresh dimension to the understanding of Van Gogh 's artistic achievement, an understanding granted us by virtually no other painter ''.
There are more than 600 letters from Vincent to Theo and around 40 from Theo to Vincent. There are 22 to his sister Wil, 58 to the painter Anthon van Rappard, 22 to Émile Bernard as well as individual letters to Paul Signac, Paul Gauguin and the critic Albert Aurier. Some are illustrated with sketches. Many are undated, but art historians have been able to place most in chronological order. Problems in transcription and dating remain, mainly with those posted from Arles. While there Vincent wrote around 200 letters in Dutch, French and English. There is a gap in the record when he lived in Paris as the brothers lived together and had no need to correspond.
Vincent Willem van Gogh was born on 30 March 1853 in Groot - Zundert, in the predominantly Catholic province of North Brabant in the southern Netherlands. He was the oldest surviving child of Theodorus van Gogh, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, and Anna Cornelia Carbentus. Van Gogh was given the name of his grandfather, and of a brother stillborn exactly a year before his birth. Vincent was a common name in the Van Gogh family: his grandfather, Vincent (1789 -- 1874), who received a degree in theology at the University of Leiden in 1811, had six sons, three of whom became art dealers. This Vincent may have been named after his own great - uncle, a sculptor (1729 -- 1802).
Van Gogh 's mother came from a prosperous family in The Hague, and his father was the youngest son of a minister. The two met when Anna 's younger sister, Cornelia, married Theodorus 's older brother Vincent (Cent). Van Gogh 's parents married in May 1851 and moved to Zundert. His brother Theo was born on 1 May 1857. There was another brother, Cor, and three sisters: Elisabeth, Anna, and Willemina (known as "Wil ''). In later life Van Gogh remained in touch only with Willemina and Theo. Van Gogh 's mother was a rigid and religious woman who emphasised the importance of family to the point of claustrophobia for those around her. Theodorus 's salary was modest, but the Church supplied the family with a house, a maid, two cooks, a gardener, a carriage and horse, and Anna instilled in the children a duty to uphold the family 's high social position.
Van Gogh was a serious and thoughtful child. He was taught at home by his mother and a governess, and in 1860 was sent to the village school. In 1864 he was placed in a boarding school at Zevenbergen, where he felt abandoned, and campaigned to come home. Instead, in 1866 his parents sent him to the middle school in Tilburg, where he was deeply unhappy. His interest in art began at a young age. He was encouraged to draw as a child by his mother, and his early drawings are expressive, but do not approach the intensity of his later work. Constantijn C. Huysmans, who had been a successful artist in Paris, taught the students at Tilburg. His philosophy was to reject technique in favour of capturing the impressions of things, particularly nature or common objects. Van Gogh 's profound unhappiness seems to have overshadowed the lessons, which had little effect; in March 1868 he abruptly returned home. He later wrote that his youth was "austere and cold, and sterile ''.
In July 1869 Van Gogh 's uncle Cent obtained a position for him at the art dealers Goupil & Cie in The Hague. After completing his training in 1873, he was transferred to Goupil 's London branch at Southampton Street, and took lodgings at 87 Hackford Road, Stockwell. This was a happy time for Van Gogh; he was successful at work, and at 20 was earning more than his father. Theo 's wife later remarked that this was the best year of Vincent 's life. He became infatuated with his landlady 's daughter, Eugénie Loyer, but was rejected after confessing his feelings; she was secretly engaged to a former lodger. He grew more isolated, and religiously fervent. His father and uncle arranged a transfer to Paris in 1875, where he became resentful of issues such as the degree to which the firm commodified art, and was dismissed a year later.
In April 1876 he returned to England to take unpaid work as a supply teacher in a small boarding school in Ramsgate. When the proprietor moved to Isleworth in Middlesex, Van Gogh went with him. The arrangement did not work out and he left to become a Methodist minister 's assistant. His parents had meanwhile moved to Etten; in 1876 he returned home at Christmas for six months and took work at a bookshop in Dordrecht. He was unhappy in the position and spent his time doodling or translating passages from the Bible into English, French and German. He immersed himself in religion, and became increasingly pious and monastic. According to his flatmate of the time, Paulus van Görlitz, Van Gogh ate frugally, avoiding meat.
To support his religious conviction and his desire to become a pastor, in 1877 the family sent him to live with his uncle Johannes Stricker, a respected theologian, in Amsterdam. Van Gogh prepared for the University of Amsterdam theology entrance examination; he failed the exam, and left his uncle 's house in July 1878. He undertook, but also failed, a three - month course at a Protestant missionary school in Laken, near Brussels.
In January 1879 he took up a post as a missionary at Petit - Wasmes. in the coal - mining district of Borinage in Belgium. To show support for his impoverished congregation, he gave up his comfortable lodgings at a bakery to a homeless person, and moved to a small hut where he slept on straw. His squalid living conditions did not endear him to church authorities, who dismissed him for "undermining the dignity of the priesthood ''. He then walked the 75 kilometres (47 mi) to Brussels, returned briefly to Cuesmes in the Borinage, but gave in to pressure from his parents to return home to Etten. He stayed there until around March 1880, which caused concern and frustration for his parents. His father was especially frustrated and advised that his son should be committed to the lunatic asylum at Geel.
Van Gogh returned to Cuesmes in August 1880, where he lodged with a miner until October. He became interested in the people and scenes around him, and recorded them in drawings after Theo 's suggestion that he take up art in earnest. He travelled to Brussels later in the year, to follow Theo 's recommendation that he study with the Dutch artist Willem Roelofs, who persuaded him -- in spite of his dislike of formal schools of art -- to attend the Académie Royale des Beaux - Arts. He registered at the Académie in November 1880, where he studied anatomy and the standard rules of modelling and perspective.
Van Gogh returned to Etten in April 1881 for an extended stay with his parents. He continued to draw, often using his neighbours as subjects. In August 1881, his recently widowed cousin, Cornelia "Kee '' Vos - Stricker, daughter of his mother 's older sister Willemina and Johannes Stricker, arrived for a visit. He was thrilled and took long walks with her. Kee was seven years older than he was, and had an eight - year - old son. Van Gogh surprised everyone by declaring his love to her and proposing marriage. She refused with the words "No, nay, never '' ("nooit, neen, nimmer ''). After Kee returned to Amsterdam, Van Gogh went to The Hague to try to sell paintings and to meet with his second cousin, Anton Mauve. Mauve was the successful artist Van Gogh longed to be. Mauve invited him to return in a few months, and suggested he spend the intervening time working in charcoal and pastels; Van Gogh went back to Etten and followed this advice.
Late in November 1881, Van Gogh wrote a letter to Johannes Stricker, one which he described to Theo as an attack. Within days he left for Amsterdam. Kee would not meet him, and her parents wrote that his "persistence is disgusting ''. In despair, he held his left hand in the flame of a lamp, with the words: "Let me see her for as long as I can keep my hand in the flame. '' He did not recall the event well, but later assumed that his uncle had blown out the flame. Kee 's father made it clear that her refusal should be heeded and that the two would not marry, largely because of Van Gogh 's inability to support himself.
Mauve took Van Gogh on as a student and introduced him to watercolour, which he worked on for the next month before returning home for Christmas. He quarrelled with his father, refusing to attend church, and left for The Hague. Within a month Van Gogh and Mauve fell out, possibly over the viability of drawing from plaster casts. Van Gogh could afford to hire only people from the street as models, a practice of which Mauve seems to have disapproved. In June Van Gogh suffered a bout of gonorrhoea and spent three weeks in hospital. Soon after, he first painted in oils, bought with money borrowed from Theo. He liked the medium, and spread the paint liberally, scraping from the canvas and working back with the brush. He wrote that he was surprised at how good the results were.
By March 1882, Mauve appears to have gone cold towards Van Gogh, and stopped replying to his letters. He had learned of Van Gogh 's new domestic arrangement with an alcoholic prostitute, Clasina Maria "Sien '' Hoornik (1850 -- 1904), and her young daughter. Van Gogh had met Sien towards the end of January 1882, when she had a five - year - old daughter and was pregnant. She had previously borne two children who died, but Van Gogh was unaware of this; on 2 July, she gave birth to a baby boy, Willem. When Van Gogh 's father discovered the details of their relationship, he put pressure on his son to abandon Sien and her two children. Vincent at first defied him, and considered moving the family out of the city, but in late 1883, he left Sien and the children.
Poverty may have pushed Sien back into prostitution; the home became less happy and Van Gogh may have felt family life was irreconcilable with his artistic development. Sien gave her daughter to her mother, and baby Willem to her brother. Willem remembered visiting Rotterdam when he was about 12, when an uncle tried to persuade Sien to marry to legitimise the child. He believed Van Gogh was his father, but the timing of his birth makes this unlikely. Sien drowned herself in the River Scheldt in 1904.
In September 1883, Van Gogh moved to Drenthe in the northern Netherlands. In December, driven by loneliness, he went to live with his parents, then in Nuenen, North Brabant.
In Nuenen, Van Gogh focused on painting and drawing. Working outside and very quickly, he completed sketches and paintings of weavers and their cottages. From August 1884, Margot Begemann, a neighbour 's daughter ten years his senior, joined him on his forays; she fell in love and he reciprocated, though less enthusiastically. They wanted to marry, but neither side of their families were in favour. Margot was distraught and took an overdose of strychnine, but survived after Van Gogh rushed her to a nearby hospital. On 26 March 1885, his father died of a heart attack.
Van Gogh painted several groups of still lifes in 1885. During his two - year stay in Nuenen, he completed numerous drawings and watercolours, and nearly 200 oil paintings. His palette consisted mainly of sombre earth tones, particularly dark brown, and showed no sign of the vivid colours that distinguish his later work.
There was interest from a dealer in Paris early in 1885. Theo asked Vincent if he had paintings ready to exhibit. In May, Van Gogh responded with his first major work, The Potato Eaters, and a series of "peasant character studies '' which were the culmination of several years of work. When he complained that Theo was not making enough effort to sell his paintings in Paris, his brother responded that they were too dark, and not in keeping with the bright style of Impressionism. In August his work was publicly exhibited for the first time, in the shop windows of the dealer Leurs in The Hague. One of his young peasant sitters became pregnant in September 1885; Van Gogh was accused of forcing himself upon her, and the village priest forbade parishioners to model for him.
Worn Out, pencil on watercolour paper, 1882. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Still Life with Open Bible, Extinguished Candle and Novel also Still Life with Bible, 1885. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette, 1885 -- 86. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Peasant Woman Digging, or Woman with a Spade, Seen from Behind, 1885. Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto
He moved to Antwerp that November, and rented a room above a paint dealer 's shop in the rue des Images (Lange Beeldekensstraat). He lived in poverty and ate poorly, preferring to spend the money Theo sent on painting materials and models. Bread, coffee and tobacco became his staple diet. In February 1886 he wrote to Theo that he could only remember eating six hot meals since the previous May. His teeth became loose and painful. In Antwerp he applied himself to the study of colour theory and spent time in museums -- particularly studying the work of Peter Paul Rubens -- and broadened his palette to include carmine, cobalt blue and emerald green. Van Gogh bought Japanese ukiyo - e woodcuts in the docklands, later incorporating elements of their style into the background of some of his paintings. He was drinking heavily again, and was hospitalised between February and March 1886, when he was possibly also treated for syphilis.
After his recovery, and despite his antipathy towards academic teaching, he took the higher - level admission exams at the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp, and in January 1886 matriculated in painting and drawing. He became ill and run down by overwork, poor diet and excessive smoking. He started to attend drawing classes after plaster models at the Antwerp Academy on 18 January 1886. He quickly got into trouble with Charles Verlat, the director of the Academy and teacher of a painting class, because of his unconventional painting style. Van Gogh had also clashed with the instructor of the drawing class Franz Vinck. Van Gogh finally started to attend the drawing classes after antique plaster models given by Eugène Siberdt. Soon Siberdt and van Gogh came into conflict when the latter did not comply with Siberdt 's requirement that drawings express the contour and concentrate on the line. When van Gogh was required to draw the Venus of Milo during a drawing class, he produced the limbless, naked torso of a Flemish peasant woman. Siberdt regarded this as defiance against his artistic guidance and made corrections to van Gogh 's drawing with his crayon so vigorously that he tore the paper. Van Gogh then flew into a violent rage and shouted at Siberdt: ' You clearly do not know what a young woman is like, God damn it! A woman must have hips, buttocks, a pelvis in which she can carry a baby! ' According to some accounts this was the last time van Gogh attended classes at the Academy and he left later for Paris. On 31 March 1886, which was about a month after the confrontation with Siberdt, the teachers of the Academy decided that 17 students, including van Gogh, had to repeat a year. The story that van Gogh was expelled from the Academy by Siberdt is therefore unfounded.
Van Gogh moved to Paris in March 1886 where he shared Theo 's rue Laval apartment in Montmartre, and studied at Fernand Cormon 's studio. In June the brothers took a larger flat at 54 rue Lepic. In Paris, Vincent painted portraits of friends and acquaintances, still life paintings, views of Le Moulin de la Galette, scenes in Montmartre, Asnières and along the Seine. In 1885 in Antwerp he had become interested in Japanese ukiyo - e woodblock prints, and had used them to decorate the walls of his studio; while in Paris he collected hundreds of them. He tried his hand at Japonaiserie, tracing a figure from a reproduction on the cover of the magazine Paris Illustre, The Courtesan or Oiran (1887), after Keisai Eisen, which he then graphically enlarged in a painting.
After seeing the portrait of Adolphe Monticelli at the Galerie Delareybarette, Van Gogh adopted a brighter palette and a bolder attack, particularly in paintings such as his Seascape at Saintes - Maries (1888). Two years later, Vincent and Theo paid for the publication of a book on Monticelli paintings, and Vincent bought some of Monticelli 's works to add to his collection.
Van Gogh learned about Fernand Cormon 's atelier from Theo. He worked at the studio in April and May 1886, where he frequented the circle of the Australian artist John Peter Russell, and met fellow students Émile Bernard, Louis Anquetin and Henri de Toulouse - Lautrec -- who painted a portrait of him in pastel. They met at Julien "Père '' Tanguy 's paint shop, (which was, at that time, the only place where Paul Cézanne 's paintings were displayed). In 1886, two large exhibitions were staged there, showing Pointillism and Neo-impressionism for the first time, and bringing attention to Georges Seurat and Paul Signac. Theo kept a stock of Impressionist paintings in his gallery on boulevard Montmartre, but Van Gogh was slow to acknowledge the new developments in art.
Conflicts arose between the brothers. At the end of 1886 Theo found living with Vincent to be "almost unbearable ''. By early 1887, they were again at peace, and Vincent had moved to Asnières, a northwestern suburb of Paris, where he got to know Signac. He adopted elements of Pointillism, a technique in which a multitude of small coloured dots are applied to the canvas so that when seen from a distance they create an optical blend of hues. The style stresses the ability of complementary colours -- including blue and orange -- to form vibrant contrasts.
Le Moulin de Blute - Fin (1886) from the Le Moulin de la Galette and Montmartre series '. Bridgestone Museum of Art, Tokyo (F273)
Courtesan (after Eisen), 1887. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Portrait of Père Tanguy, 1887. Musée Rodin, Paris
Flowering Plum Orchard (after Hiroshige), 1887. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Still Life with Glass of Absinthe and a Carafe, 1887. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
While in Asnières Van Gogh painted parks, restaurants and the Seine, including Bridges across the Seine at Asnières. In November 1887, Theo and Vincent befriended Paul Gauguin who had just arrived in Paris. Towards the end of the year, Vincent arranged an exhibition alongside Bernard, Anquetin, and probably Toulouse - Lautrec, at the Grand - Bouillon Restaurant du Chalet, 43 avenue de Clichy, Montmartre. In a contemporary account, Bernard wrote that the exhibition was ahead of anything else in Paris. There Bernard and Anquetin sold their first paintings, and Van Gogh exchanged work with Gauguin. Discussions on art, artists, and their social situations started during this exhibition, continued and expanded to include visitors to the show, like Camille Pissarro and his son Lucien, Signac and Seurat. In February 1888, feeling worn out from life in Paris, Van Gogh left, having painted more than 200 paintings during his two years there. Hours before his departure, accompanied by Theo, he paid his first and only visit to Seurat in his studio.
Ill from drink and suffering from smoker 's cough, in February 1888 Van Gogh sought refuge in Arles. He seems to have moved with thoughts of founding an art colony. The Danish artist Christian Mourier - Petersen became his companion for two months, and at first Arles appeared exotic. In a letter, he described it as a foreign country: "The Zouaves, the brothels, the adorable little Arlésienne going to her First Communion, the priest in his surplice, who looks like a dangerous rhinoceros, the people drinking absinthe, all seem to me creatures from another world. ''
The time in Arles became one of Van Gogh 's more prolific periods: he completed 200 paintings, and more than 100 drawings and watercolours. He was enchanted by the local landscape and light; his works from this period are rich in yellow, ultramarine and mauve. His paintings include harvests, wheat fields and general rural landmarks from the area, including The Old Mill (1888), a picturesque structure bordering the wheat fields. This was one of seven canvases sent to Pont - Aven on 4 October 1888 in an exchange of works with Paul Gauguin, Émile Bernard, Charles Laval and others.
The portrayals of the Arles landscape are informed by Van Gogh 's Dutch upbringing; the patchworks of fields and avenues appear flat and lacking perspective, but excel in their use of colour. His new - found appreciation is seen in the range and scope of his work. In March 1888 he painted landscapes using a gridded "perspective frame ''; three of the works were shown at the annual exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. In April, he was visited by the American artist Dodge MacKnight, who was living nearby at Fontvieille. On 1 May 1888, for 15 francs per month, he signed a lease for the eastern wing of the Yellow House at 2 place Lamartine. The rooms were unfurnished and had been uninhabited for months.
On 7 May Van Gogh moved from the Hôtel Carrel to the Café de la Gare, having befriended the proprietors, Joseph and Marie Ginoux. The Yellow House had to be furnished before he could fully move in, but he was able to use it as a studio. He wanted a gallery to display his work, and started a series of paintings that eventually included Van Gogh 's Chair (1888), Bedroom in Arles (1888), The Night Café (1888), Café Terrace at Night (September 1888), Starry Night Over the Rhone (1888), and Still Life: Vase with Twelve Sunflowers (1888), all intended for the decoration for the Yellow House.
Van Gogh wrote that with The Night Café he tried "to express the idea that the café is a place where one can ruin oneself, go mad, or commit a crime ''. When he visited Saintes - Maries - de-la - Mer in June, he gave lessons to a Zouave second lieutenant -- Paul - Eugène Milliet -- and painted boats on the sea and the village. MacKnight introduced Van Gogh to Eugène Boch, a Belgian painter who sometimes stayed in Fontvieille, and the two exchanged visits in July.
The Sower with Setting Sun, 1888. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Fishing Boats on the Beach at Saintes - Maries, June 1888. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Bedroom in Arles, 1888. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
The Old Mill, 1888. Albright -- Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York
When Gauguin agreed to visit Arles in 1888, Van Gogh hoped for friendship, and the realisation of his idea of an artists ' collective. While waiting, in August he painted Sunflowers. When Boch visited again, Van Gogh painted a portrait of him, as well as the study The Poet Against a Starry Sky.
In preparation for Gauguin 's visit, Van Gogh bought two beds on advice from the station 's postal supervisor Joseph Roulin, whose portrait he painted. On 17 September he spent his first night in the still sparsely furnished Yellow House. When Gauguin consented to work and live in Arles with him, Van Gogh started to work on the Décoration for the Yellow House, probably the most ambitious effort he ever undertook. He completed two chair paintings: Van Gogh 's Chair and Gauguin 's Chair.
After much pleading from Van Gogh, Gauguin arrived in Arles on 23 October, and in November the two painted together. Gauguin depicted Van Gogh in his The Painter of Sunflowers; Van Gogh painted pictures from memory, following Gauguin 's suggestion. Among these "imaginative '' paintings is Memory of the Garden at Etten. Their first joint outdoor venture was at the Alyscamps, when they produced the pendants Les Alyscamps. The single painting Gauguin completed during his visit was Van Gogh Painting Sunflowers.
Van Gogh and Gauguin visited Montpellier in December 1888, where they saw works by Courbet and Delacroix in the Musée Fabre. Their relationship began to deteriorate; Van Gogh admired Gauguin and wanted to be treated as his equal, but Gauguin was arrogant and domineering, which frustrated Van Gogh. They often quarrelled; Van Gogh increasingly feared that Gauguin was going to desert him, and the situation, which Van Gogh described as one of "excessive tension '', rapidly headed towards crisis point.
The Night Café, 1888. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut
The Red Vineyard, November 1888. Pushkin Museum, Moscow. Sold to Anna Boch, 1890
Van Gogh 's Chair, 1888. National Gallery, London
Paul Gauguin 's Armchair, 1888. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
The exact sequence of events which led to Van Gogh 's mutilation of his ear is not known. Gauguin claimed, fifteen years later, that the night followed several instances of physically threatening behaviour. Their relationship was complex, and Theo may have owed money to Gauguin, who was suspicious that the brothers were exploiting him financially. It seems likely that Van Gogh had realised that Gauguin was planning to leave. The following days saw heavy rain, leading to the two men being shut in the Yellow House. Gauguin reported that Van Gogh followed when Gauguin left the house for a walk, and "rushed towards me, an open razor in his hand ''. This account is uncorroborated; Gauguin was almost certainly absent from the Yellow House that night, most likely in a hotel.
After the altercation with Gauguin, Van Gogh returned to his room, where he was assaulted by voices and severed his left ear with a razor (either wholly or in part; accounts differ), causing severe bleeding. He bandaged the wound, wrapped the ear in paper, and delivered the package to a woman at a brothel Van Gogh and Gauguin both frequented. Van Gogh was found unconscious the next morning by a policeman and taken to hospital, where Félix Rey, a young doctor still in training, treated him. The ear was delivered to the hospital, but Rey did not attempt to reattach it as too much time had passed.
Van Gogh had no recollection of the event, suggesting that he may have suffered an acute mental breakdown. The hospital diagnosis was "acute mania with generalised delirium '', and within a few days the local police ordered that he be placed in hospital care. Gauguin immediately notified Theo, who on 24 December had proposed marriage to his old friend Andries Bonger 's sister Johanna. That evening Theo rushed to the station to board a night train to Arles. He arrived on Christmas Day, comforted Vincent who seemed to be semi-lucid. That evening he left Arles for the return trip to Paris.
During the first days of his treatment, Van Gogh repeatedly and unsuccessfully asked for Gauguin, who asked a policeman attending the case to "be kind enough, Monsieur, to awaken this man with great care, and if he asks for me tell him I have left for Paris; the sight of me might prove fatal for him. '' Gauguin fled Arles, never to see Van Gogh again. They continued to correspond and in 1890 Gauguin proposed they form a studio in Antwerp. Other visitors to the hospital included Marie Ginoux and Roulin.
Despite a pessimistic diagnosis, Van Gogh recovered and returned to the Yellow House on 7 January 1889. He spent the following month between hospital and home, suffering from hallucinations and delusions of poisoning. In March, the police closed his house after a petition by 30 townspeople (including the Ginoux family) who described him as "le fou roux '' (the redheaded madman); Van Gogh returned to hospital. Paul Signac visited him twice in March; in April Van Gogh moved into rooms owned by Dr Rey after floods damaged paintings in his own home. Two months later, he left Arles and voluntarily entered an asylum in Saint - Rémy - de-Provence. Around this time, he wrote, "Sometimes moods of indescribable anguish, sometimes moments when the veil of time and fatality of circumstances seemed to be torn apart for an instant. ''
Van Gogh gave his 1889 Portrait of Doctor Félix Rey to Dr Rey. The physician was not fond of the painting and used it to repair a chicken coop, then gave it away. In 2016, the portrait was housed at the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and estimated to be worth over $50 million.
Self - portrait with Bandaged Ear and Pipe, 1889, private collection
The Courtyard of the Hospital at Arles, 1889, Oskar Reinhart Collection "Am Römerholz '', Winterthur, Switzerland
Self - portrait with Bandaged Ear, 1889, Courtauld Institute of Art, London
Ward in the Hospital in Arles, 1889, Oskar Reinhart Collection "Am Römerholz '', Winterthur, Switzerland
Van Gogh entered the Saint - Paul - de-Mausole asylum on 8 May 1889, accompanied by his carer, Frédéric Salles, a Protestant clergyman. Saint - Paul was a former monastery in Saint - Rémy, located less than 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Arles, and was run by a former naval doctor, Théophile Peyron. Van Gogh had two cells with barred windows, one of which was he used as a studio. The clinic and its garden became the main subjects of his paintings. He made several studies of the hospital 's interiors, such as Vestibule of the Asylum and Saint - Rémy (September 1889). Some of his works from this time are characterised by swirls, such as The Starry Night. He was allowed short supervised walks, during which time he painted cypresses and olive trees, including Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the Background 1889, Cypresses 1889, Cornfield with Cypresses (1889), Country road in Provence by Night (1890). In September 1889 he produced two further versions of Bedroom in Arles.
Limited access to life outside the clinic resulted in a shortage of subject matter. Van Gogh instead worked on interpretations of other artist 's paintings, such as Millet 's The Sower and Noonday Rest, and variations on his own earlier work. Van Gogh was an admirer of the Realism of Jules Breton, Gustave Courbet and Millet, and he compared his copies to a musician 's interpreting Beethoven.
His The Round of the Prisoners (1890) was painted after an engraving by Gustave Doré (1832 -- 1883). Tralbaut suggests that the face of the prisoner in the centre of the painting looking towards the viewer is Van Gogh himself; Jan Hulsker discounts this.
Between February and April 1890 Van Gogh suffered a severe relapse. Depressed and unable to bring himself to write, he was still able to paint and draw a little during this time, and he later wrote to Theo that he had made a few small canvases "from memory... reminisces of the North ''. Among these was Two Peasant Women Digging in a Snow - Covered Field at Sunset. Hulsker believes that this small group of paintings formed the nucleus of many drawings and study sheets depicting landscapes and figures that Van Gogh worked on during this time. He comments that this short period was the only time that Van Gogh 's illness had a significant effect on his work. Van Gogh asked his mother and his brother to send him drawings and rough work he had done in the early 1880s so he could work on new paintings from his old sketches. Belonging to this period is Sorrowing Old Man ("At Eternity 's Gate ''), a colour study Hulsker describes as "another unmistakable remembrance of times long past ''. His late paintings show an artist at the height of his abilities, according to the art critic Robert Hughes, "longing for concision and grace ''.
The Round of the Prisoners (after Doré), 1890. Pushkin Museum, Moscow
The Sower, (after Jean - François Millet), 1888. Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo
Two Peasant Women Digging in a Snow - Covered Field at Sunset, (after Jean - François Millet), 1890. Foundation E.G. Bührle Collection, Zurich, Switzerland
Sorrowing Old Man (' At Eternity 's Gate '), 1890. Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo
Albert Aurier praised his work in the Mercure de France in January 1890, and described him as "a genius ''. In February Van Gogh painted five versions of L'Arlésienne (Madame Ginoux), based on a charcoal sketch Gauguin had produced when she sat for both artists in November 1888. Also in February, Van Gogh was invited by Les XX, a society of avant - garde painters in Brussels, to participate in their annual exhibition. At the opening dinner a Les XX member, Henry de Groux, insulted Van Gogh 's work. Toulouse - Lautrec demanded satisfaction, and Signac declared he would continue to fight for Van Gogh 's honour if Lautrec surrendered. De Groux apologised for the slight and left the group. Later, while Van Gogh 's exhibit was on display with the Artistes Indépendants in Paris, Claude Monet said that his work was the best in the show. After the birth of his nephew, Van Gogh wrote, "I started right away to make a picture for him, to hang in their bedroom, branches of white almond blossom against a blue sky. ''
In May 1890 Van Gogh left the clinic in Saint - Rémy to move nearer to both Dr Paul Gachet in Auvers - sur - Oise and to Theo. Gachet was an amateur painter and had treated several other artists -- Camille Pissarro had recommended him. Van Gogh 's first impression was that Gachet was "iller than I am, it seemed to me, or let 's say just as much. ''
The painter Charles Daubigny moved to Auvers in 1861, and in turn drew other artists there, including Camille Corot and Honoré Daumier. In July 1890, Van Gogh completed two paintings of Daubigny 's Garden, one of which is likely his final work.
During his last weeks, at Saint - Rémy, his thoughts returned to "memories of the North '', and several of the approximately 70 oils, painted during as many days in Auvers - sur - Oise, are reminiscent of northern scenes. In June 1890, he painted several portraits of his doctor, including Portrait of Dr Gachet, and his only etching. In each the emphasis is on Gachet 's melancholic disposition. There are other paintings which are probably unfinished, including Thatched Cottages by a Hill.
In July, Van Gogh wrote that he had become absorbed "in the immense plain against the hills, boundless as the sea, delicate yellow ''. He had first become captivated by the fields in May, when the wheat was young and green. In July he described to Theo "vast fields of wheat under turbulent skies ''.
He wrote that they represented his "sadness and extreme loneliness '', and that the "canvases will tell you what I can not say in words, that is, how healthy and invigorating I find the countryside ''. Wheatfield with Crows, from July 1890, is a painting Hulsker discusses as being associated with "melancholy and extreme loneliness ''. Hulsker identifies seven oil paintings from Auvers that follow the completion of Wheatfield with Crows.
On 27 July 1890, aged 37, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a 7mm Lefaucheux à broche revolver. There were no witnesses and he died 30 hours after the incident. The shooting may have taken place in the wheat field in which he had been painting, or a local barn. The bullet was deflected by a rib and passed through his chest without doing apparent damage to internal organs -- probably stopped by his spine. He was able to walk back to the Auberge Ravoux, where he was attended to by two doctors, but without a surgeon present the bullet could not be removed. The doctors tended to him as best they could, then left him alone in his room, smoking his pipe. The following morning Theo rushed to his brother 's side, finding him in good spirits. But within hours Vincent began to fail, suffering from an untreated infection resulting from the wound. He died in the early hours of 29 July. According to Theo, Vincent 's last words were: "The sadness will last forever ''.
Van Gogh was buried on 30 July, in the municipal cemetery of Auvers - sur - Oise. The funeral was attended by Theo van Gogh, Andries Bonger, Charles Laval, Lucien Pissarro, Émile Bernard, Julien Tanguy and Paul Gachet, among twenty family, friends and locals. Theo had been ill, and his health began to decline further after his brother 's death. Weak and unable to come to terms with Vincent 's absence, he died on 25 January 1891 at Den Dolder, and was buried in Utrecht. In 1914, Johanna van Gogh - Bonger had Theo 's body exhumed and moved from Utrecht to be re-buried alongside Vincent 's at Auvers - sur - Oise.
There have been numerous debates as to the nature of Van Gogh 's illness and its effect on his work, and many retrospective diagnoses have been proposed. The consensus is that Van Gogh had an episodic condition with periods of normal functioning. Perry was the first to suggest bipolar disorder in 1947, and this has been supported by the psychiatrists Hemphill and Blumer. Biochemist Wilfred Arnold has countered that the symptoms are more consistent with acute intermittent porphyria, noting that the popular link between bipolar disorder and creativity might be spurious. Temporal lobe epilepsy with bouts of depression has also been suggested. Whatever the diagnosis, his condition was likely worsened by malnutrition, overwork, insomnia and alcohol.
Van Gogh drew, and painted with watercolours while at school, but only a few examples survive and the authorship of some has been challenged. When he took up art as an adult, he began at an elementary level. In early 1882, his uncle, Cornelis Marinus, owner of a well - known gallery of contemporary art in Amsterdam, asked for drawings of The Hague. Van Gogh 's work did not live up to expectations. Marinus offered a second commission, specifying the subject matter in detail, but was again disappointed with the result. Van Gogh persevered; he experimented with lighting in his studio using variable shutters, and with different drawing materials. For more than a year he worked on single figures -- highly elaborate studies in black and white, which at the time gained him only criticism. Later, they were recognised as early masterpieces.
In August 1882 Theo gave Vincent money to buy materials for working en plein air. Vincent wrote that he could now "go on painting with new vigour ''. From early 1883 he worked on multi-figure compositions. He had some of them photographed, but when his brother remarked that they lacked liveliness and freshness, he destroyed them and turned to oil painting. Van Gogh turned to well - known Hague School artists like Weissenbruch and Blommers, and received technical advice from them, as well as from painters like De Bock and Van der Weele, both of the Hague School 's second generation. When he moved to Nuenen after the period in Drenthe he began several large paintings but destroyed most of them. The Potato Eaters and its companion pieces are the only ones to have survived. Following a visit to the Rijksmuseum, Van Gogh wrote of his admiration for the quick, economical brushwork of the Dutch Masters, especially Rembrandt and Frans Hals. He was aware that many of his faults were due to lack of experience and technical expertise, so in November 1885 he travelled to Antwerp and later Paris to learn and develop his skills.
Theo criticised The Potato Eaters for its dark palette, which he thought unsuitable for a modern style. During Van Gogh 's stay in Paris between 1886 and 1887, he tried to master a new, lighter palette. His Portrait of Père Tanguy (1887) shows his success with the brighter palette, and is evidence of an evolving personal style. Charles Blanc 's treatise on colour interested him greatly, and led him to work with complementary colours. Van Gogh came to believe that the effect of colour went beyond the descriptive; he said that "colour expresses something in itself ''. According to Hughes, Van Gogh perceived colour as having a "psychological and moral weight '', as exemplified in the garish reds and greens of The Night Cafe, a work he wanted to "express the terrible passions of humanity ''. Yellow meant the most to him, because it symbolised emotional truth. He used yellow as a symbol for sunlight, life, and God.
Van Gogh strove to be a painter of rural life and nature, and during his first summer in Arles he used his new palette to paint landscapes and traditional rural life. His belief that a power existed behind the natural led him to try to capture a sense of that power, or the essence of nature in his art, sometimes through the use of symbols. His renditions of the sower, at first copied from Jean - François Millet, reflect Van Gogh 's religious beliefs: the sower as Christ sowing life beneath the hot sun. These were themes and motifs he returned to often to rework and develop. His paintings of flowers are filled with symbolism, but rather than use traditional Christian iconography he made up his own, where life is lived under the sun and work is an allegory of life. In Arles, having gained confidence after painting spring blossoms and learning to capture bright sunlight, he was ready to paint The Sower.
Van Gogh stayed within what he called the "guise of reality '', and was critical of overly stylised works. He wrote afterwards that the abstraction of Starry Night had gone too far and that reality had "receded too far in the background ''. Hughes describes it as a moment of extreme visionary ecstasy: the stars are in a great whirl, reminiscent of Hokusai 's Great Wave, the movement in the heaven above is reflected by the movement of the cypress on the earth below, and the painter 's vision is "translated into a thick, emphatic plasma of paint ''.
Between 1885 and his death in 1890, Van Gogh appears to have been building an oeuvre, a collection that reflected his personal vision, and could be commercially successful. He was influenced by Blanc 's definition of style, that a true painting required optimal use of colour, perspective and brushstrokes. Van Gogh applied the word "purposeful '' to paintings he thought he had mastered, as opposed to those he thought of as studies. He painted many series of studies; most of which were still lifes, many executed as colour experiments or as gifts to friends. The work in Arles contributed considerably to his oeuvre: those he thought the most important from that time were The Sower, Night Cafe, Memory of the Garden in Etten and Starry Night. With their broad brushstrokes, inventive perspectives, colours, contours and designs, these paintings represent the style he sought.
Van Gogh 's stylistic developments are usually linked to the periods he spent living in different places across Europe. He was inclined to immerse himself in local cultures and lighting conditions, although he maintained a highly individual visual outlook throughout. His evolution as an artist was slow, and he was aware of his painterly limitations. He moved home often, perhaps to expose himself to new visual stimuli, and through exposure develop his technical skill. Art historian Melissa McQuillan believes the moves also reflect later stylistic changes, and that Van Gogh used the moves to avoid conflict, and as a coping mechanism for when the idealistic artist was faced with the realities of his then current situation.
The portraits gave Van Gogh his best opportunity to earn. He believed they were "the only thing in painting that moves me deeply and that gives me a sense of the infinite. '' He wrote to his sister that he wished to paint portraits that would endure, and that he would use colour to capture their emotions and character rather than aiming for photographic realism. Those closest to Van Gogh are mostly absent from his portraits; he rarely painted Theo, Van Rappard or Bernard. The portraits of his mother were from photographs.
In December 1888 he painted La Berceuse -- a figure that he thought as good as his sunflowers. It has a limited palette, varied brushstrokes and simple contours. It appears to be a culmination of portraits of the Roulin family completed in Arles between November and December. The portraits show a shift in style from the fluid, restrained brushstrokes and even surface of Portrait of the Postman to the frenetic style, rough surface, broad brushstrokes and use of a palette knife in Madame Roulin with Baby.
Portrait of Artist 's Mother, October 1888, Norton Simon Museum of Art, Pasadena, California
Eugène Boch, (The Poet Against a Starry Sky), 1888, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Portrait of the Postman Joseph Roulin (1841 -- 1903) early August 1888, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
La Berceuse (Augustine Roulin) 1889, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Van Gogh created more than 43 self - portraits between 1885 and 1889. They were usually completed in series, such as those painted in Paris in mid-1887, and continued until shortly before his death. Generally the portraits were studies, created during introspective periods when he was reluctant to mix with others, or when he lacked models, and so painted himself.
The self - portraits reflect an unusually high degree of self - scrutiny. Often they were intended to mark important periods in his life, for example the mid-1887 Paris series were painted at the point where he became aware of Claude Monet, Paul Cezanne and Signac. In Self - Portrait with Grey Felt Hat, heavy strains of paint spread outwards across the canvas. It is one of his most renowned self - portraits of that period, "with its highly organized rhythmic brushstrokes, and the novel halo derived from the Neo-impressionist repertoire was what Van Gogh himself called a ' purposeful ' canvas ''.
They contain a wide array of physiognomical representations. Van Gogh 's mental and physical condition is usually apparent; he may appear unkempt, unshaven or with a neglected beard, with deeply sunken eyes, a weak jaw, or having lost teeth. Some show him with full lips, a long face or prominent skull, or sharpened, alert features. His hair may be the usual red, or at times ash coloured.
Van Gogh 's gaze is seldom directed at the viewer. The portraits vary in intensity and colour, and in those painted after December 1888 especially, the vivid colours highlight the haggard pallor of his skin. Some depict the artist with a beard, others without. He can be seen with bandages in portraits executed just after he mutilated his ear. In only a few does he depict himself as a painter. Those painted in Saint - Rémy show the head from the right, the side opposite his damaged ear, as he painted himself reflected in his mirror.
Self - Portrait with Grey Felt Hat, Winter 1887 -- 88. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Self - Portrait with Straw Hat, Paris, Winter 1887 -- 88. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Self - Portrait, 1889. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. His Saint - Rémy self - portraits show his side with the unmutilated ear, as he saw himself in the mirror
Self - Portrait Without Beard, c. September 1889. This painting may have been Van Gogh 's last self - portrait. He gave it to his mother as a birthday gift.
Van Gogh painted several landscapes with flowers, including roses, lilacs, irises, and sunflowers. Some reflect his interests in the language of colour, and also in Japanese ukiyo - e. There are two series of dying sunflowers. The first was painted in Paris in 1887 and shows flowers lying on the ground. The second set was completed a year later in Arles, and is of bouquets in a vase positioned in early morning light. Both are built from thickly layered paintwork, which, according to the London National Gallery, evoke the "texture of the seed - heads ''.
In these series, Van Gogh was not preoccupied by his usual interest in filling his paintings with subjectivity and emotion; rather the two series are intended to display his technical skill and working methods to Gauguin, who was about to visit. The 1888 paintings were created during a rare period of optimism for the artist. Vincent wrote to Theo in August 1888, "I 'm painting with the gusto of a Marseillais eating bouillabaisse, which wo n't surprise you when it 's a question of painting large sunflowers... If I carry out this plan there 'll be a dozen or so panels. The whole thing will therefore be a symphony in blue and yellow. I work on it all these mornings, from sunrise. Because the flowers wilt quickly and it 's a matter of doing the whole thing in one go. ''
The sunflowers were painted to decorate the walls in anticipation of Gauguin 's visit, and Van Gogh placed individual works around the Yellow House 's guest room in Arles. Gauguin was deeply impressed and later acquired two of the Paris versions. After Gauguin 's departure, Van Gogh imagined the two major versions of the sunflowers as wings of the Berceuse Triptych, and included them in his Les XX in Brussels exhibit. Today the major pieces of the series are among his best known, celebrated for the sickly connotations of the colour yellow and its tie - in with the Yellow House, the expressionism of the brush strokes, and their contrast against often dark backgrounds.
Still Life: Vase with Twelve Sunflowers, August 1888. Neue Pinakothek, Munich
Irises, 1889. J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Almond Blossom, 1890. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Still Life: Vase with Irises Against a Yellow Background, May 1890, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Still Life: Pink Roses in a Vase, May 1890, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Fifteen canvases depict cypresses, a tree he became fascinated with in Arles. He brought life to the trees, which were traditionally seen as emblematic of death. The series of cypresses he began in Arles featured the trees in the distance, as windbreaks in fields; when he was at Saint - Rémy he brought them to the foreground. Vincent wrote to Theo in May 1889: "Cypresses still preoccupy me, I should like to do something with them like my canvases of sunflowers ''; he went on to say, "They are beautiful in line and proportion like an Egyptian obelisk. ''
In mid-1889, and at his sister Wil 's request, Van Gogh painted several smaller versions of Wheat Field with Cypresses. The works are characterised by swirls and densely painted impasto, and include The Starry Night, in which cypresses dominate the foreground.
Other works from this period include Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the Background (1889, about which in a letter to his brother Van Gogh wrote, "At last I have a landscape with olives ''), Cypresses (1889), Cypresses with Two Figures (1889 -- 90), and Road with Cypress and Star (1890). While in Saint - Rémy, Van Gogh spent time outside the asylum, where he painted trees in the olive groves. In these works natural life is rendered as gnarled and arthritic as if a personification of the natural world, which are, according to Hughes, filled with "a continuous field of energy of which nature is a manifestation ''.
Cypresses in Starry Night, a reed pen drawing executed by Van Gogh after the painting in 1889
Cypresses and Two Women, 1890. Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands
Wheat Field with Cypresses, 1889. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Cypresses, 1889. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
The Flowering Orchards (also the Orchards in Blossom) are among the first groups of work completed after Van Gogh 's arrival in Arles in February 1888. The 14 paintings are optimistic, joyous and visually expressive of the burgeoning spring. They are delicately sensitive and unpopulated. He painted swiftly, and although he brought to this series a version of Impressionism, a strong sense of personal style began to emerge during this period. The transience of the blossoming trees, and the passing of the season, seemed to align with his sense of impermanence and belief in a new beginning in Arles. During the blossoming of the trees that spring, he found "a world of motifs that could not have been more Japanese ''. Vincent wrote to Theo on 21 April 1888 that he had 10 orchards and "one big (painting) of a cherry tree, which I 've spoiled ''.
During this period Van Gogh mastered the use of light by subjugating shadows and painting the trees as if they are the source of light -- almost in a sacred manner. Early the following year he painted another smaller group of orchards, including View of Arles, Flowering Orchards. Van Gogh was enthralled by the landscape and vegetation of the south of France, and often visited the farm gardens near Arles. In the vivid light of the Mediterranean climate his palette significantly brightened.
The Pink Orchard also Orchard with Blossoming Apricot Trees, March 1888. Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Orchard in Blossom, Bordered by Cypresses, April, 1888. Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands
View of Arles, Flowering Orchards, 1889. Neue Pinakothek, Munich
Van Gogh made several painting excursions during visits to the landscape around Arles. He made paintings of harvests, wheat fields and other rural landmarks of the area, including The Old Mill (1888); a good example of a picturesque structure bordering the wheat fields beyond. At various points, Van Gogh painted the view from his window -- at The Hague, Antwerp, and Paris. These works culminated in The Wheat Field series, which depicted the view from his cells in the asylum at Saint - Rémy.
Many of the late paintings are sombre but essentially optimistic and, right up to the time of Van Gogh 's death, reflect his desire to return to lucid mental health. Yet some of his final works reflect his deepening concerns. Writing in July 1890, from Auvers, Van Gogh said that he had become absorbed "in the immense plain against the hills, boundless as the sea, delicate yellow ''.
Van Gogh was captivated by the fields in May when the wheat was young and green. His Wheatfields at Auvers with White House shows a more subdued palette of yellows and blues, which creates a sense of idyllic harmony.
About 10 July 1890 Van Gogh wrote to Theo of "vast fields of wheat under troubled skies ''. Wheatfield with Crows shows the artist 's state of mind in his final days; Hulsker describes the work as a "doom - filled painting with threatening skies and ill - omened crows ''. Its dark palette and heavy brushstrokes convey a sense of menace.
Enclosed Wheat Field with Rising Sun, May 1889, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands
Rain or Enclosed Wheat Field in the Rain, November 1889, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia
Wheat Fields, early June 1889. Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo
Wheat Field at Auvers with White House, June 1890, The Phillips Collection, Washington D.C.
After Van Gogh 's first exhibitions in the late 1880s, his reputation grew steadily among artists, art critics, dealers and collectors. In 1887 André Antoine hung Van Gogh 's alongside works of Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, at the Théâtre Libre in Paris; some were acquired by Julien Tanguy. In 1889 his work was described in the journal Le Moderniste Illustré by Albert Aurier as characterised by "fire, intensity, sunshine ''. Ten paintings were shown at the Société des Artistes Indépendants, in Brussels in January 1890.
After Van Gogh 's death, memorial exhibitions were held in Brussels, Paris, The Hague and Antwerp. His work was shown in several high - profile exhibitions, including six works at Les XX; in 1891 there was a retrospective exhibition in Brussels. In 1892 Octave Mirbeau wrote that Van Gogh 's suicide was an "infinitely sadder loss for art... even though the populace has not crowded to a magnificent funeral, and poor Vincent van Gogh, whose demise means the extinction of a beautiful flame of genius, has gone to his death as obscure and neglected as he lived. ''
Theo died in January 1891, removing Vincent 's most vocal and well - connected champion. Theo 's widow Johanna van Gogh - Bonger was a Dutchwoman in her twenties who had not known either her husband or her brother - in law very long and who suddenly had to take care of several hundreds of paintings, letters and drawings, as well as her infant son, Vincent Willem van Gogh. Gauguin was not inclined to offer assistance in promoting Van Gogh 's reputation, and Johanna 's brother Andries Bonger also seemed lukewarm about his work. Aurier, one of Van Gogh 's earliest supporters among the critics, died of typhoid fever in 1892 at the age of twenty - seven.
In 1892 Émile Bernard organised a small solo show of Van Gogh 's paintings in Paris, and Julien Tanguy exhibited his Van Gogh paintings with several consigned from Johanna van Gogh - Bonger. In April 1894 the Durand - Rue Gallery in Paris agreed to take 10 paintings on consignment from Van Gogh 's estate. In 1896, the Fauvist painter Henri Matisse, then an unknown art student, visited John Peter Russell on Belle Île off Brittany. Russell had been a close friend of Van Gogh; he introduced Matisse to the Dutchman 's work, and gave him a Van Gogh drawing. Influenced by Van Gogh, Matisse abandoned his earth - coloured palette for bright colours.
In Paris in 1901 a large Van Gogh retrospective was held at the Bernheim - Jeune Gallery, which excited André Derain and Maurice de Vlaminck, and contributed to the emergence of Fauvism. Important group exhibitions took place with the Sonderbund artists in Cologne in 1912, the Armory Show, New York in 1913, and Berlin in 1914. Henk Bremmer was instrumental in teaching and talking about Van Gogh, and introduced Helene Kröller - Müller to Van Gogh 's art; she became an avid collector of his work. The early figures in German Expressionism such as Emil Nolde acknowledged a debt to Van Gogh 's work. Bremmer assisted Jacob Baart de la Faille, whose catalogue raisonné L'Oeuvre de Vincent van Gogh appeared in 1928.
Van Gogh 's fame reached its first peak in Austria and Germany before World War I, helped by the publication of his letters in three volumes in 1914. His letters are expressive and literate, and have been described as among the foremost 19th - century writings of their kind. These began a compelling mythology of Van Gogh as an intense and dedicated painter who suffered for his art and died young. In 1934, the novelist Irving Stone wrote a biographical novel of Van Gogh 's life titled Lust for Life, based on Van Gogh 's letters to Theo. This novel and the 1956 film further enhanced his fame, especially in the United States where Stone surmised only a few hundred people had heard of van Gogh prior to his surprise best - selling book.
In 1957 Francis Bacon based a series of paintings on reproductions of Van Gogh 's The Painter on the Road to Tarascon, the original of which was destroyed during the Second World War. Bacon was inspired by an image he described as "haunting '', and regarded Van Gogh as an alienated outsider, a position which resonated with him. Bacon identified with Van Gogh 's theories of art and quoted lines written to Theo: "(R) eal painters do not paint things as they are... (T) hey paint them as they themselves feel them to be. ''
Van Gogh 's works are among the world 's most expensive paintings. Those sold for over US $ 100 million (today 's equivalent) include Portrait of Dr Gachet, Portrait of Joseph Roulin and Irises. The Metropolitan Museum of Art 's version of Wheat Field with Cypresses was acquired in 1993 for US $57 million. In 2015 L'Allée des Alyscamps sold for US $66.3 million at Sotheby 's, New York, exceeding its reserve of US $40 million.
Van Gogh 's nephew and namesake, Vincent Willem van Gogh (1890 -- 1978), inherited the estate after his mother 's death in 1925. During the early 1950s he arranged for the publication of a complete edition of the letters presented in four volumes and several languages. He then began negotiations with the Dutch government to subsidise a foundation to purchase and house the entire collection. Theo 's son participated in planning the project in the hope that the works would be exhibited under the best possible conditions. The project began in 1963; architect Gerrit Rietveld was commissioned to design it, and after his death in 1964 Kisho Kurokawa took charge. Work progressed throughout the 1960s, with 1972 as the target for its grand opening.
The Van Gogh Museum opened in the Museumplein in Amsterdam in 1973. It became the second most popular museum in the Netherlands, after the Rijksmuseum, regularly receiving more than 1.5 million visitors a year. In 2015 it had a record 1.9 million; 85 percent of the visitors come from other countries.
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la belle indifference describes which feature of a psychological disorder | Conversion disorder - wikipedia
Conversion disorder (CD) is a diagnostic category used in some psychiatric classification systems. It is sometimes applied to patients who present with neurological symptoms, such as numbness, blindness, paralysis, or fits, which are not consistent with a well - established organic cause, which cause significant distress, and can be traced back to a psychological trigger. It is thought that these symptoms arise in response to stressful situations affecting a patient 's mental health or an ongoing mental health condition such as depression. Conversion disorder was retained in DSM - 5, but given the subtitle functional neurological symptom disorder. The new criteria cover the same range of symptoms, but remove the requirements for a psychological stressor to be present and for feigning to be disproved.
The theory of conversion disorder stems from ancient Egypt, and was formerly known as "hysteria ''. The concept of conversion disorder came to prominence at the end of the 19th century, when the neurologists Jean - Martin Charcot and Sigmund Freud and psychologist Pierre Janet focused their studies on the subject. Before their studies, people with hysteria were often believed to be malingering. The term "conversion '' has its origins in Freud 's doctrine that anxiety is "converted '' into physical symptoms. Though previously thought to have vanished from the West in the 20th century, some research has suggested that conversion disorder is as common as ever.
ICD - 10 classifies conversion disorder as a dissociative disorder while DSM - IV classifies it as a somatoform disorder.
Conversion disorder is now contained under the umbrella term functional neurological symptom disorder. In cases of conversion disorder, there is a psychological stressor.
The diagnostic criteria for functional neurological symptom disorder, as set out in DSM - V, are:
Specify type of symptom or deficit as:
Specify if:
Specify if:
Conversion disorder begins with some stressor, trauma, or psychological distress. Usually the physical symptoms of the syndrome affect the senses or movement. Common symptoms include blindness, partial or total paralysis, inability to speak, deafness, numbness, difficulty swallowing, incontinence, balance problems, seizures, tremors, and difficulty walking. These symptoms are attributed to conversion disorder when a medical explanation for the afflictions can not be found. Symptoms of conversion disorder usually occur suddenly. Conversion disorder is typically seen in individuals aged 10 to 35, and affects between 0.011 % and 0.5 % of the general population.
Conversion disorder can present with motor or sensory symptoms including any of the following:
Motor symptoms or deficits:
Sensory symptoms or deficits:
Conversion symptoms typically do not conform to known anatomical pathways and physiological mechanisms. It has sometimes been stated that the presenting symptoms tend to reflect the patient 's own understanding of anatomy and that the less medical knowledge a person has, the more implausible are the presenting symptoms. However, no systematic studies have yet been performed to substantiate this statement.
Conversion disorder presents with symptoms that typically resemble a neurological disorder such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy or hypokalemic periodic paralysis. The neurologist must carefully exclude neurological disease, through examination and appropriate investigations. However, it is not uncommon for patients with neurological disease to also have conversion disorder.
In excluding neurological disease, the neurologist has traditionally relied partly on the presence of positive signs of conversion disorder, i.e. certain aspects of the presentation that were thought to be rare in neurological disease but common in conversion. The validity of many of these signs has been questioned, however, by a study showing that they also occur in neurological disease. One such symptom, for example, is la belle indifférence, described in DSM - IV as "a relative lack of concern about the nature or implications of the symptoms ''. In a later study, no evidence was found that patients with functional symptoms are any more likely to exhibit this than patients with a confirmed organic disease. In DSM - V, la belle indifférence was removed as a diagnostic criteria.
Another feature thought to be important was that symptoms tended to be more severe on the non-dominant (usually left) side of the body. There have been a number of theories about this, such as the relative involvement of cerebral hemispheres in emotional processing, or more simply, that it was "easier '' to live with a functional deficit on the non-dominant side. However, a literature review of 121 studies established that this was not true, with publication bias the most likely explanation for this commonly held view. Although agitation is often assumed to be a positive sign of conversion disorder, release of epinephrine is a well - demonstrated cause of paralysis from hypokalemic periodic paralysis.
Misdiagnosis does sometimes occur. In a highly influential study from the 1960s, Eliot Slater demonstrated that misdiagnoses had occurred in one third of his 112 patients with conversion disorder. Later authors have argued that the paper was flawed, however, and a meta - analysis has shown that misdiagnosis rates since that paper was published are around 4 %, the same as for other neurological diseases.
Conversion disorder is unique in ICD - 10 in explicitly requiring the exclusion of deliberate feigning. Unfortunately, this is likely to be demonstrable only where the patient confesses, or is "caught out '' in a broader deception, such as a false identity. One neuroimaging study suggested that feigning may be distinguished from conversion by the pattern of frontal lobe activation; however, this was a piece of research, rather than a clinical technique. True rates of feigning in medicine remain unknown. However, it is believed that feigning of conversion disorder is no more likely than of other medical conditions.
The psychological mechanism of conversion can be the most difficult aspect of a conversion diagnosis. Even if there is a clear antecedent trauma or other possible psychological trigger, it is still not clear exactly how this gives rise to the symptoms observed. Patients with medically unexplained neurological symptoms may not have any psychological stressor, hence the use of the term "functional neurological symptom disorder '' in DSM - V as opposed to "conversion disorder '', and DSM - V 's removal of the need for a psychological trigger.
There are many number of different treatments that are available to treat and manage conversion syndrome. Treatments for conversion syndrome include hypnosis, psychotherapy, physical therapy, stress management, and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Treatment plans will consider duration and presentation of symptoms and may include one or multiple of the above treatments. This may include the following:
There is little evidence - based treatment of conversion disorder. Other treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy, hypnosis, EMDR, and psychodynamic psychotherapy, EEG brain biofeedback need further trials. Psychoanalytic treatment may possibly be helpful. However, most studies assessing the efficacy of these treatments are of poor quality and larger, better controlled studies are urgently needed. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is the most common treatment, however boasts a mere 13 % improvement rate.
Empirical studies have found that the prognosis for conversion disorder varies widely, with some cases resolving in weeks, and others enduring for years or decades. There is also evidence that there is no cure for conversion disorder, and that although patients may go into remission, they can relapse at any point. Furthermore, many patients who are ' cured ' continue to have some degree of symptoms indefinitely.
Information on the frequency of conversion disorder in the West is limited, in part due to the complexities of the diagnostic process. In neurology clinics, the reported prevalence of unexplained symptoms among new patients is very high (between 30 and 60 %). However, diagnosis of conversion typically requires an additional psychiatric evaluation, and since few patients will see a psychiatrist it is unclear what proportion of the unexplained symptoms are actually due to conversion. Large scale psychiatric registers in the US and Iceland found incidence rates of 22 and 11 newly diagnosed cases per 100,000 person - years, respectively. Some estimates claim that in the general population, between 0.011 % and 0.5 % of the population have conversion disorder.
Although it is often thought that the frequency of conversion may be higher outside of the West, perhaps in relation to cultural and medical attitudes, evidence of this is limited. A community survey of urban Turkey found a prevalence of 5.6 %. Many authors have found occurrence of conversion to be more frequent in rural, lower socio - economic groups, where technological investigation of patients is limited and individuals may be less knowledgeable about medical and psychological concepts.
Historically, the concept of ' hysteria ' was originally understood to be a condition exclusively affecting women, though the concept was eventually extended to men. In recent surveys of conversion disorder (formerly classified as "hysterical neurosis, conversion type ''), females predominate, with between 2 and 6 female patients for every male.
Conversion disorder may present at any age but is rare in children younger than 10 years or in the elderly. Studies suggest a peak onset in the mid-to - late 30s.
The first evidence of functional neurological symptom disorder dates back to 1900 BC, when the symptoms were blamed on the uterus moving within the female body. The treatment varied "depending on the position of the uterus, which must be forced to return to its natural position. If the uterus had moved upwards, this could be done by placing malodorous and acrid substances near the woman 's mouth and nostrils, while scented ones were placed near her vagina; on the contrary, if the uterus had lowered, the document recommends placing the acrid substances near her vagina and the perfumed ones near her mouth and nostrils. ''
In Greek mythology, hysteria, the original name for functional neurological symptom disorder, was thought to be caused by a lack of orgasms, uterine melancholy and not procreating. Plato, Aristotle and Hippocrates believed that a lack of sex upset the uterus. The Greeks believed that it could be prevented and cured with wine and orgies. Hippocrates argued that a lack of regular sexual intercourse led to the uterus producing toxic fumes and caused it to move in the body, and that this meant that all women should be married and enjoy a satisfactory sexual life.
From the 13th century, women with hysteria were exorcised, as it was believed that they were possessed by the devil. It was believed that if doctors could not find the cause of a disease or illness, it must be caused by the devil.
At the beginning of the 16th century, women were sexually stimulated by midwives in order to relieve their symptoms. Gerolamo Cardano and Giambattista della Porta believed that polluted water and fumes caused the symptoms of hysteria. Towards the end of the century, however, the role of the uterus was no longer thought central to the disorder, with Thomas Willis discovering that the brain and central nervous system were the cause of the symptoms. Thomas Sydenham argued that the symptoms of hysteria may have an organic cause. He also proved that the uterus is not the cause of symptom.
In 1692, in the US town of Salem, Massachusetts, there was an outbreak of hysteria. This led to the Salem witch trials, where the women accused of being witches had symptoms such as sudden movements, staring eyes and uncontrollable jumping.
During the 18th century, there was a move from the idea of hysteria being caused by the uterus to it being caused by the brain. This led to an understanding that it could affect both sexes. Jean - Martin Charcot argued that hysteria was caused by "a hereditary degeneration of the nervous system, namely a neurological disorder ''.
In the 19th century, hysteria moved from being considered a neurological disorder to being considered a psychological disorder, when Pierre Janet argued that "dissociation appears autonomously for neurotic reasons, and in such a way as to adversely disturb the individual 's everyday life ''. However, as early as 1874, doctors including W.B. Carpenter and J.A. Omerod began to speak out against the hysteria phenomenon as there was no evidence to prove its existence.
Sigmund Freud referred to the condition as both hysteria and conversion disorder throughout his career. He believed that those with the condition could not live in a mature relationship, and that those with the condition were unwell in order to achieve a "secondary gain '', in that they are able to manipulate their situation to fit their needs or desires. He also found that both men and women could suffer from the disorder.
Freud 's model suggested that the emotional charge deriving from painful experiences would be consciously repressed as a way of managing the pain, but that the emotional charge would be somehow "converted '' into neurological symptoms. Freud later argued that the repressed experiences were of a sexual nature. As Peter Halligan comments, conversion has "the doubtful distinction among psychiatric diagnoses of still invoking Freudian mechanisms ''.
Pierre Janet, the other great theoretician of hysteria, argued that symptoms arose through the power of suggestion, acting on a personality vulnerable to dissociation. In this hypothetical process, the subject 's experience of their leg, for example, is split off from the rest of their consciousness, resulting in paralysis or numbness in that leg.
Later authors have attempted to combine elements of these various models, but none of them has a firm empirical basis. In 1908, Steyerthal predicted that: "Within a few years the concept of hysteria will belong to history... there is no such disease and there never has been. What Charcot called hysteria is a tissue woven of a thousand threads, a cohort of the most varied diseases, with nothing in common but the so - called stigmata, which in fact may accompany any disease. '' However, the term "hysteria '' was still being used well into the 20th century.
Some support for the Freudian model comes from findings of high rates of childhood sexual abuse in conversion patients. Support for the dissociation model comes from studies showing heightened suggestibility in conversion patients. However, critics argue that it can be challenging to find organic pathologies for all symptoms, and so the practice of diagnosing patients who suffered with such symptoms as having hysteria led to the disorder being meaningless, vague and a sham diagnosis, as it does not refer to any definable disease. Furthermore, throughout its history, many patients have been misdiagnosed with hysteria or conversion disorder when they had organic disorders such as tumours or epilepsy or vascular diseases. This has led to patient deaths, a lack of appropriate care and suffering for the patients. Eliot Slater, after studying the condition in the 1950s, stated: "The diagnosis of ' hysteria ' is all too often a way of avoiding a confrontation with our own ignorance. This is especially dangerous when there is an underlying organic pathology, not yet recognised. In this penumbra we find patients who know themselves to be ill but, coming up against the blank faces of doctors who refuse to believe in the reality of their illness, proceed by way of emotional lability, overstatement and demands for attention... Here is an area where catastrophic errors can be made. In fact it is often possible to recognise the presence though not the nature of the unrecognisable, to know that a man must be ill or in pain when all the tests are negative. But it is only possible to those who come to their task in a spirit of humility. In the main the diagnosis of ' hysteria ' applies to a disorder of the doctor -- patient relationship. It is evidence of non-communication, of a mutual misunderstanding... We are, often, unwilling to tell the full truth or to admit to ignorance... Evasions, even untruths, on the doctor 's side are among the most powerful and frequently used methods he has for bringing about an efflorescence of ' hysteria ' ''.
Much recent work has been done to identify the underlying causes of conversion and related disorders and to better understand why conversion disorder and hysteria appear more commonly in women. Current theoreticians tend to believe that there is no single cause for these disorders. Instead, the emphasis tends to be on the individual understanding of the patient and a variety of therapeutic techniques. In some cases, the onset of conversion disorder correlates to a traumatic or stressful event. There are also certain populations that are considered at risk for conversion disorder, including people suffering from a medical illness or condition, people with personality disorder, and individuals with dissociative identity disorder. However, no biomarkers have yet been found to support the idea that conversion disorder is caused by a psychiatric condition.
There has been much recent interest in using functional neuroimaging to study conversion. As researchers identify the mechanisms which underlie conversion symptoms, it is hoped that they will enable the development of a neuropsychological model. A number of such studies have been performed, including some which suggest that the blood - flow in patients ' brains may be abnormal while they are unwell. However, the studies have all been too small to be confident of the generalisability of their findings, so no neuropsychological model has been clearly established.
An evolutionary psychology explanation for conversion disorder is that the symptoms may have been evolutionarily advantageous during warfare. A non-combatant with these symptoms signals non-verbally, possibly to someone speaking a different language, that she or he is not dangerous as a combatant and also may be carrying some form of dangerous infectious disease. This can explain that conversion disorder may develop following a threatening situation, that there may be a group effect with many people simultaneously developing similar symptoms (as in mass psychogenic illness), and the gender difference in prevalence.
The Lacanian model accepts conversion disorder as a common phenomenon inherent in specific psychical structures. The higher prevalence of it among women is based on somewhat different intrapsychic relations to the body from those of typical males, which allows the formation of conversion symptoms.
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who has hit the most home runs in the home run derby | Home Run Derby (Major league Baseball) - wikipedia
The Home Run Derby is an annual home run hitting contest in Major League Baseball (MLB) customarily held the day before the MLB All - Star Game, which places the contest on a Monday in July. Since the inaugural derby in 1985, the event has seen several rule changes, evolving from a short outs - based competition, to multiple rounds, and eventually a bracket - style timed event. It is currently sponsored by MLB 's wireless sponsor, T - Mobile.
The event has grown significantly from its roots in the 1980s, when it was not televised. Prior to 1991, the Home Run Derby was structured as a two - inning event with each player receiving five outs per inning, allowing for the possibility of ties. It is now one of the most - watched events broadcast on ESPN.
In 2000, a "match play '' - style format was instituted for the second round. The player with the most home runs in the first round faced the player with the least among the four qualifying players, as did the players with the second - and third-most totals. The contestant who won each matchup advanced to the finals. This format was discontinued after the 2003 competition.
The field of players selected currently consists of four American League players and four National League players. The first Derby in 1985 featured five from each league, and the 1986 and 1987 events featured three and two players from each league, respectively. In 1996, the field was again expanded to ten players, five from each league (though in 1997, the AL had six contestants to the NL 's four).
In 2000, the field reverted to the current four - player - per - league format. The only exception was 2005, when Major League Baseball changed the selection criteria with eight players representing their home countries rather than their respective leagues. The change was believed to be in promotion of the inaugural World Baseball Classic, played in March 2006. In 2006, the selection of four players from each league resumed. In 2011, the format was revised so that team captains selected the individual sides.
Some notable performances in the Derby include Bobby Abreu in 2005, who won the Derby with a then - record 41 homers, including a then - record 24 in the first round. The first - round record was broken in 2008 by Josh Hamilton, who hit 28 home runs. Though Hamilton 's performance was notable for the length of his home runs, he ultimately lost to Justin Morneau in a brief final round. The overall record was broken in 2016 by Giancarlo Stanton, who finished with a total of 61 home runs, defeating Todd Frazier in the final round. Only two participants, Yoenis Céspedes and Giancarlo Stanton, have won the Home Run Derby without being selected to the All - Star game itself.
The format has varied since the Home Run Derby started in 1985.
In the early years of the Home Run Derby, 4 - 10 players from both the AL and NL were selected to participate. Each player was given 2 "innings '' to hit as many home runs as possible before reaching 5 outs. For the derby, an out is defined as any swing that is not a home run. The winner of the contest was the player with the most total home runs in the two innings.
Beginning in 1991, the format changed to a 3 - round contest. From 1991 -- 2006, 8 - 10 players were selected and hit as many home runs as possible before reaching 10 outs in each round. The tally reset for each round, with the top four advancing to the second round, and the top two advancing to the final.
In honor of the World Baseball Classic, the 2005 contest featured eight players from different countries. The format remained the same.
The format changed slightly in 2006. Instead of the tally resetting for each round, it was only reset before the final round. Therefore, the players with the four highest totals after Round 1 advanced to Round 2, and the players with the two highest sum of Round 1 and 2 advanced to the finals.
The Home Run Derby format was changed significantly in 2014, as MLB sought to speed - up the contest and increase the drama. In the new bracket format, 5 players from each league faced the other players in their league in Round 1, with each players having 7 "outs. '' The player in each league with the highest Round 1 total received a second - round bye, and the players with the second - and third - highest Round 1 totals from each league faced off. The Round 2 winner from each league faced the Round 1 winner, and the Round 3 winner crowned the league winner. The final featured the winner of each league. Each round stands alone, with the score reset for each round. Ties in any round are broken by a 3 - swing swing - off. If the players remain tied, the players engage in a sudden - death swing - off until one player homers.
The format was changed once again in 2015. The most significant change was the elimination of "outs '', which was replaced by a time limit. Eight players are seeded based on their season home run totals and are given 5 minutes to hit as many home runs as possible. The winner of each head - to - head matchup advances, until a final winner is determined. If a tie occurs in any match - up, three sets of tiebreakers are employed: first, a 90 - second swing - off decides the winner; second, best - of - 3 - swing swing - off; thereafter, sudden - death swingoffs until a winner is determined. Further, a player can get "bonus time '' in the last minute of each round. During that time, the clock stops for each home run, and does n't restart until a swing does not result in a home run. Additional bonus time could be earned for distance. Players who hit at least two home runs measuring at least 420 feet (128.0 m) are given an extra minute of bonus time. An additional 30 seconds of bonus time is granted if at least one home run measures over 475 feet (144.8 m).
Weather concerns in 2015 lead to a reduction in time from 5 minutes per round to 4 minutes. The clock was not stopped in the final minute, and bonus time was only granted for hitting 2 home runs of over 425 feet (129.5 m).
The format was tweaked slightly in 2016. The four - minute round length returned, while the minute of bonus time was changed to 30 seconds and required two home runs of 440 feet (134.1 m) or longer. The additional time was removed, while the swing - off (which was not required) was reduced to 1 minute. Each batter is allowed one time - out during each round, and two in the finals.
By 2017 the first tie - breaker was restored back to 90 seconds.
From 2005 -- 2013, a gold ball has been used once a player reaches nine outs (in 2014 when the T - Mobile Ball came into play, six; since 2015, during the final minute). If a batter hit a home run using the golden ball, Century 21 Real Estate and Major League Baseball would donate $21,000 (a reference to the "21 '' in "Century 21 '') per home run to charity (MLB donated to the Boys and Girls Clubs of America, and Century 21 donated to Easter Seals). In both 2005 and 2006, $294,000 was raised for the charities, equaling fourteen golden ball home runs per year. State Farm continued this in 2007 as they designated $17,000 per home run (one dollar for each of State Farm 's agencies), to the Boys and Girls Clubs of America. In the 2007 event, fifteen golden balls were hit for a donation of $255,000, and ten ($170,000) were hit in the 2008 event. For 2009, State Farm added $5,000 for all non-Gold Ball homers, and $517,000 was collected. For 2010, the non-Gold Ball homer was reduced to $3,000 per home run and a total of $453,000 was collected. Since 2014 any homer hit off a T - Mobile Ball resulted in a $10,000 donation to charity by T - Mobile and MLB, to the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On July 11, 1988, the day before the Major League Baseball All - Star Game from Cincinnati, TBS televised the annual All - Star Gala from the Cincinnati Zoo. Larry King hosted the broadcast with Craig Sager and Pete Van Wieren handling interviews. The broadcast 's big draw would 've been the Home Run Derby, which TBS intended on taping during the afternoon, and later airing it in prime time during the Gala coverage. Unfortunately, the derby and a skills competition were canceled due to rain.
The derby was first nationally televised by ESPN in 1993 on a same - day delayed basis, with the first live telecast in 1998. Although two hours are scheduled in programming listings for the telecast, it has rarely ever been contained to the timeslot and consistently runs three to four hours. Chris Berman has gained notoriety for his annual hosting duties on ESPN, including his catchphrase, "Back back back... Gone! ''. Berman starts this phrase when the ball is hit, and does not say "Gone! '' until the ball lands.
The 2008 Derby was the year 's most highly rated basic cable program.
Because of the game 's TV popularity, invited players have felt pressure to participate. Notably, Ken Griffey Jr. initially quietly declined to take part in 1998, partly due to ESPN scheduling the Mariners in their late Sunday game the night before. After a discussion with ESPN 's Joe Morgan and another with Hall of Famer Frank Robinson, Griffey changed his mind, and then won the Derby at Coors Field.
In Spanish, the event is televised on Spanish language network ESPN Deportes.
ESPN Radio also carries the event annually.
Note: these numbers exclude swingoffs.
Note: these numbers exclude swingoffs.
Home Run Derby canceled due to rain.
* Lost in playoff to Gonzalez
* Beat Belle in finals
* Beat Walker in finals
* Lost to Burnitz in round 2
* Giambi defeated Konerko in a swing off
* Total rounds record.
Notes: ^ a Recorded only seven of ten outs before hitting winning home run. Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Notes: ^ a New single round record. ^ b Voluntarily ended round with four outs.
Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Note: ^ a Recorded only five of ten outs before hitting winning home run.
* designates bye round. (designates swing off home runs).
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who is rated the best goalkeeper in the world | IFFHS World 's Best Goalkeeper - wikipedia
The IFFHS World 's Best Goalkeeper is a football award given annually since 1987 to the most outstanding goalkeeper of the year as voted by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS). The votes are cast by IFFHS 's editorial staff as well as experts from different continents.
The award is awarded every January. The winning goalkeeper is awarded a gold trophy at the World Football Gala. Italy 's Gianluigi Buffon and Spain 's Iker Casillas have the most award victories, having won it five times, followed by Germany 's Manuel Neuer, who has won the award four times; Casillas won the award for five consecutive years between 2008 and 2012. Below is a list of the previous winners since the first award in 1987. Bayern Munich, with a total of eight, is the team with the most wins.
At the end of the 20th century, the IFFHS also voted on the World 's Goalkeeper of the Century, won by the Soviet Union 's Lev Yashin running ahead of Gordon Banks and Dino Zoff.
In 2011, the IFFHS also voted on The World 's Best Goalkeeper of the 21st Century 's first decade, taking into consideration goalkeepers ' performances during the first decade of the 21st century, between 2001 and 2011; the award was won by the Italy 's Gianluigi Buffon running ahead of Iker Casillas and Petr Čech.
In 2012, the IFFHS also voted on The World 's Best Goalkeeper of the past 25 years, taking into consideration goalkeepers ' performances between 1987 -- the year of the award 's inception -- and 2012; the award was won by the Italy 's Gianluigi Buffon running ahead of Iker Casillas and Edwin van der Sar.
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where is pincher creek in a map of alberta | Pincher Creek - Wikipedia
Pincher Creek is a town in the southwest of Alberta, Canada. It is located immediately east of the Canadian Rockies, 101 km (63 mi) west of Lethbridge and 210 km (130 mi) south of Calgary.
For centuries before European settlers reached this area and inhabited it, Aboriginal clans of the Blackfoot, Peigan and Kootenai passed through, lived in or frequented the region.
The town received its name in 1868 when a group of prospectors lost a pincer in the small creek at this location. These pincers would have been used as a mechanism for trimming the feet of the horses and thus had some value to the group. In 1874, the North - West Mounted Police came to southern Alberta. One of them discovered the rusting tools in the creek, and they named the area Pincher Creek.
In 1876, the NWMP established a horse farm in the area. It closed in 1881, but many of the troops stayed to help the town. James Schofield opened Pincher Creek 's first store in 1884. By 1885 Pincher Creek had a store known as Schofield & Hyde General Store. Harry Hyde succeeded Schofield as Pincher Creek 's first postmaster.
In 1898, Pincher Creek was incorporated a village. In 1906, the community was officially incorporated as a town and named Pincher Creek. Many residents are descendants of the pioneer families who settled there over 100 years ago.
Strong Chinook winds often blow off the mountains and Pincher Creek can be extremely windy. The Oldman River and Castle River valleys seem to act as a kind of funnel for air masses, arguably making the area around Pincher Creek the windiest in Alberta. Any typical day may see wind speeds of 50 -- 90 km / h, the most violent recorded wind being 177 km / h. The strong winds have given rise to a significant amount of wind farm development in the area, with the towers and blades of wind turbines being a characteristic of the scenery. Another consequence of the breezy conditions is that the weather is mostly sunny and very dry as the wind tends to dissipate cloud cover.
The town was severely affected by a flood that hit the area in 1995 as the peak stream flow discharge of the creek that gave the town its name was 271 cubic meters per second.
In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Town of Pincher Creek recorded a population of 3,642 living in 1,490 of its 1,589 total private dwellings, a 2999880000000000000 ♠ − 1.2 % change from its 2011 population of 3,685. With a land area of 10.09 km (3.90 sq mi), it had a population density of 361.0 / km (934.9 / sq mi) in 2016.
The population of the Town of Pincher Creek according to its 2013 municipal census is 3,619, a 2.5 % decrease from its 2008 municipal census population of 3,712.
In the 2011 Census, the Town of Pincher Creek had a population of 3,685 living in 1,500 of its 1,581 total dwellings, a 1.7 % change from its 2006 population of 3,625. With a land area of 10.19 km (3.93 sq mi), it had a population density of 361.6 / km (936.6 / sq mi) in 2011.
The Kootenai Brown Pioneer Village is a popular tourist stop open year - round. It was named after Kootenay Brown, who was the founder of Waterton Park. The six acre site is home to over twenty - three historical buildings, all on open exhibit. Each July, the village has a large Canada Day celebration, as well as hosting other community based events through the year. Among over 18,000 artifacts, historical archives are also located on site and accessible to the public.
Pincher Creek is located 57 km (35 mi) north of Waterton Lakes National Park. The Castle Mountain Ski Resort is located 49 km (30 mi) to the southwest.
The town 's mayor is Don Anderberg.
Pincher Creek is served by two newspapers, the Sun Media owned Pincher Creek Echo, which publishes on Wednesdays and has been in operation since 1900. and the locally owned Shootin ' the Breeze which has been serving the community since 2011. Shootin ' the Breeze is published in print weekly on Wednesdays and is available online at www.shootinthebreeze.ca. It is also served by an online news website, the Pincher Creek Voice, established in 2011.
Pincher Creek is served by Mountain Radio, a country music station based in nearby Blairmore. Mountain Radio 's Pincher Creek transmitter can be heard on 92.7 FM.
Looking south at Pincher Creek on Alberta Highway 6
Panorama of Pincher Creek from Alberta Highway 3
Looking south at the business district in Pincher Creek on Alberta Highway 6
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where did they film the movie the mist | The Mist (film) - wikipedia
The Mist (also known as Stephen King 's The Mist) is a 2007 American science - fiction horror film based on the 1980 book The Mist by Stephen King. The film was written and directed by Frank Darabont. Darabont had been interested in adapting The Mist for the big screen since the 1980s. The film features an ensemble cast including Thomas Jane, Marcia Gay Harden, Samuel Witwer, Toby Jones, and future The Walking Dead actors Jeffrey DeMunn, Juan Gabriel Pareja, Laurie Holden, and Melissa McBride.
Filming for The Mist began in Shreveport, Louisiana, in February 2007. The film was commercially released in the United States and Canada on November 21, 2007; it performed well at the box office and received generally positive reviews. Darabont has since revealed that he had "always had it in mind to shoot The Mist in black and white '', a decision inspired by such iconic films as Night of the Living Dead (1968) and the "pre-color '' work of Ray Harryhausen. While the film 's cinematic release was in color, the director has described the black and white print (released on Blu - ray in 2008) as his "preferred version. ''
The director revised the ending of the film to be darker than the novella 's ending, a change to which King was amenable. Darabont also sought unique creature designs to differentiate them from his creatures in past films.
Although a monster movie, the central theme explores what ordinary people will be driven to do under extraordinary circumstances. The plot revolves around members of the small town of Bridgton, Maine who, after a severe thunderstorm causes the power to go out the night before, meet in a supermarket to pick up supplies. While they struggle to survive an unnatural mist which envelops the town and conceals vicious, Lovecraftian monsters, extreme tensions rise among the survivors.
A meta - reference to this film appears in one of Stephen King 's later novels, Under the Dome.
Following a violent thunderstorm, David Drayton leaves his wife Stephanie at home while he ventures into town with his eight - year - old son Billy and their neighbor, Brent Norton, to buy supplies for repairs. Arriving at a grocery store, they and the other patrons notice unusual police and military activity. Three soldiers enter the store and an MP warns them to depart. Moments later, a panicked and injured man, Dan Miller, runs into the store, warning of danger. Soon after, a thick mist envelops the store, accompanied by earthquake - like tremors, setting off the town 's fire siren.
A deeply pious woman, Mrs. Carmody, believes that this is the beginning of Armageddon. A shaken woman (Melissa McBride), against objections from the others, leaves the store to go home to her children. While investigating the store 's generator, bag - boy Norm volunteers to go outside, but is snatched and pulled into the mist by the tentacle of an unseen monster. At first, everyone is skeptical of the tale, but store manager Bud Brown and a local biker are convinced when they see a severed tentacle in the generator room. Realizing the store front is plate glass, the people trapped in the store block the windows with dog food bags, tape and freezers.
Refusing to listen to David, Norton heads outside with a small group to seek help, with the biker following suit with rope tied around his waist. However, the group disappears and the survivors only bring back the severed waist of the biker. That night, enormous flying insects with scorpion - like tails tipped with venomous stingers land on and attach themselves to the windows. Moments later, pterodactyl - like animals preying on said insects ram their beaks into the glass, eventually breaking through the windows and allowing the creatures to enter the supermarket. They begin to attack the terrified people inside and kill Sally, a cashier, and another man, Tom, while one man, Joe, is severely burned and later dies. One of the insects lands on Mrs. Carmody, but does n't sting her because she keeps still during her prayer. As a result, she starts preaching even more and quickly gains followers among the distraught survivors.
In order to retrieve medical supplies and look for more survivors, David, Dan, Private Jessup, Joe 's brother Bobby, elderly - yet - tough schoolteacher Irene, mechanic Jim, assistant manager Ollie Weeks and patron Mike Hatlen. venture out to the neighboring pharmacy, which unbeknownst to them has been transformed into a spider nest. Among the mass of bodies is the MP, who quickly dies when he falls from his webs and spiders burst out of his back. The group is attacked and Mike and Bobby are killed by the spiders. Following this, most of the people side with Mrs. Carmody. That night, two of the soldiers, Donaldson and Morales, commit suicide shortly afterwards, and, after some pressing from David, Jessup reveals that the local military base was filled with rumors about the Arrowhead Project, the government 's attempt to look into other dimensions, and that the scientists responsible for the experiment may have inadvertently opened a doorway into a dimension containing the creatures that are now invading the town. An angry mob then ensues, led by Mrs. Carmody, who orders her followers to blame him. As a result, he is stabbed and ejected from the store as a human sacrifice, quickly falling prey to a large praying mantis - like creature.
The following morning, David and his group, consisting of Billy, schoolteacher Amanda, Ollie, Irene, Dan, patron Ambrose, mechanic Myron, and Bud, secretly gather supplies to flee, but Mrs. Carmody stops them, having now turned the entire store against them. After stealing the supplies, she demands that Billy and Amanda be the next sacrifice, only for Ollie to shoot and kill her with Amanda 's gun as chaos erupts. After Ollie threatens to open fire again, Mrs. Carmody 's horrified followers, now returning to their senses and realizing all that they have done because of her, reluctantly stand down and allow David 's group to leave. As the group makes their way to David 's car, Ollie is torn in half by the praying mantis - like creature, Myron and Ambrose are attacked and killed by the giant spiders, and Bud runs back to the market and is allowed to reenter. Only David, Billy, Dan, Amanda, and Irene make it to the car and leave as the remaining survivors in the store watch them drive off, their eventual fates ambiguous.
Driving through the mist, David finds his house destroyed and Stephanie dead, seemingly another victim of the giant spiders. Devastated, he drives the group south, passing destroyed vehicles and seeing a gigantic six - legged, tentacled beast. When they run out of gas hours later, the group decides there is no point in going on and David shoots the others (with their consent, except for his son who is not old enough to understand) rather than have them endure horrifying deaths, but is left with no bullet to use on himself. He leaves the car and waits to be killed, but the mist suddenly recedes, revealing that the U.S. Army has arrived, managed to close the portal, and are in the process of exterminating the creatures and restoring order. David also sees that they have rescued survivors, among them the woman who left the store at the phenomenon 's onset, completely unscathed and having rescued her two children. David realizes that his group was only moments away from being rescued and that their deaths were premature and in vain, and drops to his knees screaming.
Director Frank Darabont first read Stephen King 's 1980 novella The Mist in the Dark Forces anthology, and originally expressed interest in directing a film adaptation for his directing debut. He instead filmed The Shawshank Redemption, also based on another King novella. In October 1994, after completing The Shawshank Redemption, Darabont reiterated his interest in filming The Mist. Darabont did not immediately follow through, instead directing the 1999 film adaptation of Stephen King 's The Green Mile. Darabont eventually set up a first look deal for The Mist with Paramount Pictures, having been entrusted feature film rights by Stephen King. By December 2004, Darabont said that he had begun writing an adapted screenplay for The Mist, and by October 2006, the project moved from Paramount to Dimension Films, with Darabont attached to direct and actor Thomas Jane in negotiations to join the cast.
Director Darabont chose to film The Mist after filming the "straighter dramas '' The Shawshank Redemption and The Green Mile because he "wanted to make a very direct, muscular kind of film ''. Darabont conceived of a new ending in translating the novella for the big screen. Author King praised Darabont 's new ending, describing it as one that would be unsettling for studios. King said, "The ending is such a jolt -- wham! It 's frightening. But people who go to see a horror movie do n't necessarily want to be sent out with a Pollyanna ending. ''
Darabont described The Mist as quaint in its elements of monsters and fear of the unknown compared to the contemporary popularity of films with torture porn. The director saw The Mist as a throwback to Paddy Chayefsky and William Shakespeare, explaining, "It 's people at each other. '' He highlighted the element of fear in the film in how it compelled people to behave differently. Darabont said, "How primitive do people get? It 's Lord of the Flies that happens to have some cool monsters in it. '' He also drew parallels to The Twilight Zone episode "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street '' and the 1944 film Lifeboat.
In the novella, the character David Drayton -- who is married -- has a sexual encounter with Amanda Dumfries, who is also married. Darabont did not want to attempt conveying on screen the protagonist being involved in an extramarital affair. The characters in the film, portrayed by Thomas Jane and Laurie Holden respectively, instead share a more emotional relationship. Jane explained, "We kind of form a little family, sort of surrogate family where my son and I 'm a father and she becomes the mother to the son. We become a little unit as we 're trying to get through this nightmare together. '' Holden compared the nightmare to what refugees experienced at the Louisiana Superdome during Hurricane Katrina.
While the origin of the mist in the film is never explained in great detail, Frank Darabont did write an opening scene in a draft dated 5 August 2005, in which the thunderstorm causes a malfunction at the Arrowhead Project 's lab that allows the portal to another dimension to stay open too long. The scene was never filmed.
In December 2006, Jane finalized negotiations with the studio to join the cast. In January 2007, actors Andre Braugher and Laurie Holden joined Jane for the cast of The Mist. Production began the following February at StageWorks of Louisiana, a sound stage and film production facility in Shreveport, Louisiana. Marcia Gay Harden and Toby Jones joined the cast later in the month.
William Sadler, Jeffrey DeMunn, and Brian Libby, each of whom appeared in Darabont 's previous Stephen King adaptations The Shawshank Redemption and The Green Mile, were cast in supporting roles. Sadler had previously played Jane 's role, David Drayton, in a 1986 audiobook version of The Mist. Darabont wanted to cast King in the supporting role that eventually went to Brian Libby, an offer that King turned down because he did not want to travel to film the part.
Darabont sought to pursue "a more fluid, ragged documentary kind of direction '' with The Mist, so he contacted the camera crew from the TV series The Shield, after having directed one episode, to use their style in the film. Darabont attempted to film The Mist digitally but found that it "wound up looking too beautiful ''. The director chose to film with 400 ASA from Fujifilm, which gave footage a grainy effect.
In the opening shot, David is drawing in his room. The drawing is based on Stephen King 's Dark Tower series, and was painted by film poster designer Drew Struzan. Darabont also included re-productions of Struzan 's posters and illustrations for The Shawshank Redemption, The Green Mile, John Carpenter 's The Thing, and Guillermo Del Toro 's Pan 's Labyrinth. Struzan would go on to produce a poster for The Mist, but this image was not used in the film 's marketing campaign.
Darabont collaborated with the production designer to create a mix of eras to avoid appearing as a period piece but also not looking so contemporary. Cell phones were used by characters in The Mist, but the military police in the film did not dress in modern attire. While an MP also drove an old Jeep instead of a Humvee, other cars seen in the film are modern models. The city police cars in the beginning of the film are a 1987 Chevrolet Caprice and a 1988 Ford LTD Crown Victoria, cars that were standard police vehicles in the late 1980s but have not been used in force since the late 1990s.
Over a hundred extras from Shreveport, Louisiana were included in The Mist. Unlike conventional application of extras in the background of a film, sixty of the hundred extras were interwoven with the film 's ensemble cast. Additional elements giving the film a local flavor include the prominence of local Louisiana brands such as Zapp 's potato chips. Exterior shots of the house at the beginning were in Shreveport. Exterior shots of the supermarket were in Vivian, Louisiana. Also, if looked closely at, the shields on the side of the passing firetrucks early in the film identify them as part of the Caddo Parish fire department. This is possibly a mistake as the film is allegedly set in Maine.
Darabont chose to use music to minimal effect in The Mist in order to capture the "heavier feel '' of the darker ending he had written to replace the one from the novella. The director explained, "Sometimes movie music feels false. I 've always felt that silent can be scarier than loud, a whisper more frightening than a bang, and we wanted to create a balance. We kept music to a minimum to keep that vérité, documentary feel. '' Darabont chose to overlay the song "The Host of Seraphim '' by the band Dead Can Dance, a spiritual piece characterized by wailing and chanting. As a fan of Dead Can Dance, Darabont thought that the song played "as a requiem mass for the human race. '' The original score was composed by Academy Award - nominated composer Mark Isham.
Darabont hired artists Jordu Schell and Bernie Wrightson to assist in designing the creatures for the film. Greg Nicotero worked on the film 's creature design and make - up effects, while Everett Burrell served as the visual effects supervisor. Nicotero initially sketched out ideas for creature design when Darabont originally expressed interest in filming The Mist in the 1980s. When the project was greenlit, Nicotero, Burrell, and Darabont collaborated about the creature design at round - table meetings at CaféFX. The studio for visual effects had been recommended to Darabont by Guillermo del Toro after Darabont asked the director who created the visual effects for Pan 's Labyrinth.
Due to the creatures ' being described in only a few sentences in the novella, Darabont sought to conceive of new designs. The challenge was creating designs that felt unique. Nicotero, who was versed in film history and genre history, reviewed past creature designs to avoid having similar designs. When the designs were completed, Nicotero and Burrell educated the cast on the appearance of the creatures by showing puppets and the function of their eyes and mouths. The puppet demonstrations served as reference points for the cast, who had to respond to motion capture dots during filming.
The Mist was screened at the film festival ShowEast on October 18, 2007, at which director Frank Darabont received the Kodak Award for Excellence in Filmmaking for his previous works The Shawshank Redemption and The Green Mile.
On the film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, The Mist has a 73 % approval rating, based on 140 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10, indicating generally favorable reviews. On the website Metacritic, the film holds an average of 58 out of 100 based on 29 reviews. Audiences polled by Cinemascore gave the film a "C ''
James Berardinelli wrote of the film, "The Mist is what a horror film should be -- dark, tense, and punctuated by just enough gore to keep the viewer 's flinch reflex intact... Finally, after a long list of failures, someone has done justice in bringing one of King 's horror stories to the screen. Though definitely not the feel - good movie of the season, this is a must - see for anyone who loves the genre and does n't demand ' torture porn ' from horror. '' Roger Ebert was negative, however, writing: "If you have seen ads or trailers suggesting that horrible things pounce on people, and they make you think you want to see this movie, you will be correct. It is a competently made Horrible Things Pouncing on People Movie. If you think Frank Darabont has equaled the Shawshank and Green Mile track record, you will be sadly mistaken. ''
Bloody Disgusting ranked the film # 4 on their list of the "Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade '', with the article saying "The scary stuff works extremely well, but what really drives this one home is Darabont 's focus on the divide that forms between two factions of the townspeople -- the paranoid, Bible - thumping types and the more rational - minded, decidedly left - wing members of the populace. This allegorical microcosm of Bush Jr. - era America is spot on, and elevates an already - excellent film to even greater heights. ''
The film was later nominated for three Saturn Awards; Best Horror Film, Best Director, and a win for Best Supporting Actress for Harden.
The film was commercially released in the United States and Canada on November 21, 2007. Over the opening weekend in the United States and Canada, The Mist grossed $8,931,973. As of August 9, 2009, the film grossed $25,593,755 in the United States and Canada and $27,560,960 in other territories for a worldwide total of $57,289,103.
The Mist was released on DVD and Blu - ray on March 25, 2008. The single - disc includes an audio commentary by writer / director Frank Darabont, eight deleted scenes with optional commentary, and "A Conversation With Stephen King and Frank Darabont '' featurette.
The two - disc edition includes the exclusive black and white presentation of the film, as well as the color version, and five featurettes ("When Darkness Came: The Making of The Mist '', "Taming the Beast: Shooting Scene 35 '', "Monsters Among Us: A Look at the Creature FX '', "The Horror of It All: The Visual FX of The Mist '', and "Drew Struzan: Appreciation of an Artist '').
In November 2013, Bob Weinstein revealed that he and Darabont were developing a 10 - part television series based on the film. In February 2016, Spike picked up the pilot. In April 2016, Spike ordered the series. Emmy - winning director Adam Bernstein directed the pilot. It premiered on June 22, 2017.
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the soviet union set up what kind of political economic system | Politics of the Soviet Union - wikipedia
The political system of the Soviet Union was characterized by the superior role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only party permitted by the Constitution.
For information about the government, see Government of the Soviet Union.
The Bolsheviks who took power during the October Revolution, the final phase of the Russian Revolution, were the first Communist Party to take power and attempt to apply the Leninist variant of Marxism in a practical way. Although they grew very quickly during the Revolution, from 24,000 to 100,000 members, and some support, 25 % of the votes for the Constituent Assembly in November, 1917, the Bolsheviks were a minority party when they took power by force in Petrograd and Moscow. Their advantages were discipline and a platform supporting the movement of workers, peasants, soldiers and sailors who had seized factories, organized soviets, appropriated the lands of the aristocracy and other large landholders, deserted from the army and mutinied against the navy during the Revolution.
Karl Marx made no detailed proposals for the structure of a socialist or communist government and society other than the replacement of capitalism with socialism, and eventually communism, by the victorious working class. Lenin, the leader of the Bolsheviks, had developed the theory that a Communist Party should serve as the vanguard of the proletariat, ruling in their name and interest, but, like Marx, had not developed a detailed economic or political program. The new Communist government of the Soviet Union faced alarming problems: extending practical control beyond the major cities, combatting counter-revolution and opposing political parties, coping with the continuing war, and setting up a new economic and political system.
Despite their relative discipline, the Bolsheviks were not of one mind, the Party being a coalition of committed revolutionaries, but with somewhat differing views as to what was practical and proper. These diverging tendencies resulted in debates within the Party over the next decade, followed by a period of consolidation of the Party as definite programs were adopted.
The Congress of Soviets was the supreme organ of power, in accordance with Article 8 of the 1924 Soviet Constitution. The Congress was replaced in the 1936 Soviet Constitution by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union; in accordance with Article 30, it functioned as the highest state authority and the only legislative branch of the USSR. According to Article 108 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, the Supreme Soviet was empowered to deal with all matters within the jurisdiction of the USSR. The admission of new republics; creation of new Autonomous Republics and Autonomous Regions; approval of the five - year plan for social and economic development; creation of the state budget and the institution of bodies to which the USSR was accountable were the exclusive prerogative of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The Law of the USSR was enacted by the Supreme Soviet or by referendum.
The Supreme Soviet consisted of two chambers: the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities; both chambers had equal rights. The Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities had an equal number of deputies. The Soviet of the Union was elected by constituencies with equal populations; the Soviet of Nationalities was elected on the basis of the following representation: 32 deputies from each Union Republic, 11 deputies from each Autonomous Republic, five deputies from each Autonomous Region, and one deputy from each Autonomous Area. The Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities (upon submission by the elected credentials commissions) had the power to decide the validity of the elected deputies ' credentials, and (in cases where election law had been violated) would declare the election null and void. Both chambers elected a Chairman and four Deputies. The Chairmen of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities presided over sessions of their respective chambers and conducted their affairs. Joint sessions of the chambers were presided over by (alternately) the Chairman of the Soviet of the Union and the Chairman of the Soviet of Nationalities.
Through a constitutional amendment made by Mikhail Gorbachev, the Supreme Soviet became a permanent parliament which was elected by the Congress of the People 's Deputies. In the 1989 Soviet legislative election the Soviet people, for the first time, elected candidates democratically. The new amendment called for a smaller working body (later known as the Supreme Soviet), to be elected by the 2,250 - member Congress of People 's Deputies. One - third of the seats in the Congress of People 's Deputies was reserved for the Communist Party and other public organisations. The amendment clearly stated that multiple candidates could participate in elections, and Soviet voters stunned the authorities by voting for non-CPSU candidates and reformers. However, genuine reformers were estimated to have won only about 300 seats. Following the failed August Coup attempt, the State Council became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition ''.
According to the 1924 Soviet Constitution, the executive branch was headed by the Council of People 's Commissars; in the 1977 Soviet Constitution, the Council of Ministers was the head of the executive branch. The Council of Ministers was formed at a joint meeting of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. The Council consisted of the Chairman, the First Deputies, the Deputies, the ministers, the chairmen of the state committees and the Chairmen of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Republics. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers could recommend to the Supreme Soviet other heads of organisations in the USSR as members of the Council. The Council of Ministers laid down its power before the first session of the newly elected Supreme Soviet.
The Council of Ministers was both responsible for and accountable to the Supreme Soviet, and in the period between sessions of the Supreme Soviet it was accountable to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. The Council of Ministers regularly reported to the Supreme Soviet on its work. It was tasked with resolving all state administrative duties within the jurisdiction of the USSR, to the degree that they did not come under the competence of the Supreme Soviet or the Presidium. Within its limits, the Council of Ministers had authority to:
It also had the power to issue decrees and resolutions, and to later verify their execution. All organisations were obligated to follow the decrees and resolutions issued by the All - Union Council of Ministers. The All - Union Council also had the power to suspend all issues and decrees made by itself or organisations subordinate to it. It coordinated and directed the work of the republics and their ministries, state committees and other organs subordinate to the All - Union Council. Finally, the competence of the Council of Ministers and its Presidium in their procedures and activities (and its relationship with subordinate organs) was defined in the Soviet constitution by the Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR.
In 1990 Mikhail Gorbachev created the office of the President of the Soviet Union, the head of the executive branch. In the meantime, the Council of Ministers was dissolved and replaced by the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR. The new cabinet was headed by the Premier. Gorbachev 's election as President marked the third time in one year he was elected to an office equivalent to that of Soviet head of state; he was elected by the Congress of People 's Deputies on all three occasions.
The Supreme Court was the highest judicial body in the country; it supervised the administration of justice by the courts of the USSR and its Soviet Republics within the limits of established law. The leadership of the Supreme Court was elected by the Supreme Soviet; the exceptions were the Chairmen of the Supreme Courts of the Soviet Republics, who were ex officio members. The organisation and the procedures of the Supreme Court were defined by law. As written in Article 157 of the Brezhnev constitution, "Justice is administered in the USSR on the principle of the equality of citizens before the law and the court. '' In the following articles it was made clear that all individuals (no matter their circumstances) had the right to legal assistance. All judicial proceedings in the USSR were conducted in the language of the Soviet Republic, "Autonomous Republic, Autonomous Region, or Autonomous Area, or in the language spoken by the majority of the people in the locality ''. People who participated in court proceedings without knowledge of the language had the right to become fully acquainted with the materials in the case, the right to an interpreter during the proceedings and the right to address the court in their own language.
The Procurator General was (according to Article 165) appointed to the office by the Supreme Soviet. The Procurator was responsible and accountable to the Supreme Soviet or, between sessions of the Supreme Soviet, to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. The Procurator General supervised most activities of Soviet agencies such as ministries, state committees and local Prosecutor Generals. Subordinate agencies of the Procurator General exercised their functions independent from meddling by the Soviet state, and were subordinate only to the Prosecutor 's office. The organisation and procedures of these subordinates were defined in the Law on the Procurator 's Office of the USSR.
According to Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution, the Party was "the leading and guiding force of Soviet society and the nucleus of its political system, of all state organisations and public organisations, is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU exists for the people and serves the people. '' The Communist Party was officially a Marxist - Leninist communist party, which determined the general development of Soviet society both in domestic and foreign policy. Also, it directed the "great work '' of building communism through economic planning and the struggle for the victory of communism. All Communist Party organisations had to follow the framework laid down by the 1977 Soviet Constitution. After mounting pressure against him by the reformers, Mikhail Gorbachev removed the phrase "the leading and guiding force '' and replaced it with "the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and other political parties ''.
The Nomenklatura was the Soviet Union 's ruling group, and remained one of the main reasons why the USSR existed as long as it did. Members of the Nomenklatura were elected by the CPSU to all important posts in Soviet society; this could mean a locally or nationally significant office. This, along with the CPSU 's monopoly on power, led to the gradual physical and intellectual degeneration of the USSR as a state. As long as the General Secretary of the CPSU commanded the loyalty of the Politburo he would remain more - or-less unopposed, and in all probability become the leader of the country.
The CPSU controlled the government apparatus and took decisions affecting economy and society. The Communist Party followed the ideology of Marxism - Leninism and operated on the principle of democratic centralism. The primary CPSU bodies were the Politburo, the highest decision - making organ; the Secretariat, the controller of party bureaucracy; and the Central Committee, the party 's policy forum. CPSU membership reached more than 19 million (9.7 percent of the adult population) in 1987, and was dominated by male Russian professionals. Party members occupied positions of authority in all officially recognized institutions throughout the country.
Single party rule, combined with democratic centralism, which, in practice, consisted of a hierarchal structure which with the aid of a secret police organization enforced decisions made by the ruling party as well on the personnel of all governmental institutions, including the courts, the press, cultural and economic organizations and labor unions. The Soviet Union is considered by many to have been a totalitarian state for much of its existence. Critics include Western authors such as Robert Conquest and Russian critics such as Alexander Yakovlev.
Education and political discourse proceeded on the assumption that it was possible to mold people using collectivist institutional forms into an ideal Soviet man or woman, new Soviet man. The validity of ideas, public discourse, and institutional form were evaluated in terms of the official ideology of Marxism - Leninism, as interpreted by the Communist Party.
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when does season 8 hawaii five o start in uk | Hawaii Five - 0 (2010 TV series, season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of the CBS police procedural drama series Hawaii Five - 0 premiered on September 29, 2017 for the 2017 -- 18 television season. The season is expected to contain 24 episodes.
This is the first season not to feature Daniel Dae Kim, Grace Park, and Masi Oka. This is also the first season to feature Meaghan Rath and Beulah Koale, who joined as new main cast members. In addition, longtime recurring cast members Dennis Chun, Kimee Balmilero, and Taylor Wily were promoted to series regulars, while other longtime recurring cast member Ian Anthony Dale joined as a series regular in the seventh episode.
Five - 0 investigates a world class hacker (Joey Lawrence), who turns out to be the brother of serial hacker Ian Wright, after the former hacks into the Hawaii State prison and releases serial murderer / arsonist Jason DuClair (Randy Couture). DuClair soon leads the team on a manhunt that ends with a massive wildfire. With Kono and Chin on the mainland running their own respective task forces, McGarrett and Danny recruit lifeguard and former police candidate Tani Rey (Meaghan Rath) to join the task force to assist them but she is reluctant to do so. Meanwhile, McGarrett and Danny begin to invest in a restaurant.
After a failed DEA drug bust Five - 0 teams up with them to solve the case. Also former Navy SEAL Junior Reigns (Beulah Koale) turns to McGarrett looking for a job. Steve initially turns him down however, after he insists Steve introduces him to Duke Lukela then informs Junior that to become a part of the task force he will need to join and finish the Police academy.
After picking up Adam (Ian Anthony Dale) up from the airport McGarrett receives a call from Junior about a bank robbery in progress. Adam, Junior, and Steve then enter the bank and learn that the criminals escaped through a tunneled out hole in the safe. Steve pursues them through the tunnel while Adam and Junior follow on the street. Following an unsuccessful pursuit they then question a suspect who is then killed by one of the bank robbers while in the Iolani Palace. McGarrett and Grover pursue the suspects and are able to apprehend them following a gunfight. Also Tani keeps her brother from being arrested in a drug bust while Adam is forced to return to an empty home without Kono.
On March 23, 2017, CBS renewed the series for an eighth season, which premiered on September 29, 2017. Filming for the season began in July 2017.
On June 30, 2017, ahead of the series 's eighth season, it was announced that series regulars Daniel Dae Kim and Grace Park would be departing the series due to a salary dispute with CBS. Kim and Park had been seeking pay equality with co-stars Alex O'Loughlin and Scott Caan, but did not reach satisfactory deals with CBS Television Studios. CBS 's final offer to Kim and Park was 10 -- 15 % lower than what O'Loughlin and Caan make in salary. An update of their characters would be given in the first episode of the new season.
Following Kim 's and Park 's departures it was announced that longtime recurring cast member Ian Anthony Dale who portrays Kono Kalakaua 's husband Adam Noshimuri had been upped to series regular for the eighth season. It was also announced that Meaghan Rath and Beulah Koale would join the series as new characters and new members of Five - 0.
On July 21, 2017, it was announced that recurring cast members Taylor Wily, Kimee Balmilero, and Dennis Chun would also be upped to series regulars for the eighth season.
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which statements describe the creek who migrated to florida in the 1700s | History of Florida - wikipedia
The history of Florida can be traced to when the first Native Americans began to inhabit the peninsula as early as 14,000 years ago. They left behind artifacts and archeological evidence. Florida 's written history begins with the arrival of Europeans; the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León in 1513 made the first textual records. The state received its name from this Spanish conquistador, who called the peninsulaLa Pascua Florida in recognition of the verdant landscape and because it was the Easter season, which the Spaniards called Pascua Florida (Festival of Flowers).
This area was the first mainland realm of the United States to be settled by Europeans. Thus, 1513 marked the beginning of the American Frontier. From that time of contact, Florida has had many waves of immigration, including French and Spanish settlement during the 16th century, as well as entry of new Native American groups migrating from elsewhere in the South, and free blacks and fugitive slaves, who in the 19th century became allied with the Native Americans as Black Seminoles. Florida was under colonial rule by Spain, France, and Great Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries before becoming a territory of the United States in 1821. Two decades later, in 1845, Florida was admitted to the union as the 27th US state. Since the 19th century, immigrants have arrived from Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia.
Florida is nicknamed the "Sunshine State '' due to its warm climate and days of sunshine, which have attracted northern migrants and vacationers since the 1920s. A diverse population and urbanized economy have developed. In 2011 Florida, with over 19 million people, surpassed New York and became the third largest state in population.
The economy has developed over time, starting with natural resource exploitation in logging, mining, fishing, and sponge diving; as well as cattle ranching, farming, and citrus growing. The tourism, real estate, trade, banking, and retirement destination businesses followed.
The foundation of Florida was located in the continent of Gondwana at the South Pole 650 Mya. When Gondwana collided with the continent of Laurentia 300 Mya, it had moved further north. 200 Mya, the merged continents containing what would be Florida, had moved north of the equator. By then, Florida was surrounded by desert, in the middle of a new continent, Pangaea. When Pangaea broke up 115 mya, Florida assumed a shape as a peninsula. The emergent landmass of Florida was Orange Island, a low - relief island sitting atop the carbonate Florida Platform which emerged about 34 to 28 million years ago.
When glaciation locked up the world 's water, starting 2.58 million years ago, the sea level dropped precipitously. It was approximately 100 metres (330 ft) lower than present levels. As a result, the Florida peninsula not only emerged, but had a land area about twice what it is today. Florida also had a drier and cooler climate than in more recent times. There were few flowing rivers or wetlands.
Paleo - Indians entered what is now Florida at least 14,000 years ago. Across large areas of Florida, fresh water was available only in sinkholes and limestone catchment basins. As a result, most paleo - Indian activity was around the watering holes. Sinkholes and basins in the beds of modern rivers (such as the Page - Ladson prehistory site in the Aucilla River) have yielded a rich trove of paleo - Indian artifacts, including Clovis points.
Excavations at an ancient stone quarry (the Container Corporation of America site in Marion County) yielded "crude stone implements '' showing signs of extensive wear from deposits below those holding Paleo - Indian artifacts. Thermoluminescence dating and weathering analysis independently gave dates of 26,000 to 28,000 years ago for the creation of the artifacts. The findings are controversial, and funding has not been available for follow - up studies.
As the glaciers began retreating about 8000 BC, the climate of Florida became warmer and wetter. As the glaciers melted, the sea level rose, reducing the land mass. Many prehistoric habitation sites along the old coastline were slowly submerged, making artifacts from early coastal cultures difficult to find. The paleo - Indian culture was replaced by, or evolved into, the Early Archaic culture. With an increase in population and more water available, the people occupied many more locations, as evidenced by numerous artifacts. Archaeologists have learned much about the Early Archaic people of Florida from the discoveries made at Windover Pond. The Early Archaic period evolved into the Middle Archaic period around 5000 BC. People started living in villages near wetlands and favored sites that were likely occupied for multiple generations.
The Late Archaic period started about 3000 BC, when Florida 's climate had reached current conditions and the sea had risen close to its present level. People commonly occupied both fresh and saltwater wetlands. Large shell middens accumulated during this period. Many people lived in large villages with purpose - built earthwork mounds, such as at Horr 's Island, which had the largest permanently occupied community in the Archaic period in the southeastern United States. It also has the oldest burial mound in the East, dating to about 1450 BC. People began making fired pottery in Florida by 2000 BC. By about 500 BC, the Archaic culture, which had been fairly uniform across Florida, began to fragment into regional cultures.
The post-Archaic cultures of eastern and southern Florida developed in relative isolation. It is likely that the peoples living in those areas at the time of first European contact were direct descendants of the inhabitants of the areas in late Archaic and Woodland times. The cultures of the Florida panhandle and the north and central Gulf coast of the Florida peninsula were strongly influenced by the Mississippian culture, producing two local variants known as the Pensacola culture and the Fort Walton culture.
Continuity in cultural history suggests that the peoples of those areas were also descended from the inhabitants of the Archaic period. In the panhandle and the northern part of the peninsula, people adopted cultivation of maize. Its cultivation was restricted or absent among the tribes who lived south of the Timucuan - speaking people (i.e., south of a line approximately from present - day Daytona Beach, Florida to a point on or north of Tampa Bay.) Peoples in southern Florida depended on the rich estuarine environment and developed a highly complex society without agriculture.
Florida was mostly divided between two distinct culture groups, the Muskogean & the Carib. While there were some Muskogean tribes along almost the entirety of Florida 's east coast, everything else south of Lake Okeechobee was ruled by a Carib nation called the Calusa -- Including the Keys. This tribe appears to have been a powerful trading force in the Caribbean & the chief & his wife were treated almost as if they were a king & queen. They had discovered complex building techniques & built cities of two story communal buildings, as space within the Everglades was scarce. Smaller farming & fishing villages built the more common thatched - roof, stilted huts common amongst the Carib peoples. While they mostly wove their clothing from Spanish moss & made shawls & rugs from dried palm leaves, they also undoubtedly traded for other cloth goods to the north and west, which may have given them access to Hemp & Cotton. The Chief & his wife had their own palace, of sorts, in which they lived & from which they conducted their political business. They were met with the Spanish when they attempted to explore Florida in the 16th century & continued to survive in the region until the mid-18th century, when Spain temporarily lost control of the Florida colony to the English due to the activities of the Creek Confederacy. They were also partially responsible for the mythology surrounding the Fountain of Youth. Later, they conquered some of the other Muskogean peoples -- namely the Ais & the Mayaimi (for which the city of Miami is named for, despite the fact that the tribe surrounded Lake Okeechobee), technically making them an Empire, as small as they were. (An Empire is seen as a governing system in which significant populations of different kinds of people with separate cultural identities are ruled over by a single, ultimate ruler).
To begin with the Spanish had a very tumultuous relationship with the Calusa & quickly gave up trying to deal with them after their monasteries were violently destroyed multiple times.
North of the Calusa, things were less organized. The Mississippian culture which started among the Caddoan peoples on the Mississippi River had spread throughout the entire Muskogean population in one form or another, who lived throughout the modern day states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee & Kentucky. These were what would be referred to as city - states & those of the east coast were generally the least impressive. While most of the other Muskogean peoples reformed into a series of powerful confederacies after Columbian contact, those of Florida & southern Georgia (collectively referred to as the Timucua) are the only ones who did not. Larger Muskogean nations, the Apalachee & the Hitchiti held land in Northern Florida, however. The state capitol, as is common in the American south, due to unavailability of good land, is built on top of the original capitol of the Apalachee people.
Ultimately, the Timucuan city - states collapsed quickly upon contact with European diseases by the 17th century & fell to constant on & off infighting for roughly a full century. During the 18th century, the small tribes of Alabama, as well as the Yuchi, Coashatta, Cherokee, Hitchiti & Yamasee all merged to form the Creek Confederacy & destroyed all the other tribes of Florida. The Spanish did evacuate some of the Calusa to Cuba, but not all. It is also claimed that some of the Timucuan peoples may have migrated to Texas & other parts of northern Mexico, displacing some of the native Comanche & Puebloan populations there. Many of those caught by the Creek were later sold into slavery in the Caribbean. Afterwards, the Creek Confederacy broke apart into the Muscogee, the Cherokee & the Seminole -- the last of whom resettled in Florida. Early in American history, after the Spanish had re-taken Florida, it was a very popular destination of runaway American slaves. While the Spanish chose not to return them to the Americans, they were shunned & generally forced to live among the remaining Native peoples. All surviving Native populations were removed from the state after it became part of the United States, but later returned during the 20th and 21st centuries. The Muscogee generally count themselves separately, as members of the original tribes who made them up to begin with, while the Seminole do not.
At the time of first European contact in the early 16th century, Florida was inhabited by an estimated 350,000 people belonging to a number of tribes. The Spanish Empire sent Spanish explorers recording nearly one hundred names of groups they encountered, ranging from organized political entities such as the Apalachee, with a population of around 50,000, to villages with no known political affiliation. There were an estimated 150,000 speakers of dialects of the Timucua language, but the Timucua were organized as groups of villages and did not share a common culture.
Other tribes in Florida at the time of first contact included the Ais, Calusa, Jaega, Mayaimi, Tequesta and Tocobaga. Early explorers such as Alvaro Mexia wrote about them; other information has been learned through archeological research. The populations of all of these tribes decreased markedly during the period of Spanish control of Florida, mostly due to epidemics of newly introduced infectious diseases, to which the Native Americans had no natural immunity. The diminished population of the original natives allowed outside groups, such as the Seminoles, to move into the area starting about 1700.
At the beginning of the 18th century, when the indigenous peoples were already much reduced in populations, tribes from areas to the north of Florida, supplied with arms and occasionally accompanied by white colonists from the Province of Carolina, raided throughout Florida. They burned villages, wounded many of the inhabitants and carried captives back to Charles Towne to be sold into slavery. Most of the villages in Florida were abandoned, and the survivors sought refuge at St. Augustine or in isolated spots around the state. Many tribes became extinct during this period and by the end of the 18th century.
Some of the Apalachee eventually reached Louisiana, where they survived as a distinct group for at least another century. The Spanish evacuated the few surviving members of the Florida tribes to Cuba in 1763 when Spain transferred the territory of Florida to the British Empire following the latter 's victory against France in the Seven Years ' War. In the aftermath, the Seminole, originally an offshoot of the Creek people who absorbed other groups, developed as a distinct tribe in Florida during the 18th century through the process of ethnogenesis. They have three federally recognized tribes: the largest is the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, formed of descendants since removal in the 1830s; others are the smaller Seminole Tribe of Florida and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida.
Juan Ponce de León, a famous Spanish conqueror and explorer, is usually given credit for being the first European to sight Florida, but he probably had predecessors. Florida and much of the nearby coast is depicted in the Cantino planisphere, an early world map which was surreptitiously copied in 1502 from the most current Portuguese sailing charts and smuggled into Italy a full decade before Ponce sailed north from Puerto Rico on his voyage of exploration. Ponce de León may not have even been the first Spaniard to go ashore in Florida; slave traders may have secretly raided native villages before Ponce arrived, as he encountered at least one indigenous tribesman who spoke Spanish. However, Ponce 's 1513 expedition to Florida was the first open and official one. He also gave Florida its name, which means "full of flowers. '' Another dubious legend states that Ponce de León was searching for the Fountain of Youth on the island of Bimini, based on information from natives.
On March 3, 1513, Juan Ponce de León organized and equipped three ships for an expedition departing from "Punta Aguada '', Puerto Rico. The expedition included 200 people, including women and free blacks.
Although it is often stated that he sighted the peninsula for the first time on March 27, 1513 and thought it was an island, he probably saw one of the Bahamas at that time. He went ashore on Florida 's east coast during the Spanish Easter feast, Pascua Florida, on April 7 and named the land La Pascua de la Florida. After briefly exploring the land south of present - day St. Augustine, the expedition sailed south to the bottom of the Florida peninsula, through the Florida Keys, and up the west coast as far north as Charlotte Harbor, where they briefly skirmished with the Calusa before heading back to Puerto Rico. From 1513 onward, the land became known as La Florida. After 1630, and throughout the 18th century, Tegesta (after the Tequesta tribe) was an alternate name of choice for the Florida peninsula following publication of a map by the Dutch cartographer Hessel Gerritsz in Joannes de Laet 's History of the New World.
Further Spanish attempts to explore and colonize Florida were disastrous. Ponce de León returned to the Charlotte Harbor area in 1521 with equipment and settlers to start a colony, but was soon driven off by hostile Calusa, and de León died in Cuba from wounds received in the fighting. Pánfilo de Narváez 's expedition explored Florida 's west coast in 1528, but his violent demands for gold and food led to hostile relations with the Tocobaga and other native groups. Facing starvation and unable to find his support ships, Narváez attempted return to Mexico via rafts, but all were lost at sea and only four members of the expedition survived. Hernando de Soto landed in Florida in 1539 and began a multi-year trek through what is now the southeastern United States in which he found no gold but lost his life. In 1559 Tristán de Luna y Arellano established the first settlement in Pensacola but, after a violent hurricane destroyed the area, it was abandoned in 1561.
The horse, which the natives had hunted to extinction 10,000 years ago, was reintroduced into North America by the European explorers, and into Florida in 1538. As the animals were lost or stolen, they began to become feral.
In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière founded Fort Caroline in what is now Jacksonville, as a haven for Huguenot Protestant refugees from religious persecution in France. Further down the coast, in 1565 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded San Agustín (St. Augustine) which is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in any U.S. state. It is second oldest only to San Juan, Puerto Rico, in the United States ' current territory. From this base of operations, the Spanish began building Catholic missions.
All colonial cities were founded near the mouths of rivers. St. Augustine was founded where the Matanzas Inlet permitted access to the Matanzas River. Other cities were founded on the sea with similar inlets: Jacksonville, West Palm Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Pensacola, Tampa, Fort Myers, and others.
On September 20, 1565, Menéndez de Avilés attacked Fort Caroline, killing most of the French Huguenot defenders. Two years later, Dominique de Gourgue recaptured the settlement for France, this time slaughtering the Spanish defenders.
St. Augustine became the most important settlement in Florida. Little more than a fort, it was frequently attacked and burned, with most residents killed or fled. It was notably devastated in 1586, when English sea captain and sometime pirate Sir Francis Drake plundered and burned the city. Catholic missionaries used St. Augustine as a base of operations to establish over 100 far - flung missions throughout Florida. They converted 26,000 natives by 1655, but a revolt in 1656 and an epidemic in 1659 proved devastating. Pirate attacks and British raids were unrelenting, and the town was burned to the ground several times until Spain fortified it with the Castillo de San Marcos (1672) and Fort Matanzas (1742).
Throughout the 17th century, English settlers in Virginia and the Carolinas gradually pushed the boundaries of Spanish territory south, while the French settlements along the Mississippi River encroached on the western borders of the Spanish claim. In 1702, English colonel James Moore and allied Yamasee and Creek Indians attacked and razed the town of St. Augustine, but they could not gain control of the fort. In 1704, Moore and his soldiers began burning Spanish missions in north Florida and executing Indians friendly with the Spanish. The collapse of the Spanish mission system and the defeat of the Spanish - allied Apalachee Indians (the Apalachee massacre) opened Florida up to slave raids, which reached to the Florida Keys and decimated the native population. The Yamasee War of 1715 -- 1717 in the Carolinas resulted in numerous Indian refugees, such as the Yamasee, moving south to Florida. In 1719, the French captured the Spanish settlement at Pensacola.
The border between the British colony of Georgia and Spanish Florida was never clearly defined, and was the subject of constant small - and larger - scale harassment in both directions, until Spain was ceded to the U.S. in 1821. Spanish Florida, so as to undermine the stability of the British slave - based plantation economy, encouraged the escape of slaves and offered them freedom and refuge if they converted to Catholicism. This was well known through word of mouth in the colonies of Georgia and South Carolina, and hundreds of slaves escaped. This predecessor of the Underground Railway ran south. They settled in a buffer community north of St. Augustine, called Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mosé, the first settlement made of free blacks in North America.
This angered the British colonists. The British and their colonies made war repeatedly against the Spanish, especially in 1702 and again in 1740, when a large force under James Oglethorpe sailed south from Georgia and besieged St. Augustine but were unable to take the Castillo de San Marcos. Creek and Seminole Native Americans, who had established buffer settlements in Florida at the invitation of the Spanish government, also welcomed many of those slaves. In 1771, Governor John Moultrie wrote to the English Board of Trade that "It has been a practice for a good while past, for negroes to run away from their Masters, and get into the Indian towns, from whence it proved very difficult to get them back. '' When British government officials pressed the Seminole to return runaway slaves, they replied that they had "merely given hungry people food, and invited the slaveholders to catch the runaways themselves. ''
In 1763, Spain traded Florida to the Kingdom of Great Britain for control of Havana, Cuba, which had been captured by the British during the Seven Years ' War. It was part of a large expansion of British territory following the country 's victory in the Seven Years ' War. Almost the entire Spanish population left, taking along most of the remaining indigenous population to Cuba. The British divided the territory into East Florida and West Florida. The British soon constructed the King 's Road connecting St. Augustine to Georgia. The road crossed the St. Johns River at a narrow point, which the Seminole called Wacca Pilatka and the British named "Cow Ford '', both names ostensibly reflecting the fact that cattle were brought across the river there. The British government gave land grants to officers and soldiers who had fought in the French and Indian War in order to encourage settlement. In order to induce settlers to move to the two new colonies reports of the natural wealth of Florida were published in England. A large number of British colonists who were "energetic and of good character '' moved to Florida, mostly coming from South Carolina, Georgia and England though there was also a group of settlers who came from the colony of Bermuda. This would be the first permanent English - speaking population in what is now Duval County, Baker County, St. Johns County and Nassau County. The British built good public roads and introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, indigo and fruits as well the export of lumber. As a result of these initiatives northeastern Florida prospered economically in a way it never did under Spanish rule. Furthermore, the British governors were directed to call general assemblies as soon as possible in order to make laws for the Floridas and in the meantime they were, with the advice of councils, to establish courts. This would be the first introduction of much of the English - derived legal system which Florida still has today including trial - by - jury, habeas corpus and county - based government.
A Scottish settler named Dr Andrew Turnbull transplanted around 1,500 indentured settlers, from Menorca, Majorca, Ibiza, Smyrna, Crete, Mani Peninsula, and Sicily, to grow hemp, sugarcane, indigo, and to produce rum. Settled at New Smyrna, within months the colony suffered major losses primarily due to insect - borne diseases and Native American raids. Most crops did not do well in the sandy Florida soil. Those that survived rarely equaled the quality produced in other colonies. The colonists tired of their servitude and Turnbull 's rule. On several occasions, he used African slaves to whip his unruly settlers. The settlement collapsed and the survivors fled to safety with the British authorities in St. Augustine. Their descendants survive to this day, as does the name New Smyrna.
In 1767, the British moved the northern boundary of West Florida to a line extending from the mouth of the Yazoo River east to the Chattahoochee River (32 ° 28 ′ north latitude), consisting of approximately the lower third of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama. During this time, Creek Indians migrated into Florida and formed the Seminole tribe.
When the Colonies declared independence, many Floridians condemned it. They had been almost unaffected (because East and West Florida were backwoods areas) by the Stamp Act Crisis of 1765, which led the 13 colonies to perceive a common interest threatened by Britain. Florida declined to send delegates to the Continental Congress. The majority of Floridians were Loyalists, grateful to the Crown, that remained loyal to Britain. Many actually helped lead raids on the American South. One disastrous attempt on the part of the American Forces to invade East Florida occurred at the Battle of Thomas Creek in today 's Nassau County. It was led on May 17, 1777. American Colonel John Baker surrendered to the British. Another attempt, the Battle of Alligator Bridge took place on June 30, 1778.
The two Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain throughout the American Revolutionary War. However, Spain (participating indirectly in the war as an ally of France) captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the Revolutionary War and returned all of Florida to Spanish control, but without specifying the boundaries. The Spanish wanted the expanded boundary, while the new United States demanded the old boundary at the 31st parallel north. In the Treaty of San Lorenzo of 1795, Spain recognized the 31st parallel as the boundary.
Spanish presence included a few officials and soldiers, but no new settlers. Most British residents left. The unguarded region became a haven for escaped slaves and a base for Indian attacks against the U.S., and the U.S. demanded Spain reform.
Americans of English descent and Scots - Irish descent began moving into northern Florida from the backwoods of Georgia and South Carolina. Though technically not allowed by the Spanish authorities, the Spanish were never able to effectively police the border region and the backwoods settlers from the United States would continue to migrate into Florida unchecked. These migrants, mixing with the already present British settlers who had remained in Florida since the British period, would be the progenitors of the population known as Florida Crackers.
These American settlers established a permanent foothold in the area and ignored Spanish officials. The British settlers who had remained also resented Spanish rule, leading to a rebellion in 1810 and the establishment for ninety days of the so - called Free and Independent Republic of West Florida on September 23. After meetings beginning in June, rebels overcame the Spanish garrison at Baton Rouge (now in Louisiana), and unfurled the flag of the new republic: a single white star on a blue field. This flag would later become known as the "Bonnie Blue Flag ''.
In 1810, parts of West Florida were annexed by proclamation of President James Madison, who claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase. These parts were incorporated into the newly formed Territory of Orleans. The U.S. annexed the Mobile District of West Florida to the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Spain continued to dispute the area, though the United States gradually increased the area it occupied.
Seminole Indians based in East Florida had been raiding Georgia settlements, and runaway American slaves were their allies; Negro Fort, an abandoned British fortification in the far west of the territory, was manned by both Indians and blacks. The United States Army would lead increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory, including the 1817 -- 1818 campaign against the Seminole Indians by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War. The United States now effectively controlled East Florida. Control was necessary, according to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, because Florida had become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them. '' Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or garrisons. Madrid therefore decided to cede the territory to the United States through the Adams -- Onís Treaty, which took effect in 1821.
Florida became an organized territory of the United States on March 30, 1822. The Americans merged East Florida and West Florida (although the majority of West Florida was annexed to Territory of Orleans and Mississippi Territory), and established a new capital in Tallahassee, conveniently located halfway between the East Florida capital of St. Augustine and the West Florida capital of Pensacola. The boundaries of Florida 's first two counties, Escambia and St. Johns, approximately coincided with the boundaries of West and East Florida respectively.
The free blacks and Indian slaves, Black Seminoles, living near St. Augustine, fled to Havana, Cuba to avoid coming under US control. Some Seminole also abandoned their settlements and moved further south. Hundreds of Black Seminoles and fugitive slaves escaped in the early nineteenth century from Cape Florida to The Bahamas, where they settled on Andros Island.
As settlement increased, pressure grew on the United States government to remove the Indians from their lands in Florida. Many settlers in Florida developed plantation agriculture, similar to other areas of the Deep South. To the consternation of new landowners, the Seminoles harbored and integrated runaway blacks, and clashes between whites and Indians grew with the influx of new settlers.
In 1832, the United States government signed the Treaty of Payne 's Landing with some of the Seminole chiefs, promising them lands west of the Mississippi River if they agreed to leave Florida voluntarily. Many Seminoles left then, while those who remained prepared to defend their claims to the land. White settlers pressured the government to remove all of the Indians, by force if necessary, and in 1835, the U.S. Army arrived to enforce the treaty.
The Second Seminole War began at the end of 1835 with the Dade Massacre, when Seminoles ambushed Army troops marching from Fort Brooke (Tampa) to reinforce Fort King (Ocala). They killed or mortally wounded all but one of the 110 troops. Between 900 and 1,500 Seminole warriors effectively employed guerrilla tactics against United States Army troops for seven years. Osceola, a charismatic young war leader, came to symbolize the war and the Seminoles after he was arrested by Brigadier General Joseph Marion Hernandez while negotiating under a white truce flag in October 1837, by order of General Thomas Jesup. First imprisoned at Fort Marion, he died of malaria at Fort Moultrie in South Carolina less than three months after his capture. The war ended in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent between $20 million ($507,172,414 in 2017 dollars) and $40 million ($1,014,344,828 in 2017 dollars) on the war; at the time, this was considered a large sum. Almost all of the Seminoles were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; several hundred remained in the Everglades.
On March 3, 1845, Florida became the 27th state of the United States of America. Its first governor was William Dunn Moseley.
Almost half the state 's population were enslaved African Americans working on large cotton and sugar plantations, between the Apalachicola and Suwannee rivers in the north central part of the state. Like the people who owned them, many slaves had come from the coastal areas of Georgia and the Carolinas. They were part of the Gullah - Gee Chee culture of the Lowcountry. Others were enslaved African Americans from the Upper South who had been sold to traders taking slaves to the Deep South.
In the 1850s, with the potential transfer of ownership of federal land to the state, including Seminole land, the federal government decided to convince the remaining Seminoles to emigrate. The Army reactivated Fort Harvie and renamed it to Fort Myers. Increased Army patrols led to hostilities, and eventually a Seminole attack on Fort Myers which killed two United States soldiers. The Third Seminole War lasted from 1855 to 1858 which ended with most of the remaining Seminoles, mostly women and children moving to Indian Territory. In 1859, another 75 Seminoles surrendered and were sent to the West, but a small numbered continued to live in the Everglades.
On the eve of the Civil War, Florida had the smallest population of the Southern states. It was invested in plantation agriculture, which was dependent on the labor of enslaved African Americans. By 1860, Florida had 140,424 people, of whom 44 % were enslaved and fewer than 1,000 were free people of color.
Following Abraham Lincoln 's election in 1860, Florida joined other Southern states in seceding from the Union. Secession took place January 10, 1861, and, after less than a month as an independent republic, Florida became one of the founding members of the Confederate States of America. As Florida was an important supply route for the Confederate Army, Union forces operated a blockade around the entire state. Union troops occupied major ports such as Cedar Key, Jacksonville, Key West, and Pensacola. Though numerous skirmishes occurred in Florida, including the Battle of Natural Bridge, the Battle of Marianna and the Battle of Gainesville, the only major battle was the Battle of Olustee near Lake City.
A state convention was held in 1865 to rewrite the constitution. After meeting the requirements of Reconstruction, including ratifying amendments to the US Constitution, Florida was readmitted to the United States on June 25, 1868. This did not end the struggle for political power among groups in the state. Southern whites objected to freedmen 's political participation and complained of illiterate representatives to the state legislature. But of the six members who could not read or write during the seven years of Republican rule, four were white.
After Reconstruction, conservative white Democrats exercised voter suppression and intimidation until they regained control of the state legislature in 1877. This was accomplished partly through violent actions by white paramilitary groups targeting freedmen and their allies to discourage them from voting. From 1885 to 1889, after regaining power, the white - dominated state legislature passed statutes to impose poll taxes and other barriers to voter registration and voting, in order to eliminate voting by blacks and poor whites. These two groups had threatened white Democratic power with a populist coalition. As these groups were stripped from voter rolls, white Democrats established power in a one - party state, as happened across the South.
In this period, white violence rose against blacks, particularly in the form of lynchings, which reached a peak around the turn of the century.
The Great Freeze of 1894 - 5 ruined citrus crops, which had a detrimental ripple effect on the economy of Central Florida, in particular.
By 1900 the state 's African Americans numbered more than 200,000; 44 percent of the total population. This was the same proportion as before the Civil War, and they were effectively disfranchised. Not being able to vote meant they could not sit on juries, and were not elected to local, state or federal offices. They were not recruited for law enforcement or other government positions. White Democrats had passed Jim Crow legislation establishing racial segregation in public facilities and transportation. Without political representation, African Americans found their facilities were underfunded and they were pushed into a second - class position. For more than six decades, white Democrats controlled virtually all the state 's seats in Congress, which were apportioned based on the total population of the state rather than only the whites who voted.
In 1900, Florida was largely agricultural and frontier; most Floridians lived within 50 miles of the Georgia border. The population grew from 529,000 in 1900 to 18.3 million in 2009. The population explosion began with the great land boom of the 1920s as Florida became a destination for vacationers and a southern land speculator 's paradise. People from throughout the Southeast migrated to Florida during this time, creating a larger southern culture in the central part of the state, and expanding the existing one in the northern region.
By 1920, Florida had the highest rate of lynchings per capita, although the overall total had declined. Violence of whites against blacks continued into the post-World War II period, and there were lynchings and riots in several small towns in the early 1920s. Florida had the only recorded lynching in 1945, in October after the war 's end, when a black man was killed after being falsely accused of assaulting a girl.
In the 1920s, many developers invested in land in the southern part of the State in areas such as Miami, and Palm Beach attracting more people in the Southern States. When the Crash came in 1929, prices of houses plunged, but the sunshine remained. Hurt badly by the Great Depression and the land bust, Florida, along with many other States, kept afloat with federal relief money under the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration.
Florida 's economy did not fully recover until well into the buildup for World War II. The climate, tempered by the growing availability of air conditioning, and low cost of living, made the state a haven. In 1945, at the closing of the War, many people from the Northeast and the Rust Belt migrated to the Central and Southern parts of Florida. Since 1945, migration from the Northeast and the Midwest has resulted in non-natives becoming about 63 % of the current population. In recent decades, more migrants have come for the jobs in a developing economy.
After World War I, there was a rise in lynchings and other racial violence directed by whites against blacks in the state, as well as across the South, and in major cities such as Chicago and Washington. It was due in part from strains of rapid social and economic changes, as well as competition for jobs, and lingering resentment resulting from the Reconstruction after the Civil War, as well as tensions among both black and white populations created by the return of black veterans.
Whites continued to resort to lynchings to keep dominance, and tensions rose. Florida led the South and the nation in lynchings per capita from 1900 -- 1930. White mobs committed massacres, accompanied by wholesale destruction of black houses, churches, and schools, in the small communities of Ocoee, November 1920; Perry in December 1922; and Rosewood in January 1923. The governor appointed a special grand jury and special prosecuting attorney to investigate Rosewood and Levy County, but the jury did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute. Rosewood was never resettled.
To escape segregation, lynchings, and civil rights suppression, 40,000 African Americans migrated from Florida to northern cities in the Great Migration from 1910 -- 1940. That was one - fifth of their population in 1900. They sought better lives, including decent - paying jobs, better education for their children, and the chance to vote and participate in political life. Many were recruited for jobs with the Pennsylvania Railroad.
The 1920s were a prosperous time for much of the nation, including Florida. The state 's new railroads opened up large areas to development, spurring the Florida land boom of the 1920s. Investors of all kinds, many from outside Florida, raced to buy and sell rapidly appreciating land in newly platted communities such as Miami and Palm Beach. Led by entrepreneurs Carl Fisher and George Merrick, Miami was transformed by land speculation and ambitious building projects into an emerging metropolis. A growing awareness in the areas surrounding Florida, along with the Northeast about the attractive south Florida winter climate, along with local promotion of speculative investing, spurred the boom.
A majority of the people who bought land in Florida hired intermediaries to accomplish the transactions. By 1924, the main issues in state elections were how to attract more industry and the need to build and maintain good roads for tourists. During the time frame, the population grew from less than one million in 1920, to 1,263,540 in 1925.
By 1925, the market ran out of buyers to pay the high prices, and soon the boom became a bust. The 1926 Miami Hurricane, which nearly destroyed the city further depressed the real estate market. In 1928 another hurricane struck Southern Florida. The 1928 Okeechobee hurricane made landfall near Palm Beach, severely damaging the local infrastructure. In townships near Lake Okeechobee, the storm breached a dike separating the water from land, creating a storm surge that killed over 2,000 people and destroying the towns of Belle Glade and Pahokee.
Prohibition had been popular in north Florida, but was opposed in the rest of the south, which became a haven for speakeasies and rum - runners in the 1920s. During 1928 -- 32 a broad coalition of judges, lawyers, politicians, journalists, brewers, hoteliers, retailers, and ordinary Floridians organized to try to repeal the ban on alcohol. When the federal government legalized near beer and light wine in 1933, the wet coalition launched a successful campaign to legalize these beverages at the state level.
Floridians subsequently joined in the national campaign to repeal the 18th Amendment, which succeeded in December 1933. The following November, state voters repealed Florida 's constitutional ban on liquor and gave local governments the power to legalize or outlaw alcoholic beverages.
The Great Depression began with the Stock Market crash of 1929. By that time, the economy had already declined in much of Florida from the collapse three years earlier of the land boom. The New Deal (1933 -- 40) changed and reaffirmed the physical and environmental landscape of south Florida. Sewers, roads and schools were built by the Works Progress Administration (WPA). There were work camps for the young men of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).
From 1930 to 1935, college students selected Fort Lauderdale, Daytona Beach, and Panama City Beach as great places to take a spring break and party. The 1960s film Where the Boys Are increased attendance in Fort Lauderdale to 50,000 annually. When this figure increased to 250,000 in 1985, the city began to pass laws restricting student activities. As a result, students moved to Daytona Beach from 1980 -- 1990s. The figure for Fort Lauderdale dropped to 20,000; 350,000 visited Daytona Beach. Daytona Beach passed laws constraining underage drinking. Students then began patronizing Panama City, where 500,000 visited in 2013.
Florida legalized gambling in 1931 allowing a Parimutuel betting establishment. By 2014, there were 30 such establishments, generating $200 million in state taxes and fees.
Anticipating war, the Army and Navy decided to use the state as a primary training area. The Navy chose the coastal areas, the Army, the inland areas.
In 1940, the population was about 1.5 million. Average annual income was $308 ($5,380.12 in 2017 dollars).
In the years leading up to World War II, 100 ships were sunk off the coast of Florida. More ships sunk after the country entered the war.
About 248,000 Floridians served in the war. Around 50,000 of these were African Americans.
The state became a major hub for the United States Armed Forces. Naval Air Station Pensacola was originally established as a naval station in 1826 and became the first American naval aviation facility in 1917. The entire nation mobilized for World War II and many bases were established in Florida, including Naval Air Station Jacksonville, Naval Station Mayport, Naval Air Station Cecil Field, Naval Air Station Whiting Field and Homestead Air Force Base.
Eglin Air Force Base and MacDill Air Force Base (now the home of U.S. Central Command) were also developed during this time. During the Cold War, Florida 's coastal access and proximity to Cuba encouraged the development of these and other military facilities. Since the end of the Cold War, the military has closed some facilities, including major bases at Homestead and Cecil Field, but its presence is still significant in the economy.
The population increased by 46 % during the 1940s.
Because of Cape Canaveral 's relative closeness to the equator, compared to other potential locations, it was chosen in 1949 as a test site for the country 's nascent missile program. Patrick Air Force Base and the Cape Canaveral launch site began to take shape as the 1950s progressed. By the early 1960s, the Space Race was in full swing. As programs were expanded and employees joined, the space program generated a huge boom in the communities around Cape Canaveral. This area is now collectively known as the Space Coast and features the Kennedy Space Center. It is also a major center of the aerospace industry. To date, all manned orbital spaceflights launched by the United States, including the only men to visit the Moon, have been launched from Kennedy Space Center.
Florida 's population mix has changed. After World War II, Florida was transformed as the development of air conditioning and the Interstate highway system encouraged migration by residents of the North and Midwest.
Prior to development, Florida salt marshes were capable of producing large numbers of mosquitoes. The salt marsh mosquito does not lay its eggs in standing water, preferring moist sand or mud instead. Biologists learned to control them by "source reduction '', the process of removing the moist sand needed by the mosquitoes to breed. To achieve this goal, large sections of coastal marshes were either ditched or diked to remove the moist sand that the mosquitoes required to lay eggs on. Together with chemical controls, it yielded a qualified success.
In 1950, Florida was ranked twentieth among the states in population; 50 years later it was ranked fourth. Due to low tax rates and warm climate, Florida became the destination for many retirees from the Northeast, Midwest and Canada.
The Cuban Revolution of 1959 resulted in a large wave of Cuban immigration into South Florida, which transformed Miami into a major center of commerce, finance and transportation for all of Latin America. Emigration from Haiti, other Caribbean states, and Central and South America continues to the present day.
Like other states in the South, Florida had many African - American leaders who were active in the civil rights movement. In the 1940s and ' 50s, a new generation started working on issues, emboldened by veterans who had fought during World War II and wanted to gain more civil rights. Harry Moore built the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Florida, rapidly increasing its membership to 10,000. Because Florida 's voter laws were not as restrictive as those of Georgia and Alabama, he had some success in registering black voters. In the 1940s he increased voter registration among blacks from 5 to 31 % of those age - eligible.
But the state had white groups who resisted change, to the point of attacking and killing blacks. In December 1951 whites bombed the house of activists Harry Moore and his wife Harriette, who both died of injuries from the blast. Although their murders were not solved then, a state investigation in 2006 reported they had been killed by an independent unit of the Ku Klux Klan. Numerous bombings were directed against African Americans in 1951 -- 1952 in Florida.
In the early postwar period, the state 's population had changed markedly by migration of new groups, as well as emigration of African Americans, 40,000 of whom moved north in earlier decades of the 20th century during the Great Migration. By 1960 the number of African Americans in Florida had increased to 880,186, but declined proportionally to 18 % of the state 's population. This was a much smaller proportion than in 1900, when the census showed they comprised 44 % of the state 's population, while numbering 231,209 persons.
Florida became the battleground of the controversial 2000 US presidential election which took place on November 7, 2000. The count of the popular votes was extremely close, triggering automatic recounts. These recounts triggered accusations of fraud and manipulation, and brought to light voting irregularities in the state.
Subsequent recount efforts degenerated into arguments over mispunched ballots, "hanging chads '', and controversial decisions by the Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris and the Florida Supreme Court. Ultimately, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Bush v. Gore to end all recounts, allowing Secretary of State Harris to certify the election results. The final official Florida count gave the victory to George W. Bush over Al Gore by 537 votes, a 0.009 % margin of difference. The process was extremely divisive, and led to calls for electoral reform in Florida. Florida has the strictest laws penalizing and disenfranchising felons and other criminals, even if they have served their sentences. Together with other penalties, it excluded many minorities who may have voted for the Democratic candidate.
Long - term scientific attention has focused on the fragility of the Everglades. In 2000 Congress authorized the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) at $8 billion. The goals are to restore the health of the Everglades ecosystem and maximize the value to people of its land, water, and soil.,
Hurricane Andrew in August 1992 struck Homestead, just south of Miami, as a Category 5 hurricane, leaving forty people dead, 100,000 homes damaged or destroyed, more than a million people left without electricity, and damages of $20 -- 30 billion. Much of South Florida 's sensitive vegetation was severely damaged. The region had not seen a storm of such power in decades. Besides heavy property damage, the hurricane nearly destroyed the region 's insurance industry.
The western panhandle was damaged heavily in 1995, with hurricanes Allison, Erin, and Opal hitting the area within the span of a few months. The storms increased in strength during the season, culminating with Opal 's landfall as a Category 3 in October.
Florida also suffered heavily during the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season, when four major storms struck the state. Hurricane Charley made landfall in Charlotte County area and cut northward through the peninsula, Hurricane Frances struck the Atlantic coast and drenched most of central Florida with heavy rains, Hurricane Ivan caused heavy damage in the western Panhandle, and Hurricane Jeanne caused damage to the same area as Frances, including compounded beach erosion. Damage from all four storms was estimated to be at least $22 billion, with some estimates going as high as $40 billion. In 2005, South Florida was struck, by Hurricanes Katrina and Wilma. The panhandle was struck by Hurricane Dennis.
Florida has historically been at risk from hurricanes and tropical storms. These have resulted in higher risks and property damage as the concentration of population and development has increased along Florida 's coastal areas. Not only are more people and property at risk, but development has overtaken the natural system of wetlands and waterways, which used to absorb some of the storms ' energy and excess waters.
Environmental issues include preservation and restoration of the Everglades, which has moved slowly. There has been pressure by industry groups to drill for oil in the eastern Gulf of Mexico but so far, large - scale drilling off the coasts of Florida has been prevented. The federal government declared the state an agricultural disaster area because of 13 straight days of freezing weather during the growing season in January 2010.
Oranges have been grown and sold in Florida since 1872. Production dropped 59 % from the 2008 - 9 season to the 2016 - 7 season. The decline was mostly due to canker, citrus greening disease, and hurricane damage.
In 2009 -- 2010, "there were hardly any fish off Florida... they are finding fish all over Florida '' in 2016. The federal government believes this is due to federal restraints on fishing.
Consistent with usage throughout the country, more than 51 % of homes in Florida in 2015 use mobile phones or wireless only.
During the late 19th century, Florida became a popular tourist destination as Henry Flagler 's railroads expanded into the area. In 1891, railroad magnate Henry Plant built the luxurious Tampa Bay Hotel in Tampa; the hotel was later adapted for use as the campus for the University of Tampa.
Flagler built the Florida East Coast Railway from Jacksonville to Key West. Along the route he provided grand accommodations for passengers, including the Ponce de Leon Hotel in St. Augustine, the Ormond Hotel in Ormond Beach, the Royal Poinciana Hotel and the Breakers Hotel in Palm Beach, and the Royal Palm Hotel in Miami.
In February 1888, Florida had a special tourist: President Grover Cleveland, the first lady, and his party visited Florida for a couple of days. He visited the Subtropical Exposition in Jacksonville, where he made a speech supporting tourism to the state; he took a train to St. Augustine, meeting Henry Flagler; and a train to Titusville, where he boarded a steamboat and visited Rockledge. On his return trip, he visited Sanford and Winter Park.
Flagler 's railroad connected cities on the east coast of Florida. This created more urbanization along that corridor. Development also followed the construction of Turnpikes I - 95 in east Florida, and I - 75 in west Florida. These routes aided tourism and urbanization. Northerners from the East Coast used I - 95 and tended to settle along that route. People from the MidWest tended to use I - 75, and settled along the west coast of Florida.
Florida 's first theme parks were developed in the 1930s and included Cypress Gardens (1936) near Winter Haven, and Marineland (1938) near St. Augustine.
Disney selected Orlando over several other sites for an updated and expanded version of their Disneyland Park in California. In 1971, the Magic Kingdom, the first component of the resort, opened and became Florida 's best - known attraction, attracting tens of millions of visitors a year. It stimulated the development of other attractions, as well as large tracts of housing and related businesses.
The Orlando area became an international resort and convention destination, featuring a wide variety of themed parks. Other area theme parks include Universal Orlando Resort and SeaWorld.
In 2017, 50,000 vessels were damaged by Hurricane Irma. This resulted in about $500 million worth of damage, predominately in the Florida Keys.
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who has been a cast member on snl the longest | Saturday Night Live cast members - wikipedia
The following is a list of Saturday Night Live cast members, past and present. The cast members of Saturday Night Live were originally referred to as the "Not Ready For Prime Time Players. ''
As of September 2017, the show has featured 148 cast members. The list below includes both repertory and featured players, but omits SNL writers and others who were not listed as cast members during the show 's credits. The dates given are those of the years they were part of the cast. The chart also shows whether the cast member has served as a guest host, appeared as the anchorperson of the "Weekend Update '' segment (by any of its titles), or has been the subject of their own "Best of '' home video collection. Many of the cast members were writers as well.
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Lighter colors denote "featured players '' versus repertory cast members.
The following is a list of the cast members with the longest tenures, who have spent at least eight seasons on the show.
The following is a list of the former cast members who have had the shortest tenures, spending less than a full 20 - episode season on the show.
The following is a list of the youngest people to join the show.
The following is a list of the oldest people to join the show.
After 14 seasons, Darrell Hammond left as the show 's oldest active cast member, ending his tenure at 53 years old during his final season in 2009.
Portraying the sitting President of the United States is considered "about as high (...) an honor that can be bestowed upon a cast member. '' The following is a list of people who have portrayed the sitting President.
Darrell Hammond had the longest tenure portraying a U.S. president, with Bill Clinton from 1995 -- 2001, and George W. Bush during 2003. Hammond also portrayed Richard Nixon in season 34, episode 12.
Michael McKean portrayed Bill Clinton during a brief period after Phil Hartman 's departure. There was also a sketch featuring Chris Farley, David Spade, Chris Elliott, Adam Sandler, and Tim Meadows auditioning for the role of Clinton. There was also a gag in a 2001 sketch with Tracy Morgan filling in for Will Ferrell as George W. Bush.
Another noteworthy presidential portrayal was that of Dan Aykroyd as former president Richard Nixon from 1975 -- 79.
Jim Carrey, while never having been an SNL cast member, portrayed Ronald Reagan in Funny or Die 's Presidential Reunion of SNL Presidents (which reunited Chase as Ford, Aykroyd as Carter, Carvey as George H.W. Bush, Hammond as Clinton, Ferrell as George W. Bush, and Armisen as Obama), because two of the actors who previously portrayed Reagan had died since and the other three had declined to appear in the reunion. Carrey did, however, audition to be a cast member for the 1980 -- 81 season; he hosted the show in May 1996, January 2011, and October 2014.
Donald Trump, having been a public figure before being president, was portrayed by several cast members over the years. He was portrayed by Phil Hartman (1988 -- 90), Darrell Hammond (1999 -- 11, 2015 -- 16), Jason Sudeikis (2012) and Taran Killam (2015).
The Primetime Emmy Awards are presented by the American Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. The following list contains performers who were nominated, and possibly won, an Emmy for their work while in the cast.
As of May 2016, there are 33 SNL hosts who, at one point in their careers, were either a repertory or featured member of the SNL cast. The following performers have hosted SNL either before, during, or after their tenure as a member of the SNL cast.
Although SNL is best known as the launchpad for many successful careers, nine former cast members have died before the age of 60. This has given rise to a superstition known as the "Saturday Night Live Curse ''.
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who won the football game between green bay and the vikings | Packers -- Vikings rivalry - wikipedia
The Packers -- Vikings rivalry is an NFL rivalry between the Green Bay Packers and Minnesota Vikings.
The rivalry began in 1961, when the Minnesota Vikings entered the league as an expansion team. The rivalry is known for its many close games and the parity of the all - time series. It is also considered to be one of the most intense rivalries in the National Football League, due to both teams being located in the same division since the Vikings ' inception, and the fact that the two states (Minnesota and Wisconsin) are geographically located side by side, thereby allowing them to compete in multiple sports in other leagues such as the Big Ten Conference.
There have been 113 regular season games through December 23, 2017. (Two each year except 1982, which was shortened by the player 's strike.) There have been 2 playoff games between the teams -- in 2005 and 2013. The rivalry has included 115 games, from its inception in 1961 through the 2017 football season.
Other rivalries involving the two teams
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which of these items best describes the topic of this web diagram | Web page - Wikipedia
A web page (also written as webpage) is a document that is suitable for the World Wide Web and web browsers. A web browser displays a web page on a monitor or mobile device.
The web page usually means what is visible, but the term may also refer to a computer file, usually written in HTML or a comparable markup language. Web browsers coordinate various web resource elements for the written web page, such as style sheets, scripts, and images, to present the web page. Typical web pages provide hypertext that includes a navigation bar or a sidebar menu linking to other web pages via hyperlinks, often referred to as links.
On a network, a web browser can retrieve a web page from a remote web server. The web server may restrict access to a private network such as a corporate intranet. The web browser uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to make such requests.
A static web page is delivered exactly as stored, as web content in the web server 's file system. In contrast, a dynamic web page is generated by a web application, usually driven by server - side software. Dynamic web pages help the browser (the client) to enhance the web page through user input to the server.
Web pages usually include information such as the colors of text and backgrounds and very often contain links to images and sometimes other types of media to be included in the final view. Layout, typographic and color - scheme information is provided by Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) instructions, which can either be embedded in the HTML or can be provided by a separate file, which is referenced from within the HTML.
The latter case is especially relevant where one lengthy stylesheet is relevant to a whole website: due to the way HTTP works, the browser will only download it once from the web server and use the cached copy for the whole site.
Images are stored on the web server as separate files, but again HTTP allows for the fact that once a web page is downloaded to a browser, it is quite likely that related files such as images and stylesheets will be requested as it is processed. An HTTP 1.1 web server will maintain a connection with the browser until all related resources have been requested and provided. Web browsers usually render images along with the text and other material on the displayed web page.
Client - side computer code such as JavaScript or code implementing Ajax techniques can be provided either embedded in the HTML of a web page or, like CSS stylesheets, as separate, linked downloads specified in the HTML. These scripts may run on the client computer if the user allows.
A web browser can have a graphical user interface, like Internet Explorer / Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari, and Opera, or can be text - based, like Lynx or Links.
Web users with disabilities often use assistive technologies and adaptive strategies to access web pages. Users may be color - blind, may or may not want to use a mouse perhaps due to repetitive stress injury or motor neurone problems, may be deaf and require audio to be captioned, may be blind and using a screen reader or braille display, may need screen magnification, etc.
Disabled and able - bodied users may disable the download and viewing of images and other media, to save time, network bandwidth or merely to simplify their browsing experience. Users of mobile devices often have restricted displays and bandwidth. Anyone may prefer not to use the fonts, font sizes, styles and color schemes selected by the web page designer and may apply their own CSS styling to the page. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) recommend that web pages are designed with all of these options in mind.
A web page, as an information set, can contain numerous types of information, which is able to be seen, heard or interacted with by the end user:
The web page can contain dynamically adapted information elements, dependent upon the rendering browser or end - user location (through the use of IP address tracking and / or "cookie '' information).
From a more general / wide point of view, some information (grouped) elements, like a navigation bar, are uniform for all website pages, like a standard. This kind of "website standard information '' are supplied by technologies like web template systems.
Web pages will often require more screen space than is available for a particular display resolution.
Most modern browsers will place a scrollbar (a sliding tool at the side of the screen that allows the user to move the page up or down, or side - to - side) in the window to allow the user to see all content.
Scrolling horizontally is less prevalent than vertical scrolling, not only because such pages often do not print properly, but because it inconveniences the user more so than vertical scrolling would (because lines are horizontal; scrolling back and forth for every line is more inconvenient than scrolling after reading a whole screen; most computer keyboards have page up and down keys, and almost all computer mice have vertical scroll wheels, the horizontal scrolling equivalents are rare). When web pages are stored in a common directory of a web server, they become a website.
Web pages do not have a fixed length as in a paper page, and they can vary in length.
The width of a web page varies depending on the size of the display so it leads to web pages of different lengths. For long web pages, information flow and presentation is quite critical.
If the web page is longer and the information on the top is undesirable to the user, the probability of reading further down is low. However, both longer and shorter web pages have their own pros and cons.
The initial viewing area of a web page is known as being "above page fold ''.
The content above the page fold is important as users use it to evaluate if they have come to the right page. It is important to have content above the page fold that keeps the user interested enough that they scroll down. The information foraging theory describes that once a user has deemed the part above the fold of a page valuable they are more likely to deem the rest of the page valuable.
When printing a web page, the ease of printing depends on the length of the page, compared to shorter web pages with pagination. In longer web pages which have infinite scrolling (for example, Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter), it is harder to print all pages as the total number of upcoming pages is unknown. Therefore, users can only print loaded pages in web pages which use infinite scrolling.
Another issue that occurs with long web page printing is the use of ads known as clickbait on websites. Therefore, the printed version of a web page with click baits will contains ads. However, some browsers such as Google Chrome uses an extension where users get the opportunity of formatting web pages and printing without ads.
A website will typically contain a group of web pages that are linked together, or have some other coherent method of navigation. The most important web page on a website is the index page. Depending on the web server settings, the index page can have any name, but the most common names are index. html and index. php.
When a browser visits the homepage of a website or any URL pointing to a directory rather than a specific file, the web server serves the index page. If no index page is defined in the configuration or no such file exists on the server, either an error or directory listing will be served to the browser. A web page can either be a single HTML file or made up of multiple HTML files using frames or Server Side Includes (SSIs).
Frames have been known to cause problems with web accessibility, copyright, navigation, printing and search engine rankings, and are now less often used than they were in the 1990s. Both frames and SSIs allow certain content which appears on many pages, such as page navigation or page headers, to be repeated without duplicating the HTML in all files.
Frames and the W3C recommended an alternative of 2000, the < object > tag, also allow some content to remain in one place while other content can be scrolled using conventional scrollbars. Modern CSS and JavaScript client - side techniques can also achieve all of these goals.
When creating a web page, it is important to ensure it conforms to the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) standards for HTML, CSS, XML and other standards. The W3C standards are in place to ensure all browsers which conform to their standards can display identical content without special consideration for proprietary rendering techniques. A properly coded web page is going to be accessible to many different browsers old and new alike, display resolutions, as well as those users with audio or visual impairments.
The Uniform Resource Locator is also called as URL. Web pages are typically becoming more dynamic. A dynamic web page is one that is created server - side when it is requested and then served to the end - user. These types of web pages typically do not have a permalink, or a static URL, associated with them. This practice is intended to reduce the amount of static pages in lieu of storing the relevant web page information in a database. This can be seen in forums, online shopping websites, and on Wikipedia. Some search engines may have a hard time indexing a web page that is dynamic, so static web pages can be provided in those instances.
To create a web page, a text editor or a specialized HTML editor is needed. In order to upload the created web page to a web server, traditionally an FTP client is needed.
The design of a web page is highly personal. A design can be made according to one 's own preference, or a premade web template can be used. Web templates let web page designers edit the content of a web page without having to worry about the overall aesthetics. Many use all - in - one services for web domain purchases, web hosting service and templates to build customized websites. Web publishing tools such as Tripod and Wordpress offer free page creation and hosting up to a certain size limit. Other ways of making a web page are to download specialized software, like a Wiki, CMS, or forum. These options allow for the quick and easy creation of a web page which is typically dynamic.
In order to graphically display a web page, a web browser is needed. This is a type of software that can retrieve web pages from the Internet. Most current web browsers include the ability to view the source code. Viewing a web page in a text editor will also display the source code.
Pages are usually found with assistance from a search engine, but they can receive traffic from social and other sources.
While one is viewing a web page, a copy of it is saved locally; the copy is being viewed.
Depending on the browser settings, the copy may be deleted at any time, or stored indefinitely, sometimes without the user realizing it.
Most GUI browsers provide options for saving a web page more permanently. These may include
save the rendered text without formatting or images, with hyperlinks reduced to plain text;
In addition to the option to print the currently viewed web page to a printer, most operating systems allow applications such as web browsers to "print to a file '' which can be viewed or printed later. Some web pages are designed, for example by use of CSS, so that hyperlinks, menus and other navigation items, which would be useless on paper, are rendered into print with this in mind. Sometimes, the destination addresses of hyperlinks may be shown explicitly, either within the body of the page or listed at the end of the printed version. It can be specified in CSS that non-functional menus, navigational blocks and other items ought to simply be absent from the printed version.
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tammi terrell and marvin gaye you're all i need to get by | You 're All I Need to Get by - wikipedia
"You 're All I Need to Get By '' is a song recorded by the American R&B / soul duo Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell and released on Motown Records ' Tamla label in 1968. It was the basis for the 1995 single "I 'll Be There for You / You 're All I Need to Get By '' from Method Man and Mary J. Blige.
Written by real - life couple Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson, it became one of the few Motown recordings of the 1960s that was not recorded with the familiar "Motown sound ''. Instead, "You 're All I Need to Get By '' had a more soulful and gospel - oriented theme surrounding it, that was influenced by the writers, who also sing background vocals on the recording, sharing vocals in a church choir in New York City. The lead vocals were recorded separately by the two singers and combined during the mixing process, reportedly to cut studio time, and give time for Terrell, who was using a wheelchair, to recover from surgery on the malignant brain tumor that would ultimately cause her death in 1970.
The original recording by Gaye and Terrell peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 and number - one on Billboard 's Hot R&B / Soul Singles chart for five weeks, becoming one of the longest - running number one R&B hits of 1968 and the most successful duet recording of Marvin Gaye 's entire career. Given its global appeal, it also reached # 19 on the British singles charts in late 1968, staying there for nineteen weeks.
Dionne Warwick recorded this song in 1969 for the album Soulful and Diana Ross recorded it for her 1970 album, Diana Ross. Ashford and Simpson produced Ross ' version as well.
Aretha Franklin recorded this song for her 1971 compilation album, Aretha 's Greatest Hits. It peaked at # 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 3 on the Hot Soul Singles chart.
The Angels released a version in 1974 as the B - side of the single "Papa 's Side Of The Bed ''.
Tony Orlando & Dawn 's version became the third to reach the U.S. Top 40, peaking at # 34 in 1975. They also reached # 13 on the Adult Contemporary chart.
Johnny Mathis and Deniece Williams recorded the song for their duet album That 's What Friends Are For. It peaked at # 47 on the Billboard Hot 100, # 10 on the Hot Soul Singles Chart, # 16 on the Adult Contemporary chart, and # 45 on the UK Singles Chart. Gloria Gaynor recorded a disco version for Gloria Gaynor 's Park Avenue Sound.
Natalie Appleton and Bootsy Collins recorded this song in 2000 and it features on the soundtrack of the movie Honest directed by Dave Stewart.
Michael McDonald recorded this song for his second album of Motown covers, 2004 's Motown Two.
In 2007, The James Taylor Quartet recorded instrumental version for the album "Do n't Mess with Mr. T: James Taylor Quartet Plays Motown ''
Kidda uses a line of this song for his 2008 single "Under The Sun ''.
D.C. rapper Wale samples this in the song "The Remake of a Remake (All I Need) '' off of his critically acclaimed "Mixtape About Nothing, '' with singer Tawiah singing the female vocals.
My Morning Jacket performed the song during their New Year 's Eve concert at Madison Square Garden on December 31, 2008, with Nicole Atkins appearing as a guest vocalist to sing the female part.
Actresses Telma Hopkins and Valarie Pettiford performed the song together in an episode of UPN 's Half and Half.
Gladys Knight "Empress of Soul '' also performed, '' You 're All I Need to Get By ''
A rendition of the tune by husband - and - wife duo Kenny Lattimore and Chanté Moore serves as the theme song for the BET reality series The Family Crews.
In 2012, Christine Anu covered the song on her album, Rewind: The Aretha Franklin Songbook.
The song has been covered on the BET commercial in 2012 with the new slogan We Got You was shown from the retrospective moments.
Jacob Artist and Melissa Benoist sang this song on Season 4 of ' Glee ' for the Valentine 's Day episode ' I Do. '
Irene Grandi and Stefano Bollani sang a piano and vocal cover during the fourth Episode of the musical show "L'importante è avere un piano '' on the Italian TV channel Rai 1, on 12 December 2016.
This song and its 1995 interpolation of it by Method Man and Mary J. Blige on their single, "I 'll Be There for You / You 're All I Need to Get By '', were referenced in "All I Need '' by Jay - Z when he says: "And all... I... need is a chick to hold a jammy like / Meth and Mary, like, Marvin and Tammi ''
Late rapper The Notorious B.I.G. sampled a portion of it for his song "My Downfall '' on his Life After Death album.
On the first season of American Idol, winner Kelly Clarkson sang this song during Motown week and Jasmine Trias also sang it on the third season. On the sixth season finale, American Idol Winner Jordin Sparks sang it as a duet with second - season winner Ruben Studdard. Seventh season American Idol runner - up David Archuleta performed this song on Star Search final. Eighth season contestant Von Smith performed it in the third week of semifinals. In addition, Jacob Lusk sang this song also during Motown week of Idol 's tenth season.
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when is the next episode of george gently being shown | Inspector George Gently - wikipedia
Inspector George Gently (also known as George Gently for the pilot and first series) is a British television crime drama series produced by Company Pictures for BBC One, set in the 1960s and loosely based on some of the Inspector Gently novels written by Alan Hunter. The series features Martin Shaw as the eponymous Inspector, Lee Ingleby as Detective Sergeant John Bacchus, and Simon Hubbard and Lisa McGrillis in supporting roles as police constables for the fictitious North East Police Constabulary.
The series is notable for moving the setting of the stories to North East England, centering on Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland and County Durham, as opposed to the Norfolk, as portrayed in the books. As the series begins, the death penalty is still in effect in Britain, and is used as a plot feature in some early episodes. The abolition of the penalty in 1965 is a change that is noted in the series. The earliest episodes are set in 1964, and the series progresses in approximately real time, with the closing scenes of the eighth series taking place in 1970.
After fair ratings for the first three series, it was announced in January 2010 that the BBC had secured funding from the North East Content Fund to produce further episodes of the series. The fourth series was filmed from January to June 2011, and was broadcast that autumn. On 26 March 2012 the BBC announced that four new feature - length episodes were being produced to air later the same year. The fifth series ended on a dramatic cliffhanger, with the fate of both leading characters uncertain. However, in September 2012, lead writer Peter Flannery confirmed that a sixth series consisting of four episodes had been commissioned. The sixth series aired in February 2014. A seventh series of four episodes was subsequently commissioned, and began airing in April 2015. The eighth and final series is set to broadcast in 2017.
Following the murder of his wife by notorious gangster Joe Webster in 1964, Inspector George Gently is pondering retirement. When he hears about Webster attending a funeral of a murder victim in Northumberland, he delays his retirement to take on this one last case. Paired with local detective DS John Bacchus, he must track down Webster while trying to deal with his headstrong young assistant and keep him on the straight and narrow.
After an unidentified badly burnt body is found near an RAF base in 1964, Gently works alongside Special Branch officers who suspect the victim was involved with the IRA. However, the discovery that a large cache of guns has gone missing turns the case into a large hostage situation.
When the beaten body of wealthy German businessman Gunter Schmeikel is discovered in the harbour, Gently and Bacchus are forced to consider whether a barman 's anti-German sentiments are a motive for murder. However, the case takes a sinister turn when a key witness to Schmeikel 's death is revealed to be a killer trained by United Kingdom Special Forces.
The show 's title is changed to ' Inspector ' George Gently.
The show 's theme song and opening credits sequence no longer appear starting with this series.
In Durham, the haven of equality found at the Carlton all - nighter is destroyed when a young black girl, Dolores Kenny, is murdered. Chief Inspector George Gently soon uncovers a disturbing and malevolent racist undercurrent lurking both within the local community and his own police force.
The indefatigable Chief Inspector George Gently and his sidekick, John Bacchus experience the inflated authority of their "social betters '' firsthand when a beautiful young girl called Ellen Mallam is found drowned in the passenger seat of an upturned car registered to local aristocrats, the Blackstones.
Filming for the eighth series began in January 2017. It was subsequently confirmed that this would be the final series, and it would comprise two feature - length episodes, set in 1970, that have been written as a way to "close '' the series. Company Pictures CEO Michele Buck commented: "We felt the character was coming to natural end, and wanted to bring the audience an ambitious and exciting conclusion to such a well - loved show. ''
Episode Two was originally set to air on 28 May 2017, but has been postponed due to the storyline, not confirmed, dealing with a controversial politician and its proximity to the general election in the UK.
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flat foot floogie with the floy floy lyrics | Flat Foot Floogie (with a floy floy) - wikipedia
"Flat Foot Floogie (with a Floy Floy) '' (also "The Flat Foot Floogee '') is a 1938 jazz song, written by Slim Gaillard, Slam Stewart, and Bud Green, and performed by Gaillard and Stewart as Slim & Slam.
"Flat Foot Floogie '' was Slim & Slam 's first and biggest hit song. Their version was one of the top records of 1938, peaking at number two on US charts.
Bulee "Slim '' Gaillard (1916 -- 1991) and Leroy "Slam '' Stewart (1914 -- 1987) met in New York City in 1936 and formed a duo, performing together on the radio and in 52nd Street clubs, with Gaillard on guitar and vocals and Stewart on bass. They attracted radio pioneer Martin Block to manage them and he arranged a contract with Vocalion. On February 17, 1938 Slim and Slam recorded "Flat Foot Floogie '' (Vocalion 4021).
Gaillard sold the publishing rights to "Flat Foot Floogie '' to Green Brothers and Knight for $250, and writing credit was shared with Bud Green. Shortly thereafter, Benny Goodman & His Orchestra played it on the Camel Caravan radio show, launching its rise to popularity.
Slim & Slam 's record peaked at number 2 on Billboard charts and at number 5 on Your Hit Parade.
The lyrics are brief and are dominated by the repetition of the title words and the nonsense refrain, "floy - doy, floy - doy, floy - doy ''. The original lyric, recorded in January 1938, was "flat foot floozie with a floy floy ''; Vocalion, however, objected to the word "floozie '', meaning a sexually promiscuous woman, or a prostitute. The second recording in February changed the word to "floogie ''. In the second part of the title phrase, "floy floy '' was slang for a venereal disease, but the term was not widely known and failed to catch the attention of censors. It was regarded as nonsense and came to have positive connotations as a consequence of the song.
Many artists covered the song in 1938: Wingy Manone on May 23; Nat Gonella; Benny Goodman & His Orchestra on May 31 (Victor 25871); Louis Armstrong with The Mills Brothers on June 10 (Decca 1876); as well as Woody Herman and Count Basie. In Europe, Fats Waller recorded it in London while on tour (HMV BD5399), an instrumental version was recorded by jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt (Decca F - 6776) and the Dutch singing duo Johnny and Jones covered it.
Gaillard recorded "Flat Foot Floogie '' again in 1945 for Bel - Tone, with an ensemble that included Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, and Jack McVea, one of several songs recorded during the session. Bel - Tone went bankrupt, but the recordings were acquired by Majestic and released in 1946.
The song has continued to be revisited over the years. The Jacksons performed it twice on their 1970s variety show, the Ukulele Orchestra of Great Britain has included it in performances, and Nina Hagen covered it on her 2006 album Irgendwo auf der Welt.
The title for the 1938 Three Stooges film, Flat Foot Stooges, is a play on the song 's title. The Goodman version of the song is heard in the 1993 film Swing Kids.
It was one of three pieces of music included in the 1938 Westinghouse Time Capsule, along with Finlandia by Jean Sibelius and "The Stars and Stripes Forever '' by John Philip Sousa.
Bill Holman 's comic strip Smokey Stover contained a reference to the song in its November 26, 1938 edition: "It sounds like flat foot Flanagan with the foo foo. '' Here, "flat foot '' is slang for a police officer; Flanagan is reporting that an arsonist has escaped by burning down the jail.
In the 1939 film Twelve Crowded Hours gangster George Costain (played by Cy Kendall) takes his "guests '' to the Floy Floy Club.
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there's a silver moon on the golden gate | There 's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate - Wikipedia
"There 's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate '' is the official song commemorating the opening the Golden Gate Bridge in May 1937. It was written by Charles Tobias, Bob Rothberg and Joseph Meyer. Music publishers, Irving Berlin Inc.
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what year did feel it still come out | Feel It Still - wikipedia
"Feel It Still '' is a song by American rock band Portugal. The Man. The song, which has interpolations from The Marvelettes ' 1961 hit "Please Mr. Postman '', was written by the band along with John Hill and Asa Taccone, with the latter two serving as producers. It serves as the second single and first radio single off their eighth studio album Woodstock. The song reached number one on the US Alternative Songs, Mexican and Russian Tophit airplay chart, and became their first entry on the Hot 100, reaching number four as of October 2017. It was also featured in advertisements for the Apple iPad Pro, Vitamin Water, YouTube TV and in the first and second trailers for the 2018 film Peter Rabbit.
The track reached the top 10 in 18 countries including Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States.
In January 2018, the song won the Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
The music video was released on March 6, 2017. An interactive version was also released, powered by technology from WIREWAX. The interactive video contained "Easter eggs '' that a viewer could click on to build their # resist toolkit to learn and support 30 different social and political causes.
The song became the band 's first to top both the Billboard Alternative Songs and the Adult Alternative Songs charts. Taking six weeks to do so, it is the fastest an artist has achieved their first chart - topper on the latter chart since Mumford & Sons ' "I Will Wait '' took three weeks to reach number one. "Feel It Still '' also climbed to number four on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming their first entry on the chart. The song also peaked at number one on the Russian and Mexican airplay charts, and peaked inside the top 20 in France and Switzerland. "Feel It Still '' has spent twenty weeks at number one on the Alternative Songs chart, becoming the longest - running number - one song on that chart, beating out "Madness '' by Muse, which spent 19 weeks at the top from 2012 to 2013.
In Billboard 's November 11, 2017 issue, "Feel It Still '' joined the list of songs since 2003 to have reached number one on six of the major airplay charts: Radio Songs, Pop Songs, Adult Pop Songs, Alternative Songs, Adult Alternative Songs and Dance / Mix Show Airplay. Portugal. The Man are the first act to accomplish this feat since Gotye and Kimbra with "Somebody That I Used to Know '' in 2012; they are the only artists to have a number - one Alternative and Adult Alternative single also reach number one on the Dance / Mix Show Airplay since the chart 's launch in August 2003. They are now also one of twelve acts to have achieved the feat of having reached number one on six or more airplay charts.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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why do we like to be beside the seaside | I do like to be beside the seaside - wikipedia
"I Do Like to Be Beside the Seaside '' is a popular British music hall song. It was written in 1907 by John A. Glover - Kind and made famous by music hall singer Mark Sheridan who first recorded it in 1909. It speaks of the singer 's love for the seaside, and his wish to return there for his summer holidays each year. It was composed at a time when the yearly visits of the British working - class to the seaside were booming.
It was, for a long time, used as a signature tune by Reginald Dixon MBE, who was the resident organist at the Tower Ballroom, Blackpool between 1930 - 70.
Now everybody likes to spend their summer holiday down beside the side of the silvery sea. I 'm no exception to the rule, in fact, if I 'd me way, I 'd reside by the side of the silvery sea.
But when you 're just the common or garden Smith or Jones or Brown at business up in town, you 're got to settle down. You save your money all the year ' til summer comes around. Then away you go to a place you know, where the cockle shells are found.
Oh! I do like to be beside the seaside! I do like to be beside the sea! I do like to stroll along the Prom, Prom, Prom! Where the brass bands play, "Tiddely - om - pom - pom! ''
So just let me be beside the seaside! I 'll be beside myself with glee and there 's lots of girls beside, I should like to be beside, beside the seaside, beside the sea!
Now William Sykes for burglary been out to work one night, and filled his bag with cash and jewels and plate. And Constable Brown felt no surprised when William hove in sight. Said he, "The hours you 're keeping are far too late. '' So he grabbed him by the collar and lodged him safe and sound in jail. Next morning looking pale, Bill told a tearful tale. The judge said, "For a couple of months I 'm sending you away! '' Said Bill, "How kind! Well if you do n't mind, Where I spend my holiday! ''
Oh! I do like to be beside the seaside! I do like to be beside the sea! I do like to stroll along the Prom, Prom, Prom! Where the brass bands play, "Tiddely - om - pom - pom! ''
So just let me be beside the seaside! I 'll be beside myself with glee and there 's lots of girls beside, I should like to be beside, beside the seaside, beside the sea!
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who do the national employment standards apply to | National Employment Standards - wikipedia
The National Employment Standards (NES) are the minimum entitlements of workers covered by federal awards in Australia under the Fair Work Act 2009, which generally took effect from 1 January 2010. An award, employment contract, enterprise agreement or other registered agreement can not provide for conditions that are less than the national minimum wage or the NES and they can not be excluded.
NES reconstitutes the industrial relations safety net. All employees are entitled to the ten National Employment Standards (NES), which are similar to the five Australian Fair Pay and Conditions Standard under WorkChoices. Additional occupation - or industry - specific conditions are protected through the new modern awards. There are 122 of these awards, compared to over 4000 under the previous system.
The streamlining of the award system is one of the most significant aspects of the reforms. The government, motivated by a desire to streamline, simplify, and promote flexibility and productivity, set its goal as creating a new minimum standard that all parties in the employment relationship could understand, instead of the over-complicated system of decades past.
Not all commentators agree that the Rudd government struck the right balance between simplification and appropriate protection. Baird and Williamson, for example, argue that the new minimum standards are detrimental to certain groups, particularly women, because the new awards fail to adequately cover women working in social services, call centres and the health sector.
Under the National Employment Standards, employees have certain minimum entitlements. Together with pay rates in modern awards (which also generally took effect from 1 January 2010) and minimum wage orders, the NES makes up the safety net that can not be altered to the disadvantage of the employee.
There are ten minimum conditions covered under the NES: a maximum number of hours in the working week, requests for flexible working arrangements, parental leave and related entitlements, annual leave, personal or carer 's leave and compassionate leave, long service leave, community service leave, public holidays, notice of termination and redundancy pay, and a fair work information statement.
The 10 minimum entitlements of the NES are:
The new maximum weekly hour regulation requires additional hours to be reasonable, in the absence of which the maximum weekly hours of work of a full - time employee is 38 hours.
Another change is the ' Requests for Flexible Working Arrangements '. This NES allows parents or carers of a child under school age, or of a child under 18 with a disability, the right to request a change in working arrangements to assist with the child 's care.
Casual employees are entitled to a limited number of NES entitlements relating to:
In some states and territories long serving casuals are eligible for long service leave. Where there is an expectation of ongoing work for a casual and the casual has been employed regularly and systematically for at least 12 months, they have extra entitlements from the NES. These are:
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god the father almighty maker of heaven and earth | English versions of the Nicene Creed - wikipedia
The Nicene Creed, composed in part and adopted at the First Council of Nicaea (325) and revised with additions by the First Council of Constantinople (381), is a creed that summarizes the orthodox faith of the Christian Church and is used in the liturgy of most Christian Churches. This article endeavors to give the text and context of English - language translations.
The International Consultation on English Texts published an English translation of the Nicene Creed, first in 1970 and then in successive revisions in 1971 and 1975. These texts were adopted by several churches. The Roman Catholic Church in the United States, which adopted the 1971 version in 1973, and the Catholic Church in other English - speaking countries, which in 1975 adopted the version published in that year, continued to use them until 2011. The 1975 version was included in the 1979 Episcopal Church (United States) Book of Common Prayer, though with one variation: in the line "For us men and for our salvation '', it omitted the word "men '':
We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen.
We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.
We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.
The English Language Liturgical Consultation (ELLC), the successor body to ICET, published in 1988 the book Praying Together, which included a revision of the 1975 ICET text. Variations of this text are gaining acceptance among mainline Protestant churches: it is used by the Methodist Church with little if any change, and by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Other denominations use it with modifications that vary between the churches: see, for instance, the discussion within The ELLC Texts: A Survey of Use and Variation, which does not include recent use of the ELLC text by the ELCA in Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006).
The translation for use in Mass of the Roman Rite is found in the Order of Mass. It begins "Credo '' - "I believe '' - and is a personal (not congregational) affirmation of faith. The Nicene Creed as found on the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops website is as follows:
I believe in one God,
the Father almighty,
maker of heaven and earth,
of all things visible and invisible.
I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ,
the Only Begotten Son of God,
born of the Father before all ages.
God from God, Light from Light,
true God from true God,
begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father;
through him all things were made.
For us men and for our salvation
he came down from heaven,
and by the Holy Spirit was incarnate of the Virgin Mary,
and became man.
For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate,
he suffered death and was buried,
and rose again on the third day
in accordance with the Scriptures.
He ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again in glory
to judge the living and the dead
and his kingdom will have no end.
I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life,
who proceeds from the Father and the Son,
who with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified,
who has spoken through the prophets.
I believe in one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church.
I confess one Baptism for the forgiveness of sins
and I look forward to the resurrection of the dead
and the life of the world to come. Amen.
An explanation of the Creed can be found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.
The Ruthenian Catholic Church, a sui iuris Eastern Catholic Church, uses a text which was previously found on their website but has now been archived.
It is as follows:
I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, the only - begotten, born of the Father before all ages. Light from light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, one in essence with the Father; through whom all things were made. For us and for our salvation, he came down from heaven and was incarnate from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and became man. He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried. He rose on the third day according to the scriptures. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father, and he is coming again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Creator of Life, who proceeds from the Father. Together with the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified; he spoke through the prophets. In one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church. I profess one baptism for the remission of sins. I expect the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.
The text used by the Coptic Orthodox Church:
In truth we believe in one God, God the Father the Pantocrator, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of light, true God of true God, begotten not made, consubstantial with the Father, by whom all things came into being. This is he, who for us humans and our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary, and became human. And he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered and was buried. And he rose from the dead on the third day according to the Scriptures. He ascended into the heavens and sits at the right hand of the Father. And he is also coming in his glory to judge the living and the dead, whose kingdom shall have no end. Yes, we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father. With the Father and the Son, we co-worship him and we co-glorify him, who spoke by the prophets. And in one holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. We confess one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the age to come. Amen.
The text used by the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church may be found at their website.
The text used by the Orthodox Church in America may be found at their website.
The text used by the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America may be found at their website.
The text used by the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America may be found at their website.
The text used by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia is:
The 1979 Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America version has the 1975 ecumenical (ICET) version (see above). The version in the Church of England 's Common Worship of 2000 is the 1988 ecumenical (ELLC) version. The Anglican Church of Canada 's Book of Alternative Services (1985) uses the 1975 ICET version, but unusually, it omits the Filioque ("and the Son '') phrase in accordance with the 1978 Lambeth Conference Statement, and the Anglican - Orthodox Joint Doctrinal Commission. But in many churches of the Anglican Communion the version in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer is still the one in use:
The version in Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006) of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) is the 1988 ecumenical (ELLC) version. But the Lutheran Service Book (2006) of the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Lutheran Church -- Canada (LCC) uses that of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer with slight changes, substituting the word "Christian '' for "catholic '' and modernizing the spelling of the word "apostolic '', with changes in capitalization of this and other words, and with "Holy Spirit '' in place of "Holy Ghost ''.
The Missouri Synod uses the following for the Nicene Creed:
The Trinity Hymnal of 1990, published by the Presbyterian Church in America and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, contains a translation which is used by those denominations and some others.
The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) uses a slightly different version as subscribed in their Book of Confessions.
While working towards the 1975 ecumenical text given above, the International Consultation on English Texts (ICET) published a version, which the Roman Catholic Church in the United States adopted in its English version of the Roman Missal, in use from 1973 to 2011.
"One in Being with the Father '' (1973), which, when spoken, could be confused with "one, in being with the Father '', was replaced in the 1975 version by "of one Being with the Father ''.
"He was born of the Virgin Mary, and became man '' was altered in 1975 to "He became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man '': neither Greek "σαρκωθέντα '' nor Latin "incarnatus '' means "born '', and the 1973 text linked hominization ("became man '') with birth ("he was born '').
"He suffered, died, and was buried '' was replaced in 1975 by "he suffered death and was buried '': "παθόντα '' in Greek and "passus '' in Latin are indicative of a suffering demise; but the 1973 text inserted an extra verb, "died '', not present in the original Greek or Latin.
A translation of the 381 version may also be found in Kelly 's Early Christian Creeds.
Note the linking of "under Pontius Pilate '' with "suffered '', not with "was crucified ''.
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places called athens aberdeen and boston can all be found in the us | Boston (disambiguation) - wikipedia
Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
Boston may also refer to:
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when does northeast monsoon blow in the land of kerala | Monsoon - wikipedia
Monsoon (/ mɒnˈsuːn /) is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea. Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes incorrectly used for locally heavy but short - term rains, although these rains meet the dictionary definition of monsoon.
The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia - Australian monsoons. The inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated.
The term was first used in English in British India (now India, Bangladesh and Pakistan) and neighbouring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area.
The English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim (موسم "season '') and / or Hindi "mausam '', "perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun ''.
Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind - blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, many geologists believe the monsoon first became strong around 8 million years ago. More recently, studies of plant fossils in China and new long - duration sediment records from the South China Sea led to a timing of the monsoon beginning 15 -- 20 million years ago and linked to early Tibetan uplift. Testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to global climate change, especially the cycle of the Pleistocene ice ages. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago. Then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean. It is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons.
Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma (PL - 1), 1.83 Ma (PL - 2), 0.68 Ma (PL - 3), 0.45 Ma (PL - 4) and 0.04 Ma (PL - 5) were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current (LC). The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature (SST) field in the Indian Ocean, as the Indonesian through flow generally warms the Indian Ocean. Thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. During the weak LC, there is the possibility of reduced intensity of the Indian winter monsoon and strong summer monsoon, because of change in the Indian Ocean dipole due to reduction in net heat input to the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian through flow. Thus a better understanding of the possible links between El Niño, Western Pacific Warm Pool, Indonesian Throughflow, wind pattern off western Australia, and ice volume expansion and contraction can be obtained by studying the behaviour of the LC during Quaternary at close stratigraphic intervals.
The impact of monsoon on the local weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a little more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into vivid green grasslands where all sorts of plants and crops can flourish.
The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands. See photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, as it is essential to use all the rain that is available for growing crops.
Monsoons are large - scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways. Over oceans, the air temperature remains relatively stable for two reasons: water has a relatively high heat capacity (3.9 to 4.2 J g K), and because both conduction and convection will equilibrate a hot or cold surface with deeper water (up to 50 metres). In contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities (0.19 to 0.35 J g K), and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at a more even temperature, while land temperature are more variable.
During warmer months sunlight heats the surfaces of both land and oceans, but land temperatures rise more quickly. As the land 's surface becomes warmer, the air above it expands and an area of low pressure develops. Meanwhile, the ocean remains at a lower temperature than the land, and the air above it retains a higher pressure. This difference in pressure causes sea breezes to blow from the ocean to the land, bringing moist air inland. This moist air rises to a higher altitude over land and then it flows back toward the ocean (thus completing the cycle). However, when the air rises, and while it is still over the land, the air cools. This decreases the air 's ability to hold water, and this causes precipitation over the land. This is why summer monsoons cause so much rain over land.
In the colder months, the cycle is reversed. Then the land cools faster than the oceans and the air over the land has higher pressure than air over the ocean. This causes the air over the land to flow to the ocean. When humid air rises over the ocean, it cools, and this causes precipitation over the oceans. (The cool air then flows towards the land to complete the cycle.)
Most summer monsoons have a dominant westerly component and a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious amounts of rain (because of the condensation of water vapor in the rising air). The intensity and duration, however, are not uniform from year to year. Winter monsoons, by contrast, have a dominant easterly component and a strong tendency to diverge, subside and cause drought.
Similar rainfall is caused when moist ocean air is lifted upwards by mountains, surface heating, convergence at the surface, divergence aloft, or from storm - produced outflows at the surface. However the lifting occurs, the air cools due to expansion in lower pressure, and this produces condensation.
The monsoon of western Sub-Saharan Africa is the result of the seasonal shifts of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the great seasonal temperature and humidity differences between the Sahara and the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. It migrates northward from the equatorial Atlantic in February, reaches western Africa on or near June 22, then moves back to the south by October. The dry, northeasterly trade winds, and their more extreme form, the harmattan, are interrupted by the northern shift in the ITCZ and resultant southerly, rain - bearing winds during the summer. The semiarid Sahel and Sudan depend upon this pattern for most of their precipitation.
The North American monsoon (NAM) occurs from late June or early July into September, originating over Mexico and spreading into the southwest United States by mid-July. It affects Mexico along the Sierra Madre Occidental as well as Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, West Texas and California. It pushes as far west as the Peninsular Ranges and Transverse Ranges of Southern California, but rarely reaches the coastal strip (a wall of desert thunderstorms only a half - hour 's drive away is a common summer sight from the sunny skies along the coast during the monsoon). The North American monsoon is known to many as the Summer, Southwest, Mexican or Arizona monsoon. It is also sometimes called the Desert monsoon as a large part of the affected area are the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. However, it is debatable whether the North and South American weather patterns with incomplete wind reversal should be counted as true monsoons.
The Asian monsoons may be classified into a few sub-systems, such as the Indian Subcontinental Monsoon which affects the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions including Nepal, and the East Asian Monsoon which affects southern China, Taiwan, Korea and parts of Japan.
The southwestern summer monsoons occur from July through September. The Thar Desert and adjoining areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent heat up considerably during the hot summers. This causes a low pressure area over the northern and central Indian subcontinent. To fill this void, the moisture - laden winds from the Indian Ocean rush into the subcontinent. These winds, rich in moisture, are drawn towards the Himalayas. The Himalayas act like a high wall, blocking the winds from passing into Central Asia, and forcing them to rise. As the clouds rise their temperature drops and precipitation occurs. Some areas of the subcontinent receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in) of rain annually.
The southwest monsoon is generally expected to begin around the beginning of June and fade away by the end of September. The moisture - laden winds on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, due to its topography, become divided into two parts: the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch.
The Arabian Sea Branch of the Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats of the coastal state of Kerala, India, thus making this area the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest Monsoon. This branch of the monsoon moves northwards along the Western Ghats (Konkan and Goa) with precipitation on coastal areas, west of the Western Ghats. The eastern areas of the Western Ghats do not receive much rain from this monsoon as the wind does not cross the Western Ghats.
The Bay of Bengal Branch of Southwest Monsoon flows over the Bay of Bengal heading towards North - East India and Bengal, picking up more moisture from the Bay of Bengal. The winds arrive at the Eastern Himalayas with large amounts of rain. Mawsynram, situated on the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India, is one of the wettest places on Earth. After the arrival at the Eastern Himalayas, the winds turns towards the west, travelling over the Indo - Gangetic Plain at a rate of roughly 1 -- 2 weeks per state, pouring rain all along its way. June 1 is regarded as the date of onset of the monsoon in India, as indicated by the arrival of the monsoon in the southernmost state of Kerala.
The monsoon accounts for 80 % of the rainfall in India. Indian agriculture (which accounts for 25 % of the GDP and employs 70 % of the population) is heavily dependent on the rains, for growing crops especially like cotton, rice, oilseeds and coarse grains. A delay of a few days in the arrival of the monsoon can badly affect the economy, as evidenced in the numerous droughts in India in the 1990s.
The monsoon is widely welcomed and appreciated by city - dwellers as well, for it provides relief from the climax of summer heat in June. However, the roads take a battering every year. Often houses and streets are waterlogged and slums are flooded despite drainage systems. A lack of city infrastructure coupled with changing climate patterns causes severe economic loss including damage to property and loss of lives, as evidenced in the 2005 flooding in Mumbai that brought the city to a standstill. Bangladesh and certain regions of India like Assam and West Bengal, also frequently experience heavy floods during this season. Recently, areas in India that used to receive scanty rainfall throughout the year, like the Thar Desert, have surprisingly ended up receiving floods due to the prolonged monsoon season.
The influence of the Southwest Monsoon is felt as far north as in China 's Xinjiang. It is estimated that about 70 % of all precipitation in the central part of the Tian Shan Mountains falls during the three summer months, when the region is under the monsoon influence; about 70 % of that is directly of "cyclonic '' (i.e., monsoon - driven) origin (as opposed to "local convection '').
Around September, with the sun fast retreating south, the northern land mass of the Indian subcontinent begins to cool off rapidly. With this air pressure begins to build over northern India, the Indian Ocean and its surrounding atmosphere still holds its heat. This causes cold wind to sweep down from the Himalayas and Indo - Gangetic Plain towards the vast spans of the Indian Ocean south of the Deccan peninsula. This is known as the Northeast Monsoon or Retreating Monsoon.
While travelling towards the Indian Ocean, the dry cold wind picks up some moisture from the Bay of Bengal and pours it over peninsular India and parts of Sri Lanka. Cities like Chennai, which get less rain from the Southwest Monsoon, receive rain from this Monsoon. About 50 % to 60 % of the rain received by the state of Tamil Nadu is from the Northeast Monsoon. In Southern Asia, the northeastern monsoons take place from December to early March when the surface high - pressure system is strongest. The jet stream in this region splits into the southern subtropical jet and the polar jet. The subtropical flow directs northeasterly winds to blow across southern Asia, creating dry air streams which produce clear skies over India. Meanwhile, a low pressure system develops over South - East Asia and Australasia and winds are directed toward Australia known as a monsoon trough.
The East Asian monsoon affects large parts of Indo - China, Philippines, China, Taiwan, Korea and Japan. It is characterised by a warm, rainy summer monsoon and a cold, dry winter monsoon. The rain occurs in a concentrated belt that stretches east - west except in East China where it is tilted east - northeast over Korea and Japan. The seasonal rain is known as Meiyu in China, Jangma in Korea, and Bai - u in Japan, with the latter two resembling frontal rain.
The onset of the summer monsoon is marked by a period of premonsoonal rain over South China and Taiwan in early May. From May through August, the summer monsoon shifts through a series of dry and rainy phases as the rain belt moves northward, beginning over Indochina and the South China Sea (May), to the Yangtze River Basin and Japan (June) and finally to North China and Korea (July). When the monsoon ends in August, the rain belt moves back to South China.
Also known as the Indo - Australian Monsoon. The rainy season occurs from September to February and it is a major source of energy for the Hadley circulation during boreal winter. The Maritime Continent Monsoon and the Australian Monsoon may be considered to be the same system, the Indo - Australian Monsoon.
It is associated with the development of the Siberian High and the movement of the heating maxima from the Northern Hemisphere to the Southern Hemisphere. North - easterly winds flow down Southeast Asia, are turned north - westerly / westerly by Borneo topography towards Australia. This forms a cyclonic circulation vortex over Borneo, which together with descending cold surges of winter air from higher latitudes, cause significant weather phenomena in the region. Examples are the formation of a rare low - latitude tropical storm in 2001, Tropical Storm Vamei, and the devastating flood of Jakarta in 2007.
The onset of the monsoon over the Maritime Continent tends to follow the heating maxima down Vietnam and the Malay Peninsula (September), to Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippines (October), to Java, Sulawesi (November), Irian Jaya and Northern Australia (December, January). However, the monsoon is not a simple response to heating but a more complex interaction of topography, wind and sea, as demonstrated by its abrupt rather than gradual withdrawal from the region. The Australian monsoon (the "Wet '') occurs in the southern summer when the monsoon trough develops over Northern Australia. Over three - quarters of annual rainfall in Northern Australia falls during this time.
The European Monsoon (more commonly known as the return of the westerlies) is the result of a resurgence of westerly winds from the Atlantic, where they become loaded with wind and rain. These westerly winds are a common phenomenon during the European winter, but they ease as spring approaches in late March and through April and May. The winds pick up again in June, which is why this phenomenon is also referred to as "the return of the westerlies ''.
The rain usually arrives in two waves, at the beginning of June and again in mid - to late June. The European monsoon is not a monsoon in the traditional sense in that it does n't meet all the requirements to be classified as such. Instead the return of the westerlies is more regarded as a conveyor belt that delivers a series of low pressure centres to Western Europe where they create unsettled weather. These storms generally feature significantly lower than average temperatures, fierce rain or hail, thunder and strong winds.
The return of the westerlies affects Europe 's Northern Atlantic coastline, more precisely Ireland, Great Britain, the Benelux countries, Western Germany, Northern France and parts of Scandinavia.
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who starred as dr. gregory house in the tv show house | House (TV series) - Wikipedia
"Teardrop '' by Massive Attack (U.S.)
"House '' by Scott Donaldson and Richard Nolan (Europe, season 1 only)
House (also called House, M.D.) is an American television medical drama that originally ran on the Fox network for eight seasons, from November 16, 2004 to May 21, 2012. The series ' main character is Dr. Gregory House (Hugh Laurie), an unconventional, misanthropic medical genius who, despite his dependence on pain medication, leads a team of diagnosticians at the fictional Princeton -- Plainsboro Teaching Hospital (PPTH) in New Jersey. The series ' premise originated with Paul Attanasio, while David Shore, who is credited as creator, was primarily responsible for the conception of the title character. The series ' executive producers included Shore, Attanasio, Attanasio 's business partner Katie Jacobs, and film director Bryan Singer. It was filmed largely in a neighborhood and business district in Los Angeles County 's Westside called Century City.
House often clashes with his fellow physicians, including his own diagnostic team, because many of his hypotheses about patients ' illnesses are based on subtle or controversial insights. His flouting of hospital rules and procedures frequently leads him into conflict with his boss, hospital administrator and Dean of Medicine Dr. Lisa Cuddy (Lisa Edelstein). House 's only true friend is Dr. James Wilson (Robert Sean Leonard), head of the Department of Oncology. During the first three seasons, House 's diagnostic team consists of Dr. Robert Chase (Jesse Spencer), Dr. Allison Cameron (Jennifer Morrison), and Dr. Eric Foreman (Omar Epps). At the end of the third season, this team disbands. Rejoined by Foreman, House gradually selects three new team members: Dr. Remy "Thirteen '' Hadley (Olivia Wilde), Dr. Chris Taub (Peter Jacobson), and Dr. Lawrence Kutner (Kal Penn). Meanwhile, Chase and Cameron continue to appear in different roles at the hospital. Kutner dies late in season five; early in season six, Cameron departs the hospital, and Chase returns to the diagnostic team. Thirteen takes a leave of absence for most of season seven, and her position is filled by medical student Martha M. Masters (Amber Tamblyn). Cuddy and Masters depart before season eight; Foreman becomes the new Dean of Medicine, while Dr. Jessica Adams (Odette Annable) and Dr. Chi Park (Charlyne Yi) join House 's team.
House was among the top 10 series in the United States from its second through fourth seasons. Distributed to 66 countries, House was the most - watched television program in the world in 2008. The show received numerous awards, including five Primetime Emmy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, a Peabody Award, and nine People 's Choice Awards. On February 8, 2012, Fox announced that the eighth season, then in progress, would be its last. The series finale aired on May 21, 2012, following an hour - long retrospective.
In 2004, David Shore and Paul Attanasio, along with Attanasio 's business partner Katie Jacobs, pitched the series (untitled at the time) to Fox as a CSI - style medical detective program, a hospital whodunit in which the doctors investigated symptoms and their causes. Attanasio was inspired to develop a medical procedural drama by The New York Times Magazine column, "Diagnosis '', written by physician Lisa Sanders, who is an attending physician at Yale - New Haven Hospital (YNHH), and Princeton - Plainsboro Teaching Hospital (PPTH, not to be confused with the University Medical Center of Princeton at Plainsboro) is modeled after this teaching institution. Fox bought the series, though the network 's then - president, Gail Berman, told the creative team, "I want a medical show, but I do n't want to see white coats going down the hallway ''. Jacobs has said that this stipulation was one of the many influences that led to the show 's ultimate form.
-- David Shore to Writer 's Guild magazine
After Fox picked up the show, it acquired the working title Chasing Zebras, Circling the Drain ("zebra '' is medical slang for an unusual or obscure diagnosis, while "circling the drain '' refers to terminal cases, patients in an irreversible decline). The original premise of the show was of a team of doctors working together trying to "diagnose the undiagnosable ''. Shore felt it was important to have an interesting central character, one who could examine patients ' personal characteristics and diagnose their ailments by figuring out their secrets and lies. As Shore and the rest of the creative team explored the character 's possibilities, the program concept became less of procedure and more focused upon the lead role. The character was named "House '', which was adopted as the show 's title, as well. Shore developed the characters further and wrote the script for the pilot episode. Bryan Singer, who directed the pilot episode and had a major role in casting the primary roles, has said that the "title of the pilot was ' Everybody Lies ', and that 's the premise of the show ''. Shore has said that the central storylines of several early episodes were based on the work of Berton Roueché, a staff writer for The New Yorker between 1944 and 1994, who specialized in features about unusual medical cases.
Shore traced the concept for the title character to his experience as a patient at a teaching hospital. Shore recalled: "I knew, as soon as I left the room, they would be mocking me relentlessly (for my cluelessness) and I thought that it would be interesting to see a character who actually did that before they left the room. '' A central part of the show 's premise was that the main character would be disabled in some way. The original idea was for House to use a wheelchair, but Fox rejected this. Jacobs later expressed her gratitude for the network 's insistence that the character be reimagined -- putting him on his feet added a crucial physical dimension. The writers ultimately chose to give House a damaged leg arising from an incorrect diagnosis, which requires him to use a cane and causes him pain that leads to a narcotic dependency.
References to the fact that Gregory House was based on the famous fictional detective Sherlock Holmes created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle appear throughout the series. Shore explained that he was always a Holmes fan and found the character 's indifference to his clients unique. The resemblance is evident in House 's reliance on deductive reasoning and psychology, even where it might not seem obviously applicable, and his reluctance to accept cases he finds uninteresting. His investigatory method is to eliminate diagnoses logically as they are proved impossible; Holmes used a similar method. Both characters play instruments (House plays the piano, the guitar, and the harmonica; Holmes, the violin) and take drugs (House is dependent on Vicodin; Holmes uses cocaine recreationally). House 's relationship with Dr. James Wilson echoes that between Holmes and his confidant, Dr. John Watson. Robert Sean Leonard, who portrays Wilson, said that House and his character -- whose name is very similar to Watson 's -- were originally intended to work together much as Holmes and Watson do; in his view, House 's diagnostic team has assumed that aspect of the Watson role. Shore said that House 's name itself is meant as "a subtle homage '' to Holmes. House 's address is 221B Baker Street, a direct reference to Holmes 's street address. Wilson 's address is also 221B.
Individual episodes of the series contain additional references to the Sherlock Holmes tales. The main patient in the pilot episode is named Rebecca Adler after Irene Adler, a character in the first Holmes short story, "A Scandal in Bohemia ''. In the season two finale, House is shot by a crazed gunman credited as "Moriarty '', the name of Holmes 's nemesis. In the season four episode "It 's a Wonderful Lie '', House receives a "second - edition Conan Doyle '' as a Christmas gift. In the season five episode "The Itch '', House is seen picking up his keys and Vicodin from the top of a copy of Conan Doyle 's The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. In another season five episode, "Joy to the World '', House, in an attempt to fool his team, uses a book by Joseph Bell, Conan Doyle 's inspiration for Sherlock Holmes. The volume had been given to him the previous Christmas by Wilson, who included the message "Greg, made me think of you. '' Before acknowledging that he gave the book to House, Wilson tells two of the team members that its source was a patient, Irene Adler. The series finale pays homage to Holmes 's apparent death in "The Final Problem '', the 1893 story with which Conan Doyle originally intended to conclude the Holmes chronicles.
House was a co-production of Heel and Toe Films, Shore Z Productions, and Bad Hat Harry Productions in association with Universal Media Studios for Fox. Paul Attanasio and Katie Jacobs, the heads of Heel and Toe Films; David Shore, the head of Shore Z Productions; and Bryan Singer, the head of Bad Hat Harry Productions, were executive producers of the program for its entirety. Lawrence Kaplow, Peter Blake, and Thomas L. Moran joined the staff as writers at the beginning of the first season after the making of the pilot episode. Writers Doris Egan, Sara Hess, Russel Friend, and Garrett Lerner joined the team at the start of season two. Friend and Lerner, who are business partners, had been offered positions when the series launched, but turned the opportunity down. After observing the show 's success, they accepted when Jacobs offered them jobs again the following year. Writers Eli Attie and Sean Whitesell joined the show at the start of season four; Attie would stay on the show 's writing staff through the series finale, which he co-wrote. Since the beginning of season four, Moran, Friend, and Lerner have been credited as executive producers on the series, joining Attanasio, Jacobs, Shore, and Singer. Hugh Laurie was credited as an executive producer for the second and third episodes of season five.
Shore is House 's showrunner. Through the end of the sixth season, more than two dozen writers have contributed to the program. The most prolific have been Kaplow (18 episodes), Blake (17), Shore (16), Friend (16), Lerner (16), Moran (14), and Egan (13). The show 's most prolific directors through its first six seasons were Deran Sarafian (22 episodes), who was not involved in season six, and Greg Yaitanes (17). Of the more than three dozen other directors who have worked on the series, only David Straiton directed as many as 10 episodes through the sixth season. Hugh Laurie directed the 17th episode of season six, "Lockdown ''. Elan Soltes has been the visual effects supervisor since the show began. Lisa Sanders, an assistant clinical professor of medicine at the Yale School of Medicine, is a technical advisor to the series. She writes the "Diagnosis '' column that inspired House 's premise. According to Shore, "three different doctors... check everything we do ''. Bobbin Bergstrom, a registered nurse, is the program 's on - set medical adviser.
At first, the producers were looking for a "quintessentially American person '' to play the role of House. Bryan Singer in particular felt there was no way he was going to hire a non-American actor for the role. At the time of the casting session, actor Hugh Laurie was in Namibia filming the movie Flight of the Phoenix. He assembled an audition tape in a hotel bathroom, the only place with enough light, and apologized for its appearance (which Singer compared to a "bin Laden video ''). Laurie improvised, using an umbrella for a cane. Singer was very impressed by his performance and commented on how well the "American actor '' was able to grasp the character. Singer was not aware that Laurie was English, due to his convincing American accent. Laurie credits the accent to "a misspent youth (watching) too much TV and too many movies ''. Although locally better - known actors such as Denis Leary, David Cross, Rob Morrow, and Patrick Dempsey were considered for the part, Shore, Jacobs, and Attanasio were as impressed as Singer and cast Laurie as House.
-- Hugh Laurie
Laurie later revealed that he initially thought the show 's central character was Dr. James Wilson. He assumed that House was a supporting part, due to the nature of the character, until he received the full script of the pilot episode. Laurie, the son of medical doctor Ran Laurie, said he felt guilty for "being paid more to become a fake version of (his) own father ''. From the start of season three, he was being paid $275,000 to $300,000 per episode, as much as three times what he had previously been making on the series. By the show 's fifth season, Laurie was earning around $400,000 per episode, making him one of the highest - paid actors on network television.
Robert Sean Leonard had received the script for the CBS show Numb3rs, as well as that for House. Leonard thought the Numb3rs script was "kind of cool '' and planned to audition for the show. However, he decided that the character he was up for, Charlie Eppes, was in too many scenes; he later observed, "The less I work, the happier I am ''. He believed that his House audition was not particularly good, but that his lengthy friendship with Singer helped win him the part of Dr. Wilson. Singer had enjoyed Lisa Edelstein 's portrayal of a prostitute on The West Wing, and sent her a copy of the pilot script. Edelstein was attracted to the quality of the writing and her character 's "snappy dialogue '' with House, and was cast as Dr. Lisa Cuddy.
Australian actor Jesse Spencer 's agent suggested that he audition for the role of Dr. Robert Chase. Spencer believed the program would be similar in style to General Hospital, but changed his mind after reading the scripts. After he was cast, he persuaded the producers to turn the character into an Australian. Patrick Dempsey also auditioned for the part of Chase; he later became known for his portrayal of Dr. Derek Shepherd on Grey 's Anatomy. Omar Epps, who plays Dr. Eric Foreman, was inspired by his earlier portrayal of a troubled intern on the NBC medical drama ER. Jennifer Morrison felt that her audition for the part of Dr. Allison Cameron was a complete disaster. However, before her audition, Singer had watched some of her performances, including on Dawson 's Creek, and already wanted to cast her in the role. Morrison left the show when her character was written out in the middle of season six.
At the end of season three, House dismisses Chase, while Foreman and Cameron resign. After an episode in which he "borrows '' a janitor whom he calls "Dr. Buffer '' to assist in a diagnosis, House must then recruit a new diagnostic team, for which he identifies seven finalists. The producers originally planned to recruit two new full - time actors, with Foreman, who returns in season four 's fifth episode, bringing the team back up to three members; ultimately, the decision was made to add three new regular cast members. (Along with Epps, actors Morrison and Spencer remained in the cast, as their characters moved on to new assignments.) During production, the show 's writers dismissed a single candidate per episode; as a result, said Jacobs, neither the producers nor the cast knew who was going to be hired until the last minute. In the season 's ninth episode, House 's new team is revealed: Foreman is joined by doctors Lawrence Kutner (Kal Penn), Chris Taub (Peter Jacobson), and Remy "Thirteen '' Hadley (Olivia Wilde). The candidates rejected by House did not return to the show, with the exception of the last one cut: Amber Volakis (Anne Dudek), who appeared for the rest of season four as Wilson 's girlfriend, and in seasons five and eight as a hallucination of House 's. While Penn and Wilde had higher profiles than the actors who played the other finalists, Jacobs said they went through an identical audition process and stayed with the show based on the writers ' interest in their characters. Kutner was written out of the series in episode 20 of season 5 after Penn took a position in the Obama White House Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs.
The contracts of Edelstein, Epps, and Leonard expired at the end of season seven. As a cost - cutting measure, the three actors were asked to accept reduced salaries. Epps and Leonard came to terms with the producers, but Edelstein did not, and in May 2011 it was announced that she would not be returning for the show 's eighth season.
House is often filmed using the "walk and talk '' filming technique, popularized on television by series such as St. Elsewhere, ER, Sports Night, and The West Wing. The technique involves the use of tracking shots, showing two or more characters walking between locations while talking. Executive producer Katie Jacobs said that the show frequently uses the technique because "when you put a scene on the move, it 's a... way of creating an urgency and an intensity ''. She noted the significance of "the fact that Hugh Laurie spans 6'2 '' and is taller than everybody else because it certainly makes those walk - and - talks pop ". Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker described the show 's "cool, Fantastic Voyage -- like special effects of patients ' innards. I 'll bet you did n't know that when your kidneys shut down they sound like bubble wrap popping. '' "Cameras and special effects travel not only down the throat '' of one patient, another critic observed, "but up her nose and inside her brain and leg ''. Instead of relying primarily on computer - generated imagery, the interior body shots tend to involve miniature effects and motion control photography. Many of the sets are dressed with a variety of unscripted props that allow Laurie to physically improvise, revealing aspects of his character and the story.
The pilot episode was filmed in Vancouver, Canada; primary photography for all subsequent episodes has been shot on the Fox lot in Century City. Bryan Singer chose the hospital near his hometown, West Windsor, New Jersey, as the show 's fictional setting. Princeton University 's Frist Campus Center is the source of the aerial views of Princeton ‐ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital seen in the series. Some filming took place at the University of Southern California for the season - three episode "Half - Wit '', which guest - starred Dave Matthews and Kurtwood Smith. Part of House 's sixth season was filmed at the abandoned Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital, in Parsippany - Troy Hills, New Jersey, as the fictional Mayfield Psychiatric Hospital.
The opening sequence begins with an MRI of a head with an image of the boxed "H '' from the logo (the international symbol for hospital) in the foreground. This is then overlaid with an image of Dr. House 's face taken from the pilot episode with the show 's full title appearing across his face. House 's head then fades and the show 's title is underlined and has the "M.D. '' appear next to it, producing the entire logo of the show. This was the full extent of the title sequence in the pilot episode. All subsequent episodes contain a longer sequence including the names of the six featured cast members and creator David Shore. Laurie 's name appears first, followed by the names of the five other featured cast members in alphabetical order (Edelstein, Epps, Leonard, Morrison, and Spencer, then Shore).
After the show 's title fades, an aerial view of PPTH (actually various Princeton University buildings, primarily Frist Campus Center) is followed by a series of images accompanying each member 's name; most are shown next to, or superimposed upon, illustrations of the human anatomy. Laurie 's name appears next to a model of a human head with the brain exposed; Edelstein 's name appears next to a visual effects -- produced graphic of an angiogram of the heart. Epps 's name is superimposed upon a rib cage X-ray; Leonard 's name appears on a drawing of the two hemispheres of the brain. The producers originally wanted to include an image of a cane and an image of a Vicodin bottle, but Fox objected. Morrison 's title card was thus lacking an image; an aerial shot of rowers on Princeton University 's Lake Carnegie was finally agreed upon to accompany her name. Spencer 's name appears next to an old - fashioned anatomical drawing of a spine. Between the presentations of Spencer and Shore 's names is a scene of House and his three original team members walking down one of the hospital 's hallways. Jacobs said that most of the backgrounds have no specific meaning; however, the final image -- the text "created by David Shore '' superimposed upon a human neck -- connotes that Shore is "the brain of the show ''. The sequence was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Design in 2005. The title sequence continued to credit Spencer and Morrison, even when their characters were reduced to background roles during seasons four and five, and Morrison even after hers was written out. A new opening sequence was introduced in season seven to accommodate the changes in the cast, removing Morrison 's name and including Jacobson and Wilde 's. It was updated in season eight removing Edelstein 's name and added Annable and Yi.
The series ' original opening theme, as heard in the United States, comprises instrumental portions of "Teardrop '' by Massive Attack. The piece was used in part because of the distinct tempo which roughly mimics the sound of a beating human heart. An acoustic version of "Teardrop '', with guitar and vocals by José González, is heard as background music during the season - four finale.
-- David Shore
Gregory House, M.D., often construed as a misanthropic medical genius, heads a team of diagnosticians at the Princeton - Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey. The series is structured around an everyplot with some supporting secondary stories and narratives that cross over seasons: Most episodes revolve around the diagnosis of a primary patient and start with a cold open set outside the hospital, showing events ending with the onset of the patient 's symptoms. The typical episode follows the team in their attempts to diagnose and treat the patient 's illness, which often fail until the patient 's condition is critical. They usually treat only patients whom other doctors have not accurately diagnosed, and House routinely rejects cases that he does not find interesting. The story lines tend to focus on his unconventional medical theories and practices, and on the other characters ' reactions to them, rather than on the details of the treatments.
The team employs the differential diagnosis method, listing possible etiologies on a whiteboard, then eliminating most of them, usually because one of the team (most often House) provides logical reasons for ruling them out. Typically, the patient is misdiagnosed at least once and accordingly receives some treatments that are at best useless; this usually causes further complications, but -- as the nature of the complications often provides valuable new evidence -- eventually these help them diagnose the patient correctly. House often tends to arrive at the correct diagnosis seemingly out of the blue, often inspired by a passing remark made by another character. Diagnoses range from relatively common to very rare diseases.
The team faces many diagnostic difficulties from patients ' concealment of symptoms, circumstances, or personal histories, so House frequently proclaims during the team 's deliberations, "The patient is lying '', or mutters "Everybody lies ''; such an assumption guides House 's decisions and diagnoses, and makes the countermeasure of housebreaking a routine procedure. Because many of his hypotheses are based on epiphanies or controversial insights, he often has trouble obtaining permission for medical procedures he considers necessary from his superior, who in all but the final season is hospital administrator Dr. Lisa Cuddy. This is especially the case when the proposed procedures involve a high degree of risk or are ethically questionable. Frequent disagreements occur between House and his team, especially Dr. Allison Cameron, whose standards of medical ethics are more conservative than those of the other characters.
Like all of the hospital 's doctors, House is required to treat patients in the facility 's walk - in clinic. His grudging fulfillment of this duty, or his creative methods of avoiding it, constitute a recurring subplot, which often serves as the series ' comic relief. During clinic duty, House confounds patients with unwelcome observations into their personal lives, eccentric prescriptions, and unorthodox treatments. However, after seeming to be inattentive to their complaints, he regularly impresses them with rapid and accurate diagnoses. Analogies with some of the simple cases in the clinic occasionally inspire insights that help solve the team 's case.
-- Shore on House 's Vicodin addiction
A significant plot element is House 's use of Vicodin to manage pain, caused by an infarction in his quadriceps muscle five years before the show 's first season, which also forces him to use a cane. In the first season, 11th episode "Detox '', House admits he is addicted to Vicodin, but says he does not have a problem because the pills "let me do my job, and they take away my pain ''. His addiction has led his colleagues, Cuddy and Dr. James Wilson, to encourage him to go to drug rehabilitation several times. When he has no access to Vicodin or experiences unusually intense pain, he occasionally self - medicates with other narcotic analgesics such as morphine, oxycodone, and methadone. House also frequently drinks liquor when he is not on medical duty, and classifies himself as a "big drinker ''. Toward the end of season five, House begins to hallucinate; after eliminating other possible diagnoses, Wilson and he determine that his Vicodin addiction is the most likely cause. House goes into denial about this for a brief time, but at the close of the season finale, he commits himself to Mayfield Psychiatric Hospital. In the following season 's debut episode, House leaves Mayfield with his addiction under control. However, about a year and a half later, in season seven 's 15th episode, "Bombshells '', House reacts to the news that Cuddy possibly has kidney cancer by taking Vicodin, and his addiction recurs.
Throughout House 's run, six of the main actors have received star billing. All of them play doctors who work at the fictional Princeton - Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey. Dr. Gregory House (Hugh Laurie), the title character, heads the Department of Diagnostic Medicine. House describes himself as "a board - certified diagnostician with a double specialty of infectious disease and nephrology ''. Dr. James Wilson (Robert Sean Leonard), House 's one true friend, is the head of the Department of Oncology. Dr. Lisa Cuddy (Lisa Edelstein), an endocrinologist, is House 's boss, as she is the hospital 's dean of medicine and chief administrator. House has a complex relationship with Cuddy, and their interactions often involve a high degree of innuendo and sexual tension. In the sixth episode of season five, "Joy '', they kiss for the first time. Their physical relationship does not progress any further during the fifth season; in the finale of season five, House believes he and Cuddy had sex, but this is a hallucination brought on by House 's Vicodin addiction. In the finale of season six, Cuddy tells House she loves him. They kiss and agree to try being a couple. Throughout season seven, House and Cuddy try to make their relationship work. However, in the finale of season seven, House drives his car into Cuddy 's living room in anger and their relationship effectively ends.
House 's original team of diagnosticians consists of Dr. Eric Foreman (Omar Epps), a neurologist; Dr. Robert Chase (Jesse Spencer), an intensivist; and Dr. Allison Cameron (Jennifer Morrison), an immunologist. In the season - three episode "Family '', Foreman announces his resignation, telling House, "I do n't want to turn into you ''. During the season finale, House tells Chase that he has either learned everything he can, or nothing at all, and dismisses him from the team. Cameron, who has developed an affection for Chase, soon resigns. This leaves House without a team for the season - four premiere.
Under orders from Cuddy to recruit a new team, House considers 40 doctors. Season four 's early episodes focus on his selection process, structured as a reality TV -- style elimination contest (Jacobs referred to it as a "version of Survivor ''). House assigns each applicant a number between one and 40, and pares them down to seven finalists. He assesses their performance in diagnostic cases, assisted by Foreman, who returns to the department after his dismissal from another hospital for House - like behavior. While Foreman 's return means only two slots are open, House tricks Cuddy into allowing him to hire three new assistants. He ultimately selects Dr. Chris Taub (Peter Jacobson), a former plastic surgeon; Dr. Lawrence Kutner (Kal Penn), a sports medicine specialist; and Dr. Remy "Thirteen '' Hadley (Olivia Wilde), an internist (nicknamed for her number in the elimination contest). In the season finale, Thirteen discovers she has, as she had long dreaded, inherited Huntington 's disease from her mother, which is incurable.
In the 11th episode of season five, "Joy to the World '', Foreman and Thirteen engage in a passionate kiss. Thirteen is at first reluctant to start a relationship with Foreman, but the two eventually begin dating and are still together at the end of the season. They break up early in season six. In the 20th episode of season five, "Simple Explanation '', Kutner is found dead in his apartment with a gunshot wound to the head. Because Kutner left no note, House suspects foul play, though the death is accepted by the other characters as a suicide.
In the seventh episode of season two, "Hunting '', Cameron and Chase have a one - night stand. In the middle of season three, they initiate a sexual relationship that Cameron insists be casual; when Chase declares that he "wants more '', Cameron ends the affair. By the end of the season, however, Cameron recognizes that she has romantic feelings for Chase and they begin a serious relationship. After leaving the diagnostic team, they assume different roles at the PPTH, Cameron as a senior attending physician in the emergency room and Chase as a surgeon. They become engaged in the season - five episode "Saviors '' (the episode immediately following Kutner 's suicide) and are married in the season finale. When Chase rejoins House 's team in season six, Cameron leaves her husband and the hospital in "Teamwork '', the season 's eighth episode. She returns as a guest character in "Lockdown '', nine episodes later.
Early in season seven, Thirteen takes an unexplained leave of absence. Cuddy orders House to fill her position with another woman, but eventually makes the choice for him: medical student Dr. Martha M. Masters (Amber Tamblyn), who makes her first appearance in the season 's sixth episode. Thirteen returns in "The Dig '' -- the season 's 18th episode and the show 's 150th -- in which the reason for her absence is revealed: she was in prison for six months for having helped euthanize her brother, who was suffering from advanced Huntington 's. While Jacobson and Wilde play central characters (as did Penn), they did not receive star billing until season seven. They were credited as "Also Starring '', with their names appearing after the opening sequence. In season seven, Jacobson and Wilde received star billing; new regular cast member Tamblyn did not.
The first six seasons of House each included one or more recurring featured characters, who appear in multiple - episode story arcs. In season one, Edward Vogler (Chi McBride), the billionaire owner of a pharmaceutical company, appears in five episodes. He donates US $100 million to the PPTH in return for chairing its board. Vogler represented an attempt to introduce a villain, a move urged by Fox. By the time the Vogler episodes began to air, the show had become a hit and the character was soon dropped. Shore said the concept of a villainous boss was not really viable for the series: "It 's called House. The audience knows he 'll never get fired. ''
Stacy Warner (Sela Ward), House 's ex-girlfriend, appears in the final two episodes of the first season, and seven episodes of season two. She wants House to treat her husband, Mark Warner (Currie Graham), whom House diagnoses with acute intermittent porphyria in the season - one finale. Stacy and House grow close again, but House eventually tells Stacy to go back to Mark, which devastates her.
Michael Tritter (David Morse), a police detective, appears in several season - three episodes. He tries to extract an apology from House, who left Tritter in an examination room with a thermometer in his rectum. After House refuses to apologize, Tritter brings him up on charges of unprescribed narcotics possession and forces him to attend rehabilitation. When the case reaches court, Cuddy perjures herself for House and the case is dismissed. The judge reprimands Tritter for pursuing House to excess, and tells House that she thinks he "has better friends than he deserves '', referring to Cuddy 's 11th - hour testimony on his behalf. House is sentenced to one night in jail for contempt of court and finishes his rehabilitation under the influence of Vicodin.
The candidates for House 's new diagnostics team are season four 's primary recurring characters. In addition to the three who are chosen, the other four finalists are Jeffrey Cole (Edi Gathegi); Travis Brennan (Andy Comeau), an epidemiologist; Henry Dobson (Carmen Argenziano), a former medical school admissions officer; and Amber "Cut - throat Bitch '' Volakis (Anne Dudek), an interventional radiologist. Each of the four departs the show after elimination, except for Volakis, who appears throughout the season, having started a relationship with Wilson. In the two - part season finale, Volakis attempts to shepherd a drunken House home when Wilson is unavailable. They are involved in a bus crash, which leads to her death. She reappears late in season five among the hallucinations House suffers.
Private investigator Lucas Douglas (Michael Weston), a character inspired in part by Shore 's love of The Rockford Files, appears in three episodes of season five. House initially hires Douglas to spy on Wilson, who has ended their friendship after Volakis 's death (the friendship is subsequently rekindled). House later pays Douglas to look into the private lives of his team members and Cuddy. If the character had been accepted by the audience, plans existed to feature him as the lead in a spin - off show. In September 2008, Shore spoke to Entertainment Weekly about his vision for the character: "I do n't want to do just another medical show. What does excite me in terms of writing is the choices people make and the nature of right and wrong... and a private investigator can approach that question much more readily than a doctor can. '' There was no show featuring Douglas on the fall 2009 network television schedule. He returns to House in season six as Cuddy 's boyfriend. They are briefly engaged until Cuddy breaks it off, realizing that she is in love with House.
House received largely positive reviews on its debut; the series was considered a bright spot amid Fox 's schedule, which at the time was largely filled with reality shows. Season one holds a Metacritic score of 75 out of 100, based on 30 reviews, indicating "generally favorable '' reviews. Matt Roush of TV Guide said that the program was an "uncommon cure for the common medical drama ''. New York Daily News critic David Bianculli applauded the "high caliber of acting and script ''. The Onion 's "A.V. Club '' approvingly described it as the "nastiest '' black comedy from FOX since 1996 's short - lived Profit. New York 's John Leonard called the series "medical TV at its most satisfying and basic '', while The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert appreciated that the show did not attempt to hide the flaws of the characters to assuage viewers ' fears about "HMO factories ''. Variety 's Brian Lowry, less impressed, wrote that the show relied on "by - the - numbers storytelling, albeit in a glossy package ''. Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle described it as "mediocre '' and unoriginal.
General critical reaction to the character of Gregory House was particularly positive. Tom Shales of The Washington Post called him "the most electrifying new main character to hit television in years ''. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 's Rob Owen found him "fascinatingly unsympathetic ''. Critics have compared House to fictional detectives Nero Wolfe, Hercule Poirot, and Adrian Monk, and to Perry Cox, a cantankerous doctor on the television show Scrubs. One book - length study of the series finds a powerful kinship between House and another famous TV doctor, Hawkeye Pierce of M * A * S * H. Laurie 's performance in the role has been widely praised. The San Francisco Chronicle 's Goodman called him "a wonder to behold '' and "about the only reason to watch House ''. Gabrielle Donnelly of the Daily Mail said that because of Laurie 's complex personality, he was "perfectly cast '' in the title role.
Critics have also reacted positively to the show 's original supporting cast, which the Post 's Shales called a "first - rate ensemble ''. Leonard 's portrayal of Dr. Wilson has been considered Emmy Award worthy by critics with TV Guide, Entertainment Weekly, and USA Today. Bianculli of the Daily News was happy to see Edelstein "finally given a deservedly meaty co-starring role ''. Freelance critic Daniel Fienberg was disappointed that Leonard and Edelstein have not received more recognition for their performances.
Reaction to the major shifts of season four was mixed. "With the new crew in place House takes on a slightly more energized feel '', wrote Todd Douglass Jr. of DVD Talk. "And the set up for the fifth season is quite brilliant. '' The Star - Ledger 's Alan Sepinwall wrote, "The extended, enormous job audition gave the writers a chance to reinvigorate the show and fully embrace Laurie 's comic genius ''. Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times, on the other hand, took issue with the developments: "the cast just kept getting bigger, the stories more scattered and uneven until you had a bunch of great actors forced to stand around watching Hugh Laurie hold the show together by the sheer force of his will ''. USA Today 's Robert Bianco cheered the season finale: "Talk about saving the best for last. With two fabulous, heartbreaking hours... the writers rescued a season that had seemed diffuse, overcrowded and perhaps too ambitious for its own good. ''
Season five of House was met with a more positive response in comparison to the previous season. It holds a Metacritic score of 77 out of 100, based on ten reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. It also holds a 100 % approval rating on aggregate review website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.1 based on nine collected reviews. USA Today praised Laurie 's performance and the repercussions of the season - four finale, stating "a carry - over from last season 's brilliant finale, House is firmly in the forefront. And when you have an actor of Hugh Laurie 's range, depth and charisma, putting him center - stage makes perfect sense, particularly when you 've written a story that explores the character and his primary relationships in a way that seems ''. The New York Daily News noted that "The show pays more attention to relationships we care about, hints at a sensible number of new ones that show some promise, and thus does n't rely on obscure medical mysteries to carry the whole dramatic burden '', and noted that "the prognosis for this season could be better than last season seemed to foreshadow ''. Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times highlighted the performances of the cast, especially Michael Weston as detective Lucas Douglas, calling him a "delightful addition ''. She concluded, "So different is the premiere that the savvy House (and Fox) viewer may expect the revelation that it was all a fever dream. That does not seem to be the case, and one assumes that Laurie and the writers will be bringing a different version of their now - iconic character back to Princeton. Not too different, of course, but different enough. '' Conversely, The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan disliked Weston 's character, calling him "An unwelcome distraction... an irritating pipsqueak ''. She continued saying "House used to be one of the best shows on TV, but it 's gone seriously off the rails ''. The Sunday Times felt that the show had "lost its sense of humour ''. The focus on Thirteen and her eventual involvement with Foreman also came under particular criticism.
At the end of the show 's run, Steven Tong of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "House had, in its final seasons, become a rather sentimental show ''. In New York Magazine 's blog ' Vulture ', Margaret Lyons wrote, "More than a hospital drama or a character piece or anything else, House is a complex meditation on misery. '' But, continued Lyons, there is a line between "enlightened cynicism '' and "misery - entropy '', and "as the show wore on, its dramatic flare dimmed while its agony flare burned ever brighter. '' Alan Sepinwall wrote, "The repetition and muck of (the) middle seasons ultimately severed whatever emotional connection I had to House 's personal struggles. ''
The show placed # 62 on Entertainment Weekly 's "New TV Classics '' list. The show was declared the second - highest - rated show for the first ten years of IMDb.com Pro (2002 -- 2012).
After its first five seasons, House was included in various critics ' top - ten lists; these are listed below in order of rank.
In its first season, House ranked twenty - fourth among all television series and was the ninth-most popular primetime program among women. Aided by a lead - in from the widely popular American Idol, the following three seasons of the program each ranked in the top ten among all viewers. House reached its peak Nielsen ratings in its third season, attracting an average of 19.4 million viewers per episode. According to Jacobs, the production team was surprised that the show garnered such a large audience. In its fifth season, the show attracted 12.0 million viewers per episode and slipped to nineteenth place overall. It remained Fox 's most popular show other than American Idol.
The most - watched episode of House is the season four episode "Frozen '', which aired after Super Bowl XLII. It attracted slightly more than 29 million viewers. House ranked third for the week, equalling the rating of American Idol and surpassed only by the Super Bowl itself and the post-game show. Below is a table of House 's seasonal rankings in the U.S. television market, based on average total viewers per episode. Each U.S. network television season starts in September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.
-- Judges of the American Film Institute on the show 's 2005 win
House has received many awards and award nominations. In 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 Laurie was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. The Emmy board also nominated House for Outstanding Drama Series in 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, but the show never won the award. For the season one episode "Three Stories '', David Shore won a writing Emmy in 2005 and the Humanitas Prize in 2006. Director Greg Yaitanes received the 2008 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing - Drama Series, for directing "House 's Head '', the first part of season four 's two - episode finale.
The show has been nominated for six Golden Globe Awards and received two. Hugh Laurie has been nominated six times for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series - Drama; he won in 2006 and again in 2007. In 2008 the series received its first nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series - Drama. House was nominated for best dramatic series again the following year, but did not win in the category.
The show received a 2005 Peabody Award for what the Peabody board called an "unorthodox lead character -- a misanthropic diagnostician '' and for "cases fit for a medical Sherlock Holmes '', which helped make House "the most distinctive new doctor drama in a decade ''. The American Film Institute (AFI), included House in its 2005 list of 10 Television Programs of the Year.
In 2011, House won four People 's Choice Awards: favorite TV drama; favorite dramatic actor and actress for Laurie and Edelstein; and favorite TV doctor.
Laurie won the Screen Actors Guild 's award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series in both 2007 and 2009. Writer Lawrence Kaplow won a Writers Guild of America Award in 2006 for the season two episode "Autopsy ''. In 2007, the show won a Creative Arts Emmy Award for prosthetic makeup.
In 2005, Laurie appeared on the cover of TV Guide as "TV 's Sexiest Man ''. In 2008, Gregory House was voted second - sexiest television doctor ever, behind ER 's Doug Ross (George Clooney).
In 2008, House was distributed in a total of 66 countries. With an audience of over 81.8 million worldwide, it was the most watched television show on the globe and far surpassed the viewership figures of the leading TV dramas the previous two years (CSI and CSI: Miami). The following year, it placed second in the world after CSI.
House episodes premiere on Fox in the United States and Global in Canada, which have identical schedules. The show was the third-most popular on Canadian television in 2008. That same year, House was the top - rated television program in Germany, the number 2 show in Italy, and number 3 in the Czech Republic. The series is also very popular in France, Spain, Sweden, and the Netherlands. In the United Kingdom, the first four seasons were broadcast on Five. Sky1 acquired first - run rights beginning with season five. The original, English - language version of the show also airs in Australia on Network Ten, in New Zealand on TV3, and in Ireland on 3e, TV3 's cable channel.
Episodes of the show are also available online for download: Amazon Video on Demand, iTunes Store and the Zune Marketplace offer episodes from all of seasons 1 through 8. In 2007, NBCUniversal (the show 's distributor) and Apple Inc. (iTunes ' owner) had a disagreement that temporarily kept the fourth season off iTunes. In a statement to the press, Apple claimed that NBCUniversal wanted to drive up the per - episode price to $4.99. In September 2008, it was reported that the issue between Apple and NBC had been resolved. Episodes can now also be purchased in HD on iTunes for $2.99. Recent episodes are available in streaming video on Fox 's official House webpage and all 8 seasons were available on Netflix until April 2017.
The first seven seasons of the show were released on DVD encoded for regions 1, 2 and 4. A boxed set comprising seasons one through seven has been issued, as well. Universal Studios Home Entertainment announced plans to rerelease the first season in region 1 in anamorphic widescreen (the original release is letterboxed). It is unclear if the DVDs will be re-released with anamorphic widescreen in regions 2 and 4, where they have been presented in 4: 3 fullscreen.
For a charity auction, T - shirts bearing the phrase "Everybody Lies '' were sold for a limited time starting on April 23, 2007, on Housecharitytees.com. Proceeds from sales of those shirts and others with the phrase "Normal 's Overrated '' went to the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). House cast and crew members also regularly attend fundraisers for NAMI and have featured in ads for the organization that have appeared in Seventeen and Rolling Stone. The show 's efforts have raised hundreds of thousands of dollars for the charity. Jacobs said that through their association with NAMI, they hope to take "some of the stigma off that illness ''.
Nettwerk released the House M.D. Original Television Soundtrack album on September 18, 2007. The soundtrack includes full length versions of songs featured in House and previously unreleased songs especially recorded for the series. In 2008, the Spanish game company Exelweiss designed a cellphone game for the show, which was released in both Spanish and English versions.
In June 2009, Legacy Interactive announced a licensing agreement with Universal Pictures Digital Platforms Group (UPDPG) to develop a video game based on the series, in which players step into the roles of House 's diagnostic team to deal with five unusual medical cases. The game, released in May 2010, included a minigame calling upon the player to "navigat (e) a restaurant - placemat - style maze, in which a giant sandwich must avoid hungry physicians on its way to Dr. House 's office. '' It received an F from The A.V. Club; however, Legacy updated the game by August 2010.
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where did the emperor in star wars come from | Palpatine - wikipedia
Sheev Palpatine (also known as Darth Sidious and The Emperor) is a fictional character and one of the primary antagonists of the Star Wars franchise, mainly portrayed by Ian McDiarmid. In the original trilogy, he is depicted as the aged, pale - faced and cloaked Emperor of the Galactic Empire and the master of Darth Vader. In the prequel trilogy, he is portrayed as a charismatic Senator from Naboo who uses deception and political manipulation to rise to the position of Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic, and then reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire, with himself as Emperor.
Though outwardly appearing to be a well - intentioned public servant and supporter of democracy prior to becoming Emperor, he is actually Darth Sidious, the Dark Lord of the Sith -- a cult of practitioners of the dark side of the Force previously thought to have been extinct for a millennium in the Star Wars galaxy. As Sidious, he instigates the Clone Wars, nearly destroys the Jedi, and transforms the Republic into the Empire. He also manipulates Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker into turning to the dark side and serving at his side as Darth Vader. Palpatine 's reign is brought to an end when Vader kills him to save his son, Luke Skywalker.
Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi, Palpatine has become a widely recognized popular culture symbol of evil, sinister deception, dictatorship, tyranny, and the subversion of democracy.
The Emperor is briefly mentioned in the original Star Wars, the first film in the original trilogy. Grand Moff Tarkin explains to his fellow Imperials that the Emperor has dissolved the Senate.
The Emperor first appeared in The Empire Strikes Back. He appears in hologram form to address Darth Vader, his Sith apprentice. He tells Vader that Luke Skywalker is becoming a serious threat to the Empire and must not become a Jedi. Vader convinces him that Luke would be a great asset if turned to the dark side.
In 1983 's Return of the Jedi, the Emperor appears in person to oversee the last stages of the second Death Star 's construction. He assures Darth Vader that they will together turn Luke, now revealed to be Vader 's son, to the dark side. Unknown to Vader, the Emperor plans to replace his apprentice with Luke. When Vader brings Luke before his master, the Emperor tempts Luke to join the dark side by appealing to the young Jedi 's fear for his friends, whom he has lured into a trap. This leads to a lightsaber duel in which Luke defeats and nearly kills Vader. The Emperor tells Luke to kill Vader and take his place, but Luke refuses and declares himself a Jedi. Enraged, the Emperor attacks Luke with Force lightning. Moved by his son 's cries for help, Vader throws the Emperor into the Death Star 's reactor shaft, killing him.
In the 1999 prequel Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, which is set 32 years before Star Wars, Palpatine is depicted as a middle - aged Galactic Senator from the planet Naboo who is secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious. As Sidious, he influences the corrupt Trade Federation to blockade and invade Naboo. Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo flees to the planet Coruscant to receive counsel from Palpatine, unaware that he actually engineered the invasion. After a plea for help from the senate results in bureaucratic delays, Palpatine persuades the queen to call for a motion of no confidence against Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum.
When Padmé attempts to liberate Naboo, Sidious sends his Sith apprentice Darth Maul there to capture her. The invasion is eventually thwarted and Maul is defeated in a lightsaber duel with Obi - Wan Kenobi. Palpatine uses the crisis to be elected the new Chancellor of the Republic. He then returns to Naboo, where he befriends the young Anakin Skywalker, telling him that, "We will watch your career with great interest ''.
In the 2002 sequel Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones, Palpatine exploits constitutional loopholes to remain in office even after the official expiration of his term. Meanwhile, as Darth Sidious, he continues to manipulate events from behind the scenes by having his new Sith apprentice Count Dooku, a former Jedi master, lead a movement of planets in seceding from the Republic to form the Confederacy of Independent Systems.
Since the Separatists are secretly building a battle droid army, Palpatine uses the situation to have himself granted emergency powers. Palpatine feigns reluctance to accept this authority, promising to return it to the Senate once the crisis has ended. His first act is to allow the creation of a clone army to counter the Separatist threat; this results in the opening salvo of the Clone Wars. With the galaxy now at war as Sidious planned, Dooku brings him the secret plans for a new superweapon.
In the 2005 sequel Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, Palpatine is captured by cyborg Separatist General Grievous, as part of a plan devised by Sidious. Palpatine is rescued by Anakin and Obi - Wan, but not before the Jedi confront Count Dooku again. A duel ensues in which Anakin defeats Dooku. Palpatine orders Anakin to kill the unarmed Dooku; after some hesitance, Anakin kills Dooku in cold blood. Palpatine then escapes with his Jedi rescuers and returns to Coruscant. By this point, Palpatine has become a virtual dictator, able to take any action in the Senate. He makes Anakin his personal representative on the Jedi Council, who deny Anakin the rank of Jedi master and order him to spy on the Chancellor. Palpatine tells Anakin the story of Darth Plagueis, a powerful Sith Lord who was able to manipulate life and death but was killed by his own apprentice. Eventually, Palpatine reveals his secret identity as a Sith Lord to Anakin; he knows that Anakin has been having prophetic visions of Padmé, his pregnant secret wife, dying in childbirth, and offers to teach him Plagueis ' secrets to save her life.
Anakin informs Jedi Master Mace Windu of Palpatine 's treachery. With three other Jedi masters at his side, Windu attempts to arrest Palpatine, but Palpatine produces a lightsaber from his sleeve and quickly dispatches all but Windu. Palpatine engages Windu in a duel and fires Force lightning at him, but Windu deflects the lightning back at its source, deforming Palpatine 's face into the gray, wizened visage seen in the original trilogy. Just as Windu is about to dispatch Palpatine, Anakin appears and intervenes on the Sith lord 's behalf, allowing Palpatine to kill Windu with another blast of lightning. Anakin then pledges himself to the dark side as Palpatine 's new Sith apprentice, Darth Vader.
Palpatine orders the clone troopers to turn on their Jedi generals, while dispatching Vader to kill everyone inside the Jedi Temple and then murder the Separatist leaders on the planet Mustafar. Palpatine then reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire, with himself as Emperor. Jedi Master Yoda confronts him in his Senate office and engages the Sith Lord in a lightsaber duel that ends in a stalemate. Sensing that his new apprentice is in danger, Palpatine travels to Mustafar and finds Vader near death following a duel with Obi - Wan. After returning to Coruscant, he rebuilds Vader 's burned, mutilated body with the black armored suit from the original trilogy. Palpatine then tells Vader that Padmé was killed in the heat of Vader 's anger, breaking what remains of his apprentice 's spirit. Palpatine is last seen watching the original Death Star 's construction, with Vader and Wilhuff Tarkin at his side.
In the 2008 animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (also set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith), Darth Sidious engineers a Separatist plot where Count Dooku turns Jabba the Hutt against the Republic by kidnapping his son Rotta and framing the Jedi for it. Meanwhile, Palpatine suggests that the Republic ally itself with the Hutts. Although Anakin Skywalker and his Padawan Ahsoka Tano foil the plot, the outcome suits Palpatine 's ends: Jabba places Hutt hyperspace routes at the Republic 's disposal.
In the subsequent animated series, Palpatine was voiced by Ian Abercrombie from 2008 to his death in 2012, and by Tim Curry from 2012 to 2014. In the series, Palpatine continues to serve as Supreme Chancellor while his Sith identity remains behind the scenes via holograms. In the second season, Sidious hires bounty hunter Cad Bane to infiltrate the Jedi Temple and steal a holocron. He then takes a valuable Kyber memory crystal that contains the names of thousands of Force - sensitive younglings - the future of the Jedi Order - from around the galaxy. The final stage of the plot: to bring four Force - sensitive children to Sidious 's secret facility on Mustafar. Anakin and Ahsoka again foil the plot, but Bane escapes and all evidence of Sidious ' involvement is lost. In the fifth season, Sidious personally travels to the planet Mandalore to confront his former apprentice Darth Maul after becoming leader of Death Watch, killing Savage Opress before torturing Maul with the intent to make use of him. In the final season, Sidious goes to lengths to conceal the full nature of his plan from the Jedi by attempting to silence the Clone Trooper Fives when he learns of Order 66 and having Dooku wipe out anything tied to Jedi Master Sifo - Dyas.
In Star Wars Rebels, Palpatine is now the Emperor of the Galactic Empire. He briefly appears offscreen at the end of the season 2 premiere, "The Siege of Lothal '', voiced by Sam Witwer. Darth Vader informs Palpatine that the Rebel Alliance cell on Lothal has been broken. However, Vader tells him that Ahsoka Tano, the apprentice of Anakin Skywalker, is alive and is now helping the Rebels. Palpatine sees this as an opportunity to seek out other remaining Jedi (such as Obi - Wan Kenobi). Palpatine then tells Vader to dispatch an Inquisitor to hunt down Ahsoka.
Palpatine returns physically in the 4th and final season of the series, in the episodes "Wolves and a Door '', "A World Between Worlds '', and "Family Reunion - and Farewell '', voiced again by Ian McDiarmid. He appears as a hologram overseeing the excavation of the Lothal Jedi Temple, which contains a portal to a separate dimension of the Force outside of space and time, which Palpatine considers a "conduit between the living and the dead '' and could give him unrivaled power of the Force itself if he can access it. Shortly after Ezra reaches through time and space to rescue Ahsoka from being killed by Vader, Palpatine sets up a portal that shows Kanan Jarrus 's final moments. While Ezra wants to reach through the portal and rescue his master, Ahsoka dissuades him from it. Palpatine then reveals himself through the portal and attempts to gain access to the world by shooting fiery Sith energy that can allow him to gain access if the energy can tie down Ezra for long enough. However, Ahsoka and Ezra manage to evade him and both go their separate ways, thus denying Palpatine full power.
The first appearance of Palpatine in Star Wars literature was in Alan Dean Foster 's (writing as George Lucas) novelization of the script of A New Hope, published as Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker (1976).
Star Wars: Lords of the Sith was subsequently announced as one of the first four canon novels to be released in 2014 and 2015. In Lords of the Sith, Vader and Palpatine find themselves hunted by revolutionaries on the Twi'lek planet Ryloth.
Star Wars Battlefront II adds a canonical tale spanning the destruction of the second Death Star through the events of The Force Awakens. The story takes an Imperial perspective, following an elite squadron known as Inferno Squad, led by protagonist Iden Versio, as they help to execute Operation Cinder following the Emperor 's death. Operation: Cinder was carried out by the Galactic Empire as a means of devastating several Imperial planets in 4 ABY, only a few weeks following the Battle of Endor. The operation was part of the "Contingency '', a plan devised by Emperor Palpatine to ensure that the Empire and its enemies did not outlive him should he perish. The plan was put into action following the Emperor 's death during the Battle of Endor.
In April 2014, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise by Lucasfilm. Star Wars Legends literature elaborates on Palpatine 's role in Star Wars fiction outside of the films.
Palpatine / Darth Sidious is a central character in Genndy Tartakovsky 's Star Wars: Clone Wars micro-series, which is set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith. The character 's likeness in the series is based on that in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones, and he is voiced by Nick Jameson. In the first chapter, Palpatine is informed by Obi - Wan Kenobi that the Jedi have discovered that the InterGalactic Banking Clan has established battle droid factories on the planet Muunilinst. Palpatine agrees to send a strike force that includes Anakin Skywalker, and suggests that Anakin be given "special command '' of Obi - Wan 's fighters. Yoda and Obi - Wan initially speak against the idea, but reluctantly concede. In the seventh chapter, a holographic image of Sidious appears shortly after Dooku trains Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress. Sidious orders Ventress to track down and kill Anakin. He remarks to Dooku that Ventress is certain to be defeated, but that the point of her mission is to test Anakin. In the final chapters, a hologram of Sidious again appears and orders General Grievous to begin an assault on the galactic capital. Later, the Separatist invasion of Coruscant begins and Palpatine watches from his apartment in the 500 Republica. Grievous breaks through the Chancellor 's window and attempts to kidnap him, leading to a long chase while Palpatine is protected by Jedi Shaak Ti, Roron Corobb and Foul Moudama. After Grievous apprehends the Jedi, Palpatine is taken on board the Invisible Hand, setting the stage for Revenge of the Sith.
Palpatine made his first major appearance in Legends in 1991 and 1992, with the Dark Empire series of comic books written by Tom Veitch and illustrated by Cam Kennedy. In the series (set six years after Return of the Jedi), Palpatine is resurrected as the Emperor Reborn or "Palpatine the Undying ''. His spirit returns from the netherworld of the Force with the aid of Sith ghosts on Korriban, the Sith world, and possesses the body of Jeng Droga, one of Palpatine 's elite spies and assassins known as the Emperor 's Hands. Droga flees to a secret Imperial base on the planet Byss, where the Emperor 's advisor Sate Pestage exorcises Palpatine 's spirit and channels it into one of many clones created by Palpatine before his death. Palpatine attempts to resume control of the galaxy, but Luke Skywalker, now a senior Jedi Knight, sabotages his plans. Luke destroys most of Palpatine 's cloning tanks, but is only able to defeat the Emperor with help from Leia Organa Solo, who has received rudimentary Jedi training from Luke. The two repel a Force storm Palpatine had created and turn it back onto him, once again destroying his physical form.
Palpatine 's ultimate fate is further chronicled in the Dark Empire II and Empire 's End series of comics. The Dark Empire II series, published from 1994 to 1995, details how the Emperor is once again reborn on Byss into a clone body. Palpatine tries to rebuild the Empire as the Rebel Alliance grows weak. In Empire 's End (1995), a traitorous Imperial guard bribes Palpatine 's cloning supervisor to tamper with the Emperor 's stored DNA samples. This causes the clones to deteriorate at a rapid rate. Palpatine tries to possess the body of Anakin Solo, the infant son of Leia Organa and Han Solo, before the clone body dies, but is thwarted once again by Luke Skywalker. Palpatine is killed by a blaster shot fired by Han, but his spirit is captured by the mortally wounded Jedi Empatojayos Brand. When Brand dies, he takes Palpatine 's spirit with him into the netherworld of the Force, destroying the Sith Lord once and for all.
Novels and comics published before 1999 focus on Palpatine 's role as Galactic Emperor. Shadows of the Empire (1996) by Steve Perry and The Mandalorian Armor (1998) by K.W. Jeter -- all set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi -- show how Palpatine uses crime lords such as Prince Xizor and bounty hunters like Boba Fett to fight his enemies. Barbara Hambly 's novel Children of the Jedi (1995), set eight years after Return of the Jedi, features a woman named Roganda Ismaren who claims that Palpatine fathered her son Irek. The Jedi Prince series of novels introduces an insane, three - eyed mutant named Triclops who is revealed to be Palpatine 's illegitimate son. Created from DNA extracted from Palpatine and placed into a woman, he was born mutated, cast away and forgotten. Triclops had a son named Ken who became known as the "Jedi Prince ''.
Beginning in 1999 with Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace, Star Wars writers chronicled the role of Palpatine prior to A New Hope as a politician and Sith Lord. The comic "Marked '' by Rob Williams, printed in Star Wars Tales 24 (2005), and Michael Reaves ' novel Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter (2001) explain Darth Sidious ' relationship with his apprentice Darth Maul. Cloak of Deception (2001) by James Luceno follows Reaves ' novel and details how Darth Sidious encourages the Trade Federation to build an army of battle droids in preparation for the invasion of Naboo. Cloak of Deception also focuses on Palpatine 's early political career, revealing how he becomes a confidante of Chancellor Finis Valorum and acquainted with Padmé Amidala, newly elected queen of Naboo. Palpatine 's role during the Clone Wars as Chancellor of the Republic and Darth Sidious is portrayed in novels such as Matthew Stover 's Shatterpoint (2003), Steven Barnes ' The Cestus Deception (2004), Sean Stewart 's Yoda: Dark Rendezvous (2004), and Luceno 's Labyrinth of Evil (2005) and Darth Plagueis (2012).
Following the theatrical release of Revenge of the Sith, Star Wars literature focused on Palpatine 's role after the creation of the Empire. John Ostrander 's comic Star Wars Republic 78: Loyalties (2005) chronicles how, shortly after seizing power, Emperor Palpatine sends Darth Vader to assassinate Sagoro Autem, an Imperial captain who plans to defect from the Empire. In Luceno 's novel Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader (2005) (set shortly after Revenge of the Sith), the Emperor sends Darth Vader to the planet Murkhana to discover why clone troopers there refused to carry out Order 66 against their Jedi generals. Palpatine hopes these early missions will teach Vader what it means to be a Sith and crush any remnants of Anakin Skywalker.
In Star Wars fiction, Palpatine is a cunning politician, a ruthless emperor, and an evil Sith Lord. The Star Wars Databank describes him as "the supreme ruler of the most powerful tyrannical regime the galaxy had ever witnessed '' and Stephen J. Sansweet 's Star Wars Encyclopedia calls him "evil incarnate ''.
As a senator, Palpatine is "unassuming, yet ambitious ''. In Cloak of Deception, James Luceno writes that Palpatine carefully guards his privacy and "others found his reclusiveness intriguing, as if he led a secret life ''. Despite this, he has many allies in the government. Luceno writes, "What Palpatine lacked in charisma, he made up for in candor, and it was that directness that had led to his widespread appeal in the senate... For in his heart he judged the universe on his own terms, with a clear sense of right and wrong. '' In Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace, Palpatine claims to embrace democratic principles. He tells Queen Amidala, "I promise, Your Majesty, if I am elected (chancellor of the Republic), I will restore democracy to the Republic. I will put an end to the corruption that has plagued the Senate. '' A Visual Dictionary states that he is a self - proclaimed savior.
As Emperor, however, Palpatine abandons any semblance of democracy, as noted in Star Wars, when he abolishes the Imperial Senate. Sansweet states, "His Empire... is based on tyranny. ''
Revenge of the Sith implies that Palpatine was the apprentice of Darth Plagueis, while later Expanded Universe materials say explicitly that he was. Palpatine is characterized as "the most powerful practitioner of the Sith ways in modern times. '' Palpatine is so powerful that he is able to mask his true identity from the Jedi for decades. In the novel Shatterpoint, Mace Windu remarks to Yoda, "A shame (Palpatine) ca n't touch the Force. He might have been a fine Jedi. ''
The Star Wars Databank explains that the Force "granted him inhuman dexterity and speed, agility enough to quickly kill three Jedi Masters '' (as depicted in Revenge of the Sith). Stover describes the duel between Yoda and Palpatine in his novelization of Revenge of the Sith thus: "From the shadow of a black wing, a small weapon... slid into a withered hand and spat a flame - colored blade (.) When the blades met it was more than Yoda against Palpatine, more the millennia of Sith against the legions of Jedi; this was the expression of the fundamental conflict of the universe itself. Light against dark. Winner take all. '' During the duel, Yoda realizes that Sidious is a superior swordsman, and represents a small but powerful Sith Order that had changed and evolved over the years, while the Jedi had not: "He had lost before he started. He had lost before he was born. ''
According to the Databank and New Essential Guide to Characters, Palpatine possesses great patience and his maneuverings are as a dejarik grandmaster moves pieces on a board. He is depicted as a diabolical genius.
Palpatine was not given a first name in any canonical or "Star Wars Legends '' sources until 2014, when the character 's first name -- Sheev -- was revealed in the novel Tarkin, written by James Luceno. The Lucasfilm Story Group approached Del Rey Books and asked if they wanted to use the name, which was created by George Lucas, in the Tarkin novel, to which Del Rey agreed.
Lucas 's conceptualization of Palpatine and the role the character plays in Star Wars changed over time. From Return of the Jedi onwards, Palpatine became the ultimate personification of evil in Star Wars, replacing Darth Vader as the central villain.
When the original Star Wars trilogy was filmed, the Emperor was unnamed and his throne - world unidentified. The name would not be used in film until the prequel trilogy and the first mention of the name Palpatine came from the prologue of Alan Dean Foster 's 1976 novelization of A New Hope, which detailed the Emperor 's rise to power. Foster writes,
Aided and abetted by restless, power - hungry individuals within the government, and the massive organs of commerce, the ambitious Senator Palpatine caused himself to be elected President of the Republic. He promised to reunite the disaffected among the people and to restore the remembered glory of the Republic. Once secure in office he declared himself Emperor, shutting himself away from the populace. Soon he was controlled by the very assistants and boot - lickers he had appointed to high office, and the cries of the people for justice did not reach his ears.
However, it is unclear whether Lucas intended Palpatine to be the reigning Emperor or just the first of a succession of Emperors. Michael Kaminski, author of The Secret History of Star Wars, claims that Lucas ' initial notes discuss a line of corrupt Emperors, not just one. If Palpatine was the first, Kaminski infers, he would therefore not be the current. Later Lucas would abandon this idea, opting instead to focus on a sole villainous ruler.
During story conferences for The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas and Leigh Brackett decided that "the Emperor and the Force had to be the two main concerns in the Empire Strikes Back; the Emperor had barely been dealt with in the first movie, and the intention in the sequel was to deal with him on a more concrete level. '' Lucas ultimately decided instead to feature the Emperor in Return of the Jedi.
In that film, the initial conception of Palpatine was superseded by his depiction as a dictatorial ruler adept in the dark side of the Force. The Emperor was inspired by the villain Ming the Merciless from the Flash Gordon comic books. The characterization of Palpatine as an ambitious and ruthless politician dismantling a democratic republic to achieve supreme power is in part inspired by the real - world examples of Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. Other elements of the character come from Richard Nixon. Lucas said that Nixon 's presidency "got me to thinking historically about how do democracies get turned into dictatorships. Because the democracies are n't overthrown; they 're given away. '' Lucas also said, "The whole point of the movies, the underlying element that makes the movies work, is that you, whether you go backwards or forwards, you start out in a democracy, and democracy turns into a dictatorship, and then the rebels make it back into a democracy. ''
Lucas wanted to establish the Emperor as the true source of evil in Star Wars. Screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan noted, "My sense of the relationship between Darth Vader and the Emperor is that the Emperor is much more powerful... and that Vader is very much intimidated by him. Vader has dignity, but the Emperor in Jedi really has all the power. '' He explained that the climax of the film is a confrontation between Darth Vader and his master. In the first scene that shows the Emperor, he arrives at the Death Star and is greeted by a host of stormtroopers, technicians, and other personnel. Lucas states he wanted it to look like the military parades on "May Day in Russia. ''
Lucas fleshed out the Emperor in the prequel films. According to Lucas, Palpatine 's role in The Phantom Menace is to explain "how Anakin Skywalker came to be Palpatine 's apprentice '' and the events that lead to his rise to power. The true identity of Darth Sidious -- the phantom menace -- is left a mystery, and his relationship to Palpatine is not clear, though popular consensus agreed that Darth Sidious and Palpatine were one and the same. Film critic Jonathan L. Bowen remarks, "Debates raged on the Internet concerning the relationship between Darth Sidious and Senator Palpatine. Most fans believed the two characters are actually the same person with logic seeming to support their conclusion. '' Bowen notes that the debate was fueled by the fact that "suspiciously Darth Sidious does not appear in the credits. ''
In Star Wars and History published by Lucasfilm, it describes Palpatine 's consolidation of power as being similar to the Roman political figure Augustus, named Octavian before renaming himself. Both legitimized authoritarian rule by saying that corruption in the Senate was hampering the powers of the head of state; both pressured the Senate to grant extraordinary powers to deal with a crisis, falsely claiming that they would rescind those powers once the crisis was over; and both relied on their strong control over military force.
When the Emperor first appeared in The Empire Strikes Back, he was portrayed by Marjorie Eaton under heavy makeup. Chimpanzee eyes were superimposed into darkened eye sockets during post-production "in order to create a truly unsettling image ''. The character was voiced by Clive Revill. The makeup was sculpted by Phil Tippett and applied by Rick Baker, who initially used his own wife, Elaine, for the makeup tests.
"With Kershner, '' Revill said, "you had to keep the reins tight -- you could n't go overboard. It was the perfect example of the old adage ' less is more ' -- the Emperor does n't say very much. But when he finally appears, it 's at a point in the saga when everyone 's waiting to see him. It 's the Emperor, the arch villain of all time, and when he says there 's a great disturbance in the Force, I mean, that 's enough oomph! '' Years later, during production of Revenge of the Sith, Lucas decided to shoot new footage for The Empire Strikes Back to create continuity between the prequels and original trilogy. Thus, in the 2004 DVD release of The Empire Strikes Back Special Edition, the original version of the Emperor was replaced by Scottish Shakespearean actor Ian McDiarmid, and the dialogue between the Emperor and Darth Vader was revised.
Lucas and director Richard Marquand cast McDiarmid to play Emperor Palpatine for Return of the Jedi. He was in his late 30s and had never played a leading role in a feature film, though he had made minor appearances in films like Dragonslayer (1981). After Return of the Jedi, he resumed stage acting in London. In an interview with BackStage, McDiarmid revealed that he "never had his sights set on a film career and never even auditioned for the role of Palpatine. '' He elaborated, "I got called in for the interview after a Return of the Jedi casting director saw me perform in the Sam Shepard play Seduced at a studio theatre at the Royal Court. I was playing a dying Howard Hughes. ''
McDiarmid was surprised when Lucas approached him 16 years after Return of the Jedi to reprise the role of Palpatine. In an interview, he stated, "When we were doing Return of the Jedi there was a rumor that George Lucas had nine films in his head, and he 'd clearly just completed three of them. '' McDiarmid added, "Someone said that, ' Oh, I think what he might do next is go back in time, and show how Vader came to be. ' It never occurred to me in a million years that I would be involved in that, because I thought, ' oh well, then he 'll get a much younger actor to play Palpatine. That would be obvious. '' However, "I was the right age, ironically, for the first prequel when it was made... So I was in the very strange and rather wonderful paradox of playing myself when young at my own age, having played myself previously when 100 - and - I - do n't - know - what. ''
Palpatine 's role in the prequel films required McDiarmid to play two dimensions of the same character. Recalling the initial days of shooting The Phantom Menace, McDiarmid stated, "Stepping onto the set of Episode I for the first time was like going back in time, due to my experience in Jedi. Palpatine 's an interesting character; he 's conventional on the outside, but demonic on the inside -- he 's on the edge, trying to go beyond what 's possible. '' McDiarmid added another layer to the character in Attack of the Clones. He noted, "(Palpatine) is a supreme actor. He has to be even more convincing than somebody who is n't behaving in a schizophrenic fashion, so he 's extra charming, or extra professional -- and for those who are looking for clues, that 's almost where you can see them. '' McDiarmid illuminated on the scene where Padmé Amidala is almost assassinated:
There 's a moment in one scene of the new film where tears almost appear in his eye. These are crocodile tears, but for all those in the movie, and perhaps watching the movie itself, they 'll see he is apparently moved -- and of course, he is. He can just do it. He can, as it were, turn it on. And I suppose for him, it 's also a bit of a turn - on -- the pure exercise of power is what he 's all about. That 's the only thing he 's interested in and the only thing that can satisfy him -- which makes him completely fascinating to play, because it is an evil soul. He is more evil than the devil. At least Satan fell -- he has a history, and it 's one of revenge.
In Revenge of the Sith, McDiarmid played a darker interpretation of the character. He explained that "(...) when you 're playing a character of solid blackness, that in itself is very interesting, in the sense that you have no other motivation other than the accumulation of power. It 's not so much about not having a moral center, it 's just that the only thing that mattered is increasing power. '' He admitted, "I 've been trying to find a redeeming feature to Palpatine, and the only one I 've got so far is that he 's clearly a patron of the arts because he goes to the opera. '' McDiarmid compared the character to Iago from William Shakespeare 's Othello:
Everything he does is an act of pure hypocrisy, and that 's interesting to play. I suppose it 's rather like playing Iago. All the characters in the play -- including Othello until the end -- think that "Honest Iago '' is a decent guy doing his job, and he 's quite liked. But at the same time there 's a tremendous evil subconscious in operation.
McDiarmid noticed that the script for Revenge of the Sith demanded more action from his character than in previous films. Lightsaber combat was a challenge to the 60 - year - old actor, who, like his costars, took fencing lessons. The close - up shots and non-acrobatic sequences of the duel between Palpatine and Mace Windu were performed by McDiarmid. Advanced fencing and acrobatic stunts were executed by McDiarmid 's doubles, Michael Byrne, Sebastian Dickins, and Bob Bowles.
McDiarmid 's performance as Palpatine was generally well received by critics. Todd McCarthy of Variety commented, "Entertaining from start to finish and even enthralling at times, ' Sith ' has some acting worth writing home about, specifically McDiarmid 's dominant turn as the mastermind of the evil empire. '' Ed Halter of The Village Voice wrote that "Ian McDiarmid 's unctuous Emperor turns appropriately vampiric as he attempts to draw Anakin into the Sith fold with promises of eternal life. '' Still, his performance was not without detractors; David Edelstein of Slate critiqued, "McDiarmid is n't the subtlest of satanic tempters. With his lisp and his clammy little leer, he looks like an old queen keen on trading an aging butt - boy (Count Dooku) for fresh meat -- which leaves Anakin looking more and more like a 15 - watt bulb. '' McDiarmid had expressed interest in reprising the role of Palpatine in the planned Star Wars: Underworld TV series, which remains un-produced.
Ian McDiarmid required little make - up in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. He recalled, "I 'm... slightly aged (in Attack of the Clones). In the last film, I had a fairly standard make - up on, but now, they 're starting to crinkle my face. '' Transforming McDiarmid into Emperor Palpatine in Return of the Jedi and Revenge of the Sith, however, required extensive make - up. McDiarmid remarked in an interview with Star Wars Insider magazine, "Yes -- that was a four - hour job, initially, although we got it down to about two - and - a-half in the end. But this was just a little bit of latex here and there, a little bit of skin - scrunching. '' He told the Homing Beacon newsletter, "When my face changes in the film, my mind went back to the early silent movie of The Phantom of the Opera with Lon Chaney, Sr. '' Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that he "looks uncannily like Death in The Seventh Seal '' (1957) and film historian Robin Wood compares him to the hag from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937).
Palpatine 's wardrobe, tailored by costume designer Trisha Biggar, played an important part in the development of the character throughout the films. In Attack of the Clones, explained McDiarmid, "The costumes... have got much more edge to them, I think, than the mere senator had in The Phantom Menace. So we see the trappings of power. '' In the next episode, McDiarmid remarked, "To wear the costumes as the character I play is wonderfully empowering. '' McDiarmid 's favorite costume in Revenge of the Sith was a high - collared jacket that resembles snake or lizard skin. He stated that "it just feels reptilian, which is exactly right for (Palpatine). '' According to Trisha Biggar, Palpatine 's costumes proved the most daunting challenge. She said, "His six costumes get progressively darker and more ornately decorated throughout the movie. He wears greys and browns, almost going to black, taking him toward the dark side. ''
With the premiere of Return of the Jedi and the prequel films and the accompanying merchandising campaign, Palpatine became an icon in American popular culture. Kenner / Hasbro produced and marketed a series of action figures of the character from 1983 to 2005. According to John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett, "These action figures allow children (' 4 & up ') to handle the symbols of the Force. ''
Academics have debated the relationship of Palpatine to modern culture. Religion scholars Ross Shepard Kraemer, William Cassidy, and Susan Schwartz compare Palpatine and Star Wars heroes to the theological concept of dualism. They insist, "One can certainly picture the evil emperor in Star Wars as Satan, complete with his infernal powers, leading his faceless minions such as his red - robed Imperial Guards. '' Lawrence and Jewett argue that Vader killing Palpatine in Return of the Jedi represented "the permanent subduing of evil ''.
Since Return of the Jedi and the prequel films, Palpatine 's name has been invoked as a caricature in politics. A Seattle Post-Intelligencer editorial noted that anti-pork bloggers were caricaturing West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd as "the Emperor Palpatine of pork '', with Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska having "clear aspirations to be his Darth Vader. '' The charge followed a report that linked a secret hold on the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006 to the two senators. Politicians have made comparisons as well. In 2005, Democratic Senator Frank Lautenberg of New Jersey compared Republican Majority Leader Bill Frist of Tennessee to Palpatine in a speech on the Senate floor, complete with a visual aid.
A Fox News editorial stated "no cultural icon can exist without someone trying to stuff it into a political ideology. The Star Wars saga, the greatest pop culture icon of the last three decades, is no exception... Palpatine 's dissolution of the Senate in favor of imperial rule has been compared to Julius Caesar 's marginalization of the Roman Senate, Hitler 's power - grab as chancellor, and FDR 's court - packing scheme and creation of the imperial presidency. ''
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what is the 13th amendment to the constitution of the united states | Thirteenth Amendment to the United states Constitution - wikipedia
The Thirteenth Amendment (Amendment XIII) to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. In Congress, it was passed by the Senate on April 8, 1864, and by the House on January 31, 1865. The amendment was ratified by the required number of states on December 6, 1865. On December 18, 1865, Secretary of State William H. Seward proclaimed its adoption. It was the first of the three Reconstruction Amendments adopted following the American Civil War.
Since the American Revolution, states had divided into states that allowed and states that prohibited slavery. Slavery was implicitly permitted in the original Constitution through provisions such as Article I, Section 2, Clause 3, commonly known as the Three - Fifths Compromise, which detailed how each slave state 's enslaved population would be factored into its total population count for the purposes of apportioning seats in the United States House of Representatives and direct taxes among the states. Though many slaves had been declared free by President Abraham Lincoln 's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post-war status was uncertain. On April 8, 1864, the Senate passed an amendment to abolish slavery. After one unsuccessful vote and extensive legislative maneuvering by the Lincoln administration, the House followed suit on January 31, 1865. The measure was swiftly ratified by nearly all Northern states, along with a sufficient number of border and "reconstructed '' Southern states, to cause it to be adopted before the end of the year.
Though the amendment formally abolished slavery throughout the United States, factors such as Black Codes, white supremacist violence, and selective enforcement of statutes continued to subject some black Americans to involuntary labor, particularly in the South. In contrast to the other Reconstruction Amendments, the Thirteenth Amendment was rarely cited in later case law, but has been used to strike down peonage and some race - based discrimination as "badges and incidents of slavery ''. The Thirteenth Amendment applies to the actions of private citizens, while the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments apply only to state actors. The amendment also enables Congress to pass laws against sex trafficking and other modern forms of slavery.
Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
The institution of slavery existed in all of the original thirteen British North American colonies. Prior to the Thirteenth Amendment, the United States Constitution (adopted in 1789) did not expressly use the words slave or slavery but included several provisions about unfree persons. The Three - Fifths Compromise (in Article I, Section 2, Clause 3) allocated Congressional representation based "on the whole Number of free Persons '' and "three fifths of all other Persons ''. This clause was a compromise between Southerners who wished slaves to be counted as ' persons ' for congressional representation and northerners rejecting these out of concern of too much power for the South, because representation in the new Congress would be based on population in contrast to the one - vote - for - one - state principle in the earlier Continental Congress. Under the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3), "No person held to Service or Labour in one State '' would be freed by escaping to another. Article I, Section 9, Clause 1 allowed Congress to pass legislation outlawing the "Importation of Persons '', but not until 1808. However, for purposes of the Fifth Amendment -- which states that, "No person shall... be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law '' -- slaves were understood as property. Although abolitionists used the Fifth Amendment to argue against slavery, it became part of the legal basis in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) for treating slaves as property.
Stimulated by the philosophy of the Declaration of Independence between 1777 and 1804, every Northern state provided for the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery. Most of the slaves involved were household servants. No Southern state did so, and the slave population of the South continued to grow, peaking at almost 4 million people in 1861. An abolitionist movement headed by such figures as William Lloyd Garrison grew in strength in the North, calling for the end of slavery nationwide and exacerbating tensions between North and South. The American Colonization Society, an alliance between abolitionists who felt the races should be kept separated and slaveholders who feared the presence of freed blacks would encourage slave rebellions, called for the emigration and colonization of both free blacks and slaves to Africa. Its views were endorsed by politicians such as Henry Clay, who feared that the main abolitionist movement would provoke a civil war. Proposals to eliminate slavery by constitutional amendment were introduced by Representative Arthur Livermore in 1818 and by John Quincy Adams in 1839, but failed to gain significant traction.
As the country continued to expand, the issue of slavery in its new territories became the dominant national issue. The Southern position was that slaves were property and therefore could be moved to the territories like all other forms of property. The 1820 Missouri Compromise provided for the admission of Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, preserving the Senate 's equality between the regions. In 1846, the Wilmot Proviso was introduced to a war appropriations bill to ban slavery in all territories acquired in the Mexican -- American War; the Proviso repeatedly passed the House, but not the Senate. The Compromise of 1850 temporarily defused the issue by admitting California as a free state, instituting a stronger Fugitive Slave Act, banning the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and allowing New Mexico and Utah self - determination on the slavery issue.
Despite the compromise, tensions between North and South continued to rise over the subsequent decade, inflamed by, amongst other things, the publication of the 1852 anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin; fighting between pro-slavery and abolitionist forces in Kansas, beginning in 1854; the 1857 Dred Scott decision, which struck down provisions of the Compromise of 1850; abolitionist John Brown 's 1859 attempt to start a slave revolt at Harpers Ferry and the 1860 election of slavery critic Abraham Lincoln to the presidency. The Southern states seceded from the Union in the months following Lincoln 's election, forming the Confederate States of America, and beginning the American Civil War.
Acting under presidential war powers, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, which proclaimed the freedom of slaves in the ten states that were still in rebellion. However, it did not affect the status of slaves in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union. That December, Lincoln again used his war powers and issued a "Proclamation for Amnesty and Reconstruction '', which offered Southern states a chance to peacefully rejoin the Union if they abolished slavery and collected loyalty oaths from 10 % of their voting population. Southern states did not readily accept the deal, and the status of slavery remained uncertain.
In the final years of the Civil War, Union lawmakers debated various proposals for Reconstruction. Some of these called for a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery nationally and permanently. On December 14, 1863, a bill proposing such an amendment was introduced by Representative James Mitchell Ashley of Ohio. Representative James F. Wilson of Iowa soon followed with a similar proposal. On January 11, 1864, Senator John B. Henderson of Missouri submitted a joint resolution for a constitutional amendment abolishing slavery. The Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, became involved in merging different proposals for an amendment.
Radical Republicans led by Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner and Pennsylvania Representative Thaddeus Stevens sought a more expansive version of the amendment. On February 8, 1864, Sumner submitted a constitutional amendment stating:
All persons are equal before the law, so that no person can hold another as a slave; and the Congress shall have power to make all laws necessary and proper to carry this declaration into effect everywhere in the United States.
Sumner tried to promote his own more expansive wording by circumventing the Trumbull - controlled Judiciary Committee, but failed. On February 10, the Senate Judiciary Committee presented the Senate with an amendment proposal based on drafts of Ashley, Wilson and Henderson.
The Committee 's version used text from the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which stipulates, "There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted. '' Though using Henderson 's proposed amendment as the basis for its new draft, the Judiciary Committee removed language that would have allowed a constitutional amendment to be adopted with only a majority vote in each House of Congress and ratification by two - thirds of the states (instead of two - thirds and three - fourths, respectively).
The Senate passed the amendment on April 8, 1864, by a vote of 38 to 6; two Democrats, Reverdy Johnson of Maryland and James Nesmith of Oregon voted "aye. '' However, just over two months later on June 15, the House failed to do so, with 93 in favor and 65 against, thirteen votes short of the two - thirds vote needed for passage; the vote split largely along party lines, with Republicans supporting and Democrats opposing. In the 1864 presidential race, former Free Soil Party candidate John C. Frémont threatened a third - party run opposing Lincoln, this time on a platform endorsing an anti-slavery amendment. The Republican Party platform had, as yet, failed to include a similar plank, though Lincoln endorsed the amendment in a letter accepting his nomination. Fremont withdrew from the race on September 22, 1864 and endorsed Lincoln.
With no Southern states represented, few members of Congress pushed moral and religious arguments in favor of slavery. Democrats who opposed the amendment generally made arguments based on federalism and states ' rights. Some argued that the proposed change so violated the spirit of the Constitution that it would not be a valid "amendment '' but would instead constitute "revolution ''. Representative White, among other opponents, warned that the amendment would lead to full citizenship for blacks.
Republicans portrayed slavery as uncivilized and argued for abolition as a necessary step in national progress. Amendment supporters also argued that the slave system had negative effects on white people. These included the lower wages resulting from competition with forced labor, as well as repression of abolitionist whites in the South. Advocates said ending slavery would restore the First Amendment and other constitutional rights violated by censorship and intimidation in slave states.
White, Northern Republicans and some Democrats became excited about an abolition amendment, holding meetings and issuing resolutions. Many blacks though, particularly in the South, focused more on land ownership and education as the key to liberation. As slavery began to seem politically untenable, an array of Northern Democrats successively announced their support for the amendment, including Representative James Brooks, Senator Reverdy Johnson, and Tammany Hall, a powerful New York political machine.
President Lincoln had had concerns that the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 might be reversed or found invalid after the war. He saw constitutional amendment as a more permanent solution. He had remained outwardly neutral on the amendment because he considered it politically too dangerous. Nonetheless, Lincoln 's 1864 party platform resolved to abolish slavery by constitutional amendment. After winning reelection in the election of 1864, Lincoln made the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment his top legislative priority, beginning with his efforts in Congress during its "lame duck '' session. Popular support for the amendment mounted and Lincoln urged Congress on in his December 6, 1864 State of the Union Address: "there is only a question of time as to when the proposed amendment will go to the States for their action. And as it is to so go, at all events, may we not agree that the sooner the better? ''
Lincoln instructed Secretary of State William H. Seward, Representative John B. Alley and others to procure votes by any means necessary, and they promised government posts and campaign contributions to outgoing Democrats willing to switch sides. Seward had a large fund for direct bribes. Ashley, who reintroduced the measure into the House, also lobbied several Democrats to vote in favor of the measure. Representative Thaddeus Stevens later commented that "the greatest measure of the nineteenth century was passed by corruption aided and abetted by the purest man in America ''; however, Lincoln 's precise role in making deals for votes remains unknown.
Republicans in Congress claimed a mandate for abolition, having gained in the elections for Senate and House. The 1864 Democratic vice-presidential nominee, Representative George H. Pendleton, led opposition to the measure. Republicans toned down their language of radical equality in order to broaden the amendment 's coalition of supporters. In order to reassure critics worried that the amendment would tear apart the social fabric, some Republicans explicitly promised that the amendment would leave patriarchy intact.
In mid-January 1865, Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax estimated the amendment to be five votes short of passage. Ashley postponed the vote. At this point, Lincoln intensified his push for the amendment, making direct emotional appeals to particular members of Congress. On January 31, 1865, the House called another vote on the amendment, with neither side being certain of the outcome. With 183 House members present, 122 would have to vote "aye '' to secure passage of the resolution; however eight members abstained, reducing the number to 117. Every Republican supported the measure, as well as 16 Democrats, almost all of them lame ducks. The amendment finally passed by a vote of 119 to 56, narrowly reaching the required two - thirds majority. The House exploded into celebration, with some members openly weeping. Black onlookers, who had only been allowed to attend Congressional sessions since the previous year, cheered from the galleries.
While under the Constitution, the President plays no formal role in the amendment process, the joint resolution was sent to Lincoln for his signature. Under the usual signatures of the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate, President Lincoln wrote the word "Approved '' and added his signature to the joint resolution on February 1, 1865. On February 7, Congress passed a resolution affirming that the Presidential signature was unnecessary. The Thirteenth Amendment is the only ratified amendment signed by a President, although James Buchanan had signed the Corwin Amendment that the 36th Congress had adopted and sent to the states in March 1861.
When the Thirteenth Amendment was submitted to the states on February 1, 1865, it was quickly taken up by several legislatures. By the end of the month it had been ratified by eighteen states. Among them were the ex-Confederate states of Virginia and Louisiana, where ratifications were submitted by Reconstruction governments. These, along with subsequent ratifications from Arkansas and Tennessee raised the issues of how many seceded states had legally valid legislatures; and if there were fewer legislatures than states, if Article V required ratification by three - fourths of the states or three - fourths of the legally valid state legislatures. President Lincoln in his last speech, on April 11, 1865, called the question about whether the Southern states were in or out of the Union a "pernicious abstraction. '' Obviously, he declared, they were not "in their proper practical relation with the Union ''; whence everyone 's object should be to restore that relation. Lincoln was assassinated three days later.
With Congress out of session, the new President, Andrew Johnson, began a period known as "Presidential Reconstruction '', in which he personally oversaw the creation of new state governments throughout the South. He oversaw the convening of state political conventions populated by delegates whom he deemed to be loyal. Three leading issues came before the conventions: secession itself, the abolition of slavery, and the Confederate war debt. Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, and South Carolina held conventions in 1865, while Texas ' convention did not organize until March 1866. Johnson hoped to prevent deliberation over whether to re-admit the Southern states by accomplishing full ratification before Congress reconvened in December. He believed he could silence those who wished to deny the Southern states their place in the Union by pointing to how essential their assent had been to the successful ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment.
Direct negotiations between state governments and the Johnson administration ensued. As the summer wore on, administration officials began including assurances of the measure 's limited scope with their demands for ratification. Johnson himself suggested directly to the governors of Mississippi and North Carolina that they could proactively control the allocation of rights to freedmen. Though Johnson obviously expected the freed people to enjoy at least some civil rights, including, as he specified, the right to testify in court, he wanted state lawmakers to know that the power to confer such rights would remain with the states. When South Carolina provisional governor Benjamin Franklin Perry objected to the scope of the amendment 's enforcement clause, Secretary of State Seward responded by telegraph that in fact the second clause "is really restraining in its effect, instead of enlarging the powers of Congress ''. White politicians throughout the South were concerned that Congress might cite the amendment 's enforcement powers as a way to authorize black suffrage.
When South Carolina ratified the amendment in November 1865, it issued its own interpretive declaration that "any attempt by Congress toward legislating upon the political status of former slaves, or their civil relations, would be contrary to the Constitution of the United States ''. Alabama and Louisiana also declared that their ratification did not imply federal power to legislate on the status of former slaves. During the first week of December, North Carolina and Georgia gave the amendment the final votes needed for it to become part of the Constitution.
The Thirteenth Amendment became part of the Constitution on December 6, 1865, based on the following ratifications:
Having been ratified by the legislatures of three - fourths of the several states (27 of the 36 states, including those that had been in rebellion), Secretary of State Seward, on December 18, 1865, certified that the Thirteenth Amendment had become valid, to all intents and purposes, as a part of the Constitution. Included on the enrolled list of ratifying states were the three ex-Confederate states that had given their assent, but with strings attached. Seward accepted their affirmative votes and brushed aside their interpretive declarations without comment, challenge or acknowledgment.
The Thirteenth Amendment was subsequently ratified by:
The Thirteenth Amendment became part of the Constitution 61 years after the Twelfth Amendment. This is the longest interval between constitutional amendments.
The impact of the abolition of slavery was felt quickly. When the Thirteenth Amendment became operational, the scope of Lincoln 's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation was widened to include the entire nation. Although the majority of Kentucky 's slaves had been emancipated, 65,000 -- 100,000 people remained to be legally freed when the Amendment went into effect on December 18. In Delaware, where a large number of slaves had escaped during the war, nine hundred people became legally free.
In addition to abolishing slavery and prohibiting involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, the Thirteenth Amendment also nullified the Fugitive Slave Clause and the Three - Fifths Compromise. The population of a state originally included (for congressional apportionment purposes) all "free persons '', three - fifths of "other persons '' (i.e., slaves) and excluded untaxed Native Americans. The Three - Fifths Compromise was a provision in the Constitution that required three - fifths of the population of slaves be counted for purposes of apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and taxes among the states. This compromise had the effect of increasing the political power of slave - holding states by increasing their share of seats in the House of Representatives, and consequently their share in the Electoral College (where a state 's influence over the election of the President is tied to the size of its congressional delegation).
Even as the Thirteenth Amendment was working its way through the ratification process, Republicans in Congress grew increasingly concerned about the potential for there to be a large increase in the congressional representation of the Democratic - dominated Southern states. Because the full population of freed slaves would be counted rather than three - fifths, the Southern states would dramatically increase their power in the population - based House of Representatives. Republicans hoped to offset this advantage by attracting and protecting votes of the newly enfranchised black population.
Southern culture remained deeply racist, and those blacks who remained faced a dangerous situation. J.J. Gries reported to the Joint Committee on Reconstruction: "There is a kind of innate feeling, a lingering hope among many in the South that slavery will be regalvanized in some shape or other. They tried by their laws to make a worse slavery than there was before, for the freedman has not the protection which the master from interest gave him before. '' W.E.B. Du Bois wrote in 1935:
Slavery was not abolished even after the Thirteenth Amendment. There were four million freedmen and most of them on the same plantation, doing the same work that they did before emancipation, except as their work had been interrupted and changed by the upheaval of war. Moreover, they were getting about the same wages and apparently were going to be subject to slave codes modified only in name. There were among them thousands of fugitives in the camps of the soldiers or on the streets of the cities, homeless, sick, and impoverished. They had been freed practically with no land nor money, and, save in exceptional cases, without legal status, and without protection.
Official emancipation did not substantially alter the economic situation of most blacks who remained in the south.
As the amendment still permitted labor as punishment for convicted criminals, Southern states responded with what historian Douglas A. Blackmon called "an array of interlocking laws essentially intended to criminalize black life ''. These laws, passed or updated after emancipation, were known as Black Codes. Mississippi was the first state to pass such codes, with an 1865 law titled "An Act to confer Civil Rights on Freedmen ''. The Mississippi law required black workers to contract with white farmers by January 1 of each year or face punishment for vagrancy. Blacks could be sentenced to forced labor for crimes including petty theft, using obscene language, or selling cotton after sunset. States passed new, strict vagrancy laws that were selectively enforced against blacks without white protectors. The labor of these convicts was then sold to farms, factories, lumber camps, quarries, and mines.
After its ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in November 1865, the South Carolina legislature immediately began to legislate Black Codes. The Black Codes created a separate set of laws, punishments, and acceptable behaviors for anyone with more than one black great - grandparent. Under these Codes, Blacks could only work as farmers or servants and had few Constitutional rights. Restrictions on black land ownership threatened to make economic subservience permanent.
Some states mandated indefinitely long periods of child "apprenticeship ''. Some laws did not target Blacks specifically, but instead affected farm workers, most of whom were Black. At the same time, many states passed laws to actively prevent Blacks from acquiring property.
As its first enforcement legislation, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, guaranteeing black Americans citizenship and equal protection of the law, though not the right to vote. The amendment was also used as authorizing several Freedmen 's Bureau bills. President Andrew Johnson vetoed these bills, but Congress overrode his vetoes to pass the Civil Rights Act and the Second Freedmen 's Bureau Bill.
Proponents of the Act, including Trumbull and Wilson, argued that Section 2 of the Thirteenth Amendment authorized the federal government to legislate civil rights for the States. Others disagreed, maintaining that inequality conditions were distinct from slavery. Seeking more substantial justification, and fearing that future opponents would again seek to overturn the legislation, Congress and the states added additional protections to the Constitution: the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) defining citizenship and mandating equal protection under the law, and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) banning racial voting restrictions.
The Freedmen 's Bureau enforced the amendment locally, providing a degree of support for people subject to the Black Codes. Reciprocally, the Thirteenth Amendment established the Bureau 's legal basis to operate in Kentucky. The Civil Rights Act circumvented racism in local jurisdictions by allowing blacks access to the federal courts. The Enforcement Acts of 1870 -- 1871 and the Civil Rights Act of 1875, in combating the violence and intimidation of white supremacy, were also part of the effort to end slave conditions for Southern blacks. However, the effect of these laws waned as political will diminished and the federal government lost authority in the South, particularly after the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in exchange for a Republican presidency.
Southern business owners sought to reproduce the profitable arrangement of slavery with a system called peonage, in which disproportionately black workers were entrapped by loans and compelled to work indefinitely because of their debt. Peonage continued well through Reconstruction and ensnared a large proportion of black workers in the South. These workers remained destitute and persecuted, forced to work dangerous jobs and further confined legally by the racist Jim Crow laws that governed the South. Peonage differed from chattel slavery because it was not strictly hereditary and did not allow the sale of people in exactly the same fashion. However, a person 's debt -- and by extension a person -- could still be sold, and the system resembled antebellum slavery in many ways.
With the Peonage Act of 1867, Congress abolished "the holding of any person to service or labor under the system known as peonage '', specifically banning "the voluntary or involuntary service or labor of any persons as peons, in liquidation of any debt or obligation, or otherwise. ''
In 1939, the Department of Justice created the Civil Rights Section, which focused primarily on First Amendment and labor rights. The increasing scrutiny of totalitarianism in the lead - up to World War II brought increased attention to issues of slavery and involuntary servitude, abroad and at home. The U.S. sought to counter foreign propaganda and increase its credibility on the race issue by combatting the Southern peonage system. Under the leadership of Attorney General Francis Biddle, the Civil Rights Section invoked the constitutional amendments and legislation of the Reconstruction Era as the basis for its actions.
In 1947, the DOJ successfully prosecuted Elizabeth Ingalls for keeping domestic servant Dora L. Jones in conditions of slavery. The court found that Jones "was a person wholly subject to the will of defendant; that she was one who had no freedom of action and whose person and services were wholly under the control of defendant and who was in a state of enforced compulsory service to the defendant. '' The Thirteenth Amendment enjoyed a swell of attention during this period, but from Brown v. Board of Education (1954) until Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. (1968) it was again eclipsed by the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Thirteenth Amendment exempts penal labor from its prohibition of forced labor. This allows prisoners who have been convicted of crimes (not those merely awaiting trial) to be required to perform labor or else face punishment while in custody.
Few records of the committee 's deliberations during the drafting of the Thirteenth Amendment survived, and the debate in both Congress and the state legislatures that followed featured almost no discussion of this provision. It was apparently considered noncontroversial at the time, or at least legislators gave it little thought. There does exist records of the reason for this exemption, albeit more removed in time; the drafters based the amendment 's phrasing on the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which features an identical exception. Thomas Jefferson authored an early version of that ordinance 's anti-slavery clause, including the exception of punishment for a crime, and also sought to prohibit slavery in general after 1800. Jefferson was an admirer of the works of Italian criminologist Cesare Beccaria. Beccaria 's On Crimes and Punishments suggested that the death penalty should be abolished and replaced with a lifetime of enslavement for the worst criminals; Jefferson likely included the clause due to his agreement with Beccaria. Beccaria, while attempting to reduce "legal barbarism '' of the 1700s, considered forced labor one of the few harsh punishments acceptable; for example, he advocated slave labor as a just punishment for robbery, so that the thief 's labor could be used to pay recompense to their victims and to society. Penal "hard labor '' has ancient origins, and was adopted early in American history (as in Europe) often as a substitute for capital or corporal punishment.
Since ratification, various commentators have accused states of abusing this provision to re-establish systems similar to slavery, or of otherwise exploiting such labor in a manner unfair to local labor. The Black Codes in the South criminalized "vagrancy '', which was largely enforced against freed slaves. Later, convict lease programs in the South allowed local plantations to rent inexpensive prisoner labor. While many of these programs have been phased out (leasing of convicts was forbidden by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1941), prison labor continues in America under a variety of justifications. Prison labor programs vary widely; some are uncompensated prison maintenance tasks, some are for local government maintenance tasks, some are for local businesses, and others are closer to internships. Modern rationales for prison labor programs often include reduction of recidivism and re-acclimation to society; the idea is that such labor programs will make it easier for the prisoner upon release to find gainful employment rather than relapse to criminality. However, this topic is not well - studied, and much of the work offered is so menial as to be unlikely to improve employment prospects. As of 2017, most prison labor programs do compensate prisoners, but generally with very low wages. What wages they do earn are often heavily garnished, with as much as 80 % of a prisoner 's paycheck withheld in the harshest cases.
In contrast to the other "Reconstruction Amendments '', the Thirteenth Amendment was rarely cited in later case law. As historian Amy Dru Stanley summarizes, "beyond a handful of landmark rulings striking down debt peonage, flagrant involuntary servitude, and some instances of race - based violence and discrimination, the Thirteenth Amendment has never been a potent source of rights claims ''.
U.S. v. Rhodes (1866), one of the first Thirteenth Amendment cases, tested the Constitutionality of provisions in the Civil Rights Act of 1866 that granted blacks redress in the federal courts. Kentucky law prohibited blacks from testifying against whites -- an arrangement which compromised the ability of Nancy Talbot ("a citizen of the United States of the African race '') to reach justice against a white person accused of robbing her. After Talbot attempted to try the case in federal court, the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled this federal option unconstitutional. Noah Swayne (a Supreme Court justice sitting on the Kentucky Circuit Court) overturned the Kentucky decision, holding that without the material enforcement provided by the Civil Rights Act, slavery would not truly be abolished. With In Re Turner (1867), Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase ordered freedom for Elizabeth Turner, a former slave in Maryland who became indentured to her former master.
In Blyew v. U.S., (1872) the Supreme Court heard another Civil Rights Act case relating to federal courts in Kentucky. John Blyew and George Kennard were white men visiting the cabin of a black family, the Fosters. Blyew apparently became angry with sixteen - year - old Richard Foster and hit him twice in the head with an ax. Blyew and Kennard killed Richard 's parents, Sallie and Jack Foster, and his blind grandmother, Lucy Armstrong. They severely wounded the Fosters ' two young daughters. Kentucky courts would not allow the Foster children to testify against Blyew and Kennard. But federal courts, authorized by the Civil Rights Act, found Blyew and Kennard guilty of murder. When the Supreme Court took the case, they ruled (5 -- 2) that the Foster children did not have standing in federal courts because only living people could take advantage of the Act. In doing so, the Courts effectively ruled that Thirteenth Amendment did not permit a federal remedy in murder cases. Swayne and Joseph P. Bradley dissented, maintaining that in order to have meaningful effects, the Thirteenth Amendment would have to address systemic racial oppression.
Though based on a technicality, the Blyew case set a precedent in state and federal courts that led to the erosion of Congress 's Thirteenth Amendment powers. The Supreme Court continued along this path in the Slaughter - House Cases (1873), which upheld a state - sanctioned monopoly of white butchers. In United States v. Cruikshank (1876), the Court ignored Thirteenth Amendment dicta from a circuit court decision to exonerate perpetrators of the Colfax massacre and invalidate the Enforcement Act of 1870.
The Thirteenth Amendment was not solely a ban on chattel slavery, but also covers a much broader array of labor arrangements and social deprivations. As the U.S. Supreme Court explicated in the Slaughter - House Cases (1873) with respect to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment and the Thirteenth Amendment in special:
Undoubtedly while negro slavery alone was in the mind of the Congress which proposed the thirteenth article, it forbids any other kind of slavery, now or hereafter. If Mexican peonage or the Chinese coolie labor system shall develop slavery of the Mexican or Chinese race within our territory, this amendment may safely be trusted to make it void. And so if other rights are assailed by the States which properly and necessarily fall within the protection of these articles, that protection will apply, though the party interested may not be of African descent. But what we do say, and what we wish to be understood is, that in any fair and just construction of any section or phrase of these amendments, it is necessary to look to the purpose which we have said was the pervading spirit of them all, the evil which they were designed to remedy, and the process of continued addition to the Constitution, until that purpose was supposed to be accomplished, as far as constitutional law can accomplish it.
In the Civil Rights Cases (1883), the Supreme Court reviewed five consolidated cases dealing with the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which outlawed racial discrimination at "inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement ''. The Court ruled that the Thirteenth Amendment did not ban most forms of racial discrimination by non-government actors. In the majority decision, Bradley wrote (again in non-binding dicta) that the Thirteenth Amendment empowered Congress to attack "badges and incidents of slavery ''. However, he distinguished between "fundamental rights '' of citizenship, protected by the Thirteenth Amendment, and the "social rights of men and races in the community ''. The majority opinion held that "it would be running the slavery argument into the ground to make it apply to every act of discrimination which a person may see fit to make as to guests he will entertain, or as to the people he will take into his coach or cab or car; or admit to his concert or theatre, or deal with in other matters of intercourse or business. '' In his solitary dissent, John Marshall Harlan (a Kentucky lawyer who changed his mind about civil rights law after witnessing organized racist violence) argued that "such discrimination practiced by corporations and individuals in the exercise of their public or quasi-public functions is a badge of servitude, the imposition of which congress may prevent under its power. ''
The Court in the Civil Rights Cases also held that appropriate legislation under the amendment could go beyond nullifying state laws establishing or upholding slavery, because the amendment "has a reflex character also, establishing and decreeing universal civil and political freedom throughout the United States '' and thus Congress was empowered "to pass all laws necessary and proper for abolishing all badges and incidents of slavery in the United States. '' The Court stated about the scope the amendment:
This amendment, as well as the Fourteenth, is undoubtedly self - executing, without any ancillary legislation, so far as its terms are applicable to any existing state of circumstances. By its own unaided force and effect, it abolished slavery and established universal freedom. Still, legislation may be necessary and proper to meet all the various cases and circumstances to be affected by it, and to prescribe proper modes of redress for its violation in letter or spirit. And such legislation may be primary and direct in its character, for the amendment is not a mere prohibition of State laws establishing or upholding slavery, but an absolute declaration that slavery or involuntary servitude shall not exist in any part of the United States.
Attorneys in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) argued that racial segregation involved "observances of a servile character coincident with the incidents of slavery '', in violation of the Thirteenth Amendment. In their brief to the Supreme Court, Plessy 's lawyers wrote that "distinction of race and caste '' was inherently unconstitutional. The Supreme Court rejected this reasoning and upheld state laws enforcing segregation under the "separate but equal '' doctrine. In the (7 -- 1) majority decision, the Court found that "a statute which implies merely a legal distinction between the white and colored races -- a distinction which is founded on the color of the two races and which must always exist so long as white men are distinguished from the other race by color -- has no tendency to destroy the legal equality of the two races, or reestablish a state of involuntary servitude. '' Harlan dissented, writing: "The thin disguise of ' equal ' accommodations for passengers in railroad coaches will not mislead any one, nor, atone for the wrong this day done. ''
In Hodges v. United States (1906), the Court struck down a federal statute providing for the punishment of two or more people who "conspire to injure, oppress, threaten or intimidate any citizen in the free exercise or enjoyment of any right or privilege secured to him by the Constitution or laws of the United States ''. A group of white men in Arkansas conspired to violently prevent eight black workers from performing their jobs at a lumber mill; the group was convicted by a federal grand jury. The Supreme Court ruled that the federal statute, which outlawed conspiracies to deprive citizens of their liberty, was not authorized by the Thirteenth Amendment. It held that "no mere personal assault or trespass or appropriation operates to reduce the individual to a condition of slavery ''. Harlan dissented, maintaining his opinion that the Thirteenth Amendment should protect freedom beyond "physical restraint ''. Corrigan v. Buckley (1922) reaffirmed the interpretation from Hodges, finding that the amendment does not apply to restrictive covenants.
Enforcement of federal civil rights law in the South created numerous peonage cases, which slowly traveled up through the judiciary. The Supreme Court ruled in Clyatt v. United States (1905) that peonage was involuntary servitude. It held that although employers sometimes described their workers ' entry into contract as voluntary, the servitude of peonage was always (by definition) involuntary.
In Bailey v. Alabama the U.S. Supreme Court again reaffirmed its holding that Thirteenth Amendment was not solely a ban on chattel slavery, but also covers a much broader array of labor arrangements and social deprivations In addition to the aforesaid the Court also ruled on Congress enforcement power under the Thirteenth Amendment. The Court said:
The plain intention (of the amendment) was to abolish slavery of whatever name and form and all its badges and incidents; to render impossible any state of bondage; to make labor free, by prohibiting that control by which the personal service of one man is disposed of or coerced for another 's benefit, which is the essence of involuntary servitude. While the Amendment was self - executing, so far as its terms were applicable to any existing condition, Congress was authorized to secure its complete enforcement by appropriate legislation.
Legal histories cite Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. (1968) as a turning point of Thirteen Amendment jurisprudence. The Supreme Court confirmed in Jones that Congress may act "rationally '' to prevent private actors from imposing "badges and incidents of servitude ''. The Joneses were a black couple in St. Louis County, Missouri who sued a real estate company for refusing to sell them a house. The Court held:
Congress has the power under the Thirteenth Amendment rationally to determine what are the badges and the incidents of slavery, and the authority to translate that determination into effective legislation... this Court recognized long ago that, whatever else they may have encompassed, the badges and incidents of slavery -- its "burdens and disabilities '' -- included restraints upon "those fundamental rights which are the essence of civil freedom, namely, the same right... to inherit, purchase, lease, sell and convey property, as is enjoyed by white citizens. '' Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3, 109 U.S. 22.
Just as the Black Codes, enacted after the Civil War to restrict the free exercise of those rights, were substitutes for the slave system, so the exclusion of Negroes from white communities became a substitute for the Black Codes. And when racial discrimination herds men into ghettos and makes their ability to buy property turn on the color of their skin, then it too is a relic of slavery.
Negro citizens, North and South, who saw in the Thirteenth Amendment a promise of freedom -- freedom to "go and come at pleasure '' and to "buy and sell when they please '' -- would be left with "a mere paper guarantee '' if Congress were powerless to assure that a dollar in the hands of a Negro will purchase the same thing as a dollar in the hands of a white man. At the very least, the freedom that Congress is empowered to secure under the Thirteenth Amendment includes the freedom to buy whatever a white man can buy, the right to live wherever a white man can live. If Congress can not say that being a free man means at least this much, then the Thirteenth Amendment made a promise the Nation can not keep.
The Court in Jones reopened the issue of linking racism in contemporary society to the history of slavery in the United States.
The Jones precedent has been used to justify Congressional action to protect migrant workers and target sex trafficking. The direct enforcement power found in the Thirteenth Amendment contrasts with that of the Fourteenth, which allows only responses to institutional discrimination of state actors.
The Supreme Court has taken an especially narrow view of involuntary servitude claims made by people not descended from black (African) slaves. In Robertson v. Baldwin (1897), a group of merchant seamen challenged federal statutes which criminalized a seaman 's failure to complete their contractual term of service. The Court ruled that seamen 's contracts had been considered unique from time immemorial, and that "the amendment was not intended to introduce any novel doctrine with respect to certain descriptions of service which have always been treated as exceptional ''. In this case, as in numerous "badges and incidents '' cases, Justice Harlan authored a dissent favoring broader Thirteenth Amendment protections.
In Selective Draft Law Cases, the Supreme Court ruled that the military draft was not "involuntary servitude ''. In United States v. Kozminski, the Supreme Court ruled that the Thirteenth Amendment did not prohibit compulsion of servitude through psychological coercion. Kozminski defined involuntary servitude for purposes of criminal prosecution as "a condition of servitude in which the victim is forced to work for the defendant by the use or threat of physical restraint or physical injury or by the use or threat of coercion through law or the legal process. This definition encompasses cases in which the defendant holds the victim in servitude by placing him or her in fear of such physical restraint or injury or legal coercion. ''
The U.S. Courts of Appeals, in Immediato v. Rye Neck School District, Herndon v. Chapel Hill, and Steirer v. Bethlehem School District, have ruled that the use of community service as a high school graduation requirement did not violate the Thirteenth Amendment.
During the six decades following the 1804 ratification of the Twelfth Amendment two proposals to amend the Constitution were adopted by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Neither has been ratified by the number of states necessary to become part of the Constitution. Commonly known as the Titles of Nobility Amendment and the Corwin Amendment, both are referred to as Article Thirteen, as was the successful Thirteenth Amendment, in the joint resolution passed by Congress.
Maryland Law Review, special issue: Symposium -- the Maryland Constitutional Law Schmooze
Columbia Law Review, special issue: Symposium: The Thirteenth Amendment: Meaning, Enforcement, and Contemporary Implications
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list of companies in sri city andhra pradesh | Sricity - wikipedia
Sri City is a planned integrated business city (township) located 55 km north of Chennai on NH 16 in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. Much of the Sri City area is in Chittoor District and a smaller area along the NH16 is in Nellore District of Andhra Pradesh, India
The Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SHAR), India 's satellite / rocket launching centre is located at Sriharikota, on the eastern side of the Pulicat Lake which separates Sri City and the satellite launching station.
The name Sri City is inspired by the title sri derived from Sanskrit. Sri is the sacred sound of cosmic auspiciousness and abundance in the Hindu religion. Written as sri, shree, sree or shri, it stands for abundance, auspiciousness, affluence, grace, wealth, light, luster, splendor, beauty, loveliness and authority. The symbol has been used since Vedic times. Holiness is attached to the word when written or spoken. It is also added before a name to show respect. Sri is the beginning of the name of renowned temple towns in the region such as Srirangam, Srikalahasti, Sriperumbudur and Sriharikota. The world - famous temple city of Tirupati the abode of Lord Sri Venkateshwara (aka Srinivasa, Balaji) is also located near Sri City. After the symbol aum (ॐ) and the swastika, sri is the most popular symbol used in Hinduism. Sri is also the sacred of Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth and prosperity.
The district has hundreds of monuments, memorial rocks and memorials. The historical memorials date back to over 1000 years.
The history of the district, which was carved out in 1905 from then Cuddapah, Nellore and North Arcot districts, has been shaped by the ups and downs of several Dravidian kingdoms. It was a British military post until 1884. Back to 1000 years when the region was dominated by Vijayanagara Empire and is linked with the Aravidu dynasty.
It is situated between north latitudes of 13 ° 29'50 '' & 13 ° 34'40 '' and east longitudes of 79 ° 57'30 '' & 80 ° 02'50 ", at an average elevation of about 20 metres above MSL (66 ft) covering parts of Chittoor district and Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh. It is alongside NH 5 which forms part of the Golden Quadrilateral. A creek (Karipeti Kalava) flows through Sri City passing through a number of lakes on the way to joining Pulicat Lake north of Tada. There is a state forest on the western boundary. The Telugu Ganga project carrying Krishna River water to Chennai passes along the western boundary of Sri City.
The soils of the area can be broadly classified as:
The area experiences both the southwest monsoon and the northeast monsoon. In between there are lull periods. The average rainfall per annum as recorded in Satyavedu is 1305 mm.
Trees -- Red sanders wood is the speciality of this area. It is the heartwood of Pterocarpus santalinus, a small tree indigenous to Southern India and the Philippines. During the Middle Ages it was classed as a spice and used for culinary purposes, and at one time it was supposed to possess medicinal properties. It is also called raktachandan. The literal meaning of raktachandan is blood coloured sandalwood. This kind of wood has a special and rust red colour and it is used to carve a number of products including panels, framework and traditional dolls.
Mesophytic flora like Syzygium cumini (locally called neredu), Pongamia ghaira (kanuga) and large trees like Terminalia arjuna (erramaddi and tellamaddi), mangos and Phoenix sylvestris.
Among the birds, the large grey babbler, great grey shrike, king crow, myna, bee - eater, hoopoe, swift, vulture, eagle, kite, owl, sand grouse, quail, partridge, green pigeon and peacock are found in the district. Herbivores in the district include sambar, blackbuck, chital, wild sheep, mouse deer, hare and rabbit.
Telugu is the official and spoken language. Most of the educated populace speak English and are bi-lingual.
Sri City forms part of Satyavedu and Varadaiahpalem mandals of Chittoor District. It is part of the Satyavedu constituency and Tirupati MP constituency. As per 2011 census the total population of the satyavedu constituency is 2, 77,010, with a literacy rate of 78.98, well over national rate of Literacy in India which stand at 61 %.
Moving with times, Sri City is on its way to becoming a hub for large and medium scale industries, such as Engineering, Electronics, Automotive, Aerospace, Apparel, Renewable Energy, Biotech / Pharma, Sporting Equipment & Toys, Logistics and Warehousing, IT / ITES / BPO, Education & Training Institutes, other Eco-Friendly Industries.
The integrated township includes various zones: Industrial, Residential, Educational, Commercial and Recreational.
The Industrial Zone includes a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) for Export Oriented Industry and Domestic Tariff Zone (DTZ) for Domestic Industry. It is a business destination for global companies to establish Manufacturing, Services and Trading operations in India.
The SEZ is administered by Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (APIIC) & Industrial Area Local Authority (IALA). The Government appointed officer controls the planning and building approval processes. A Commissioner appointed by the Government of India, Ministry of Commerce, administers the (SEZ) area.
The SEZ was designed by Jurong Consultants, Singapore, taking into account future dimensions of expansion.
Sricity is located in close proximity to Asian Highway 45. The Tirupati Airport is the nearest domestic airport (82 KMS) and Chennai International Airport is the nearest international airport (86 kms). Tada and Arambakkam railways stations are nearest railway stations to Sricity. Chennai Port and Ennore Ports are the nearest port to the town. While, Krishnapatnam Port is located 100 km (62 mi) to the north of Sri City.
The district boasts few of the finest ancient / modern temples of the country. The archaeological treasures unearthed from the town and its adjoining areas occupy the pride of place at different museums. The Chandragiri Fort is known for its architectural marvels including the Srikalahasti temple.
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati, Goddess Padmavathi temple at Thiruchanoor, Srikalahasti temple, Chengalamma temple in Sullurpeta, Parshwanatha Jain Temple at Chandragiri etc., are the nearby religious tourist destinations to Sricity.
Pulicat Lake, Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary, Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary Tada Falls or Ubbalamadugu Falls, Nagalapuram Falls, Satish Dhawan Space Center are the nearby tourist destinations.
List of Companies in Sri City
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who got a star on the hollywood walk of fame today | List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame - wikipedia
The following is a list of the stars ' actual locations on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The list does not include a star 's name until his or her actual award ceremony, as on multiple occasions and for various reasons stars have been withdrawn prior to the award ceremony. The list should be consistent with the list on the Hollywood Walk of Fame website maintained by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. The stars are ordered alphabetically by surname.
As of 2017, more than 2,600 stars are on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
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when did they drop the atomic bomb on hiroshima | Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - wikipedia
Hiroshima:
Nagasaki:
Southeast Asia
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
During the final stage of World War II, the United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively. The United States had dropped the bombs with the consent of the United Kingdom as outlined in the Quebec Agreement. The two bombings, which killed at least 129,000 people, remain the only use of nuclear weapons for warfare in history.
In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a very costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This was preceded by a U.S. conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities. The war in Europe had concluded when Nazi Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945. The Japanese, facing the same fate, refused to accept the Allies ' demands for unconditional surrender and the Pacific War continued. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945 -- the alternative being "prompt and utter destruction ''. The Japanese response to this ultimatum was to ignore it.
By August 1945, the Allies ' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs, and the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B - 29 Superfortress that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands. Orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. On August 6, the U.S. dropped a uranium gun - type (Little Boy) bomb on Hiroshima, and American President Harry S. Truman called for Japan 's surrender, warning it to "expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. '' Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium implosion - type (Fat Man) bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Within the first two to four months following the bombings, the acute effects of the atomic bombings had killed 90,000 -- 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000 -- 80,000 in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison.
Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war. On September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The justification for the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is still debated to this day.
In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. The Japanese fought fiercely, ensuring that U.S. victory would come at an enormous cost. Of the 1.25 million battle casualties incurred by the United States in World War II, including both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action, nearly one million occurred in the twelve - month period from June 1944 to June 1945. December 1944 saw American battle casualties hit an all - time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, and invaded Borneo. Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5: 1 in the Philippines to 2: 1 on Okinawa.
Although some Japanese were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99 % of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April -- June 1945, 94 % were killed. American military leaders used these figures to estimate high casualties among American soldiers in the planned invasion of Japan.
As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan 's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 % of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan 's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan 's production of 70,000 for the entire war. By the middle of 1944, the U.S. had almost a hundred aircraft carriers in the Pacific, far more than Japan 's twenty - five for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised the Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate.
Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8, 1945, plans were under way for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall, the invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū. Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First, Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass.
Japan 's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all - out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan, and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths.
A study from June 15, 1945, by the Joint War Plans Committee, who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Olympic would result in between 130,000 and 220,000 U.S. casualties, of which U.S. dead would be in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on June 15, 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan 's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General of the Army George Marshall, and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate.
The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley. Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk, and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million.
Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon which was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives '': poison gas. Quantities of phosgene, mustard gas, tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan.
While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long - ranged Boeing B - 29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India - based B - 29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber 's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities.
United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B - 29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B - 29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on November 18, 1944.
The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China - based B - 29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so - called high - altitude precision bombing, aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action.
Hansell 's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay, assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from USAAF headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low - level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries.
Like most strategic bombing during World War II, the aim of the USAAF offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy 's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale. Civilians who took part in the war effort through such activities as building fortifications and manufacturing munitions and other war materials in factories and workshops were considered combatants in a legal sense and therefore liable to be attacked.
Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 67 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo, codenamed Operation Meetinghouse, on March 9 -- 10 killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed 16 square miles (41 km) of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B - 29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 % of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan 's "paper cities ''. By mid-June, Japan 's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka, the U.S. fire - bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. These raids were also devastating.
The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country 's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and antiaircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids in order to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B - 29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, in order to conserve supplies of fuel. By July 1945, the Japanese had stockpiled 1,156,000 US barrels (137,800,000 l; 36,400,000 US gal; 30,300,000 imp gal) of avgas for the invasion of Japan. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids.
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein - Szilard letter. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 -- 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium - 235 was needed for a bomb instead of tons of un-enriched uranium and a neutron moderator (e.g. heavy water).
Working in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada, with their respective projects Tube Alloys and Chalk River Laboratories, the Manhattan Project, under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, designed and built the first atomic bombs. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out. Two types of bombs were eventually developed. Little Boy was a gun - type fission weapon that used uranium - 235, a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The other, known as a Fat Man device (both types named by Robert Serber), was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion - type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington. A test implosion weapon, the gadget, was detonated at Trinity Site, on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico.
There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program, but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb.
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on December 9, 1944, and activated on December 17, 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets. Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite '' rather than a "bombardment '' unit.
Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas, and Mountain Home, Idaho, because of its remoteness. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat - ready.
The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta, known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B - 29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel - injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible - pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements.
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on April 26, 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men flew by C - 54 to North Field on Tinian, between May 15 and May 22.
There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs ''.
In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann, Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on April 27; at Los Alamos on May 10, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on May 28, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project 's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman.
The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura, the site of one of Japan 's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima, an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama, an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata, a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto, a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria:
These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the weapon could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target. ''
The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released. Kyoto had the advantage of being an important center for military industry, as well an intellectual center and hence a population better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. The Emperor 's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value. ''
Edwin O. Reischauer, a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service, was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim:
... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War at the time, who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier.
On May 30, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On July 25, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto.
In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy. During the meetings on May 31 and June 1, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that:
It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery. If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice, the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference. An atomic bomb was an intricate device, still in the developmental stage. Its operation would be far from routine. If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack, a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure. Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made. It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available, followed afterwards by others at all - too - long intervals. We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud. If the test were made on some neutral territory, it was hard to believe that Japan 's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed. If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender, the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective. On the contrary, it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could. Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive, no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war.
The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use. '' Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target.
Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a dud since the Trinity test was of a stationary device, not an air - dropped bomb. In addition, only two bombs would be available at the start of August, although more were in production, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive.
For several months, the U.S. had dropped more than 63 million leaflets across Japan warning civilians of air raids. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 % destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area - bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern amongst the Empire of Japan that they ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots ''.
In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer - led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb, and against a special leaflet warning, in both cases because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation, and the wish to maximize shock in the leadership. No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources give conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton writes that it was July 27, and Theodore H. McNelly that it was July 3. The USAAF history notes eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on July 27, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on July 30. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on August 1 and August 4. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "... we can not promise that only these cities will be among those attacked... '' Hiroshima is not listed.
Under the 1943 Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom, nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee was held at the Pentagon on July 4, 1945. Stimson and Vannevar Bush represented the United States; Britain was represented by the head of the British Joint Staff Mission, Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson; and Canada by Clarence D. Howe. In addition, Harvey Bundy, Sir James Chadwick, Groves, Lord Halifax, George L. Harrison, and Roger Makins were all present at the meeting by invitation.
Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, at the upcoming Potsdam Conference.
Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on July 25 under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting Chief of Staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. That day, Truman noted in his diary that:
This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I have told the Sec. of War, Mr. Stimson, to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children. Even if the Japs are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the leader of the world for the common welfare can not drop that terrible bomb on the old capital (Kyoto) or the new (Tokyo). He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one.
The successful Trinity Test of July 16 exceeded expectations. On July 26, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration outlining terms of surrender for Japan. It was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland ''. The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué.
On July 28, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash (yakinaoshi) of the Cairo Declaration and that the government intended to ignore it (mokusatsu, "kill by silence ''). The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position. Japan 's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the imperial institution; that Japan not be occupied; that the Japanese armed forces be disbanded voluntarily; and that war criminals be prosecuted by Japanese courts.
At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal back to Wilson.
The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. The uranium - 235 projectile was completed on June 15, and the target insert on July 24. The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on July 16 aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis, and arrived on Tinian on July 26. The target inserts followed by air on July 30.
The first plutonium core, along with its polonium - beryllium urchin initiator, was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C - 54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on July 26, and arrived at North Field July 28. Three Fat Man high - explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on July 28 by three B - 29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on August 2.
At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army, which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle. Hata 's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army, the 5th Division and the 224th Division, a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 7 - cm and 8 - cm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city.
Hiroshima was a minor supply and logistics base for the Japanese military, but it also had large stockpiles of military supplies. The city was also a communications center, a key port for shipping and an assembly area for troops. It was a beehive of war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns; children were shown how to construct and hurl gasoline bombs and the wheelchair - bound and bedridden were assembling booby traps to be planted in the beaches of Kyushu. A new slogan appeared on the walls of Hiroshima: "FORGET SELF! ALL OUT FOR YOUR COUNTRY! '' It was also the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, due to the fact that it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command 's priority target. On July 3, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto.
The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber - made workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage.
The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000 -- 350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks, beginning in 1944. Firebreaks continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6, 1945.
Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on August 6, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. Having been fully briefed under the terms of Operations Order No. 35, the 393d Bombardment Squadron B - 29 Enola Gay, piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian, about six hours ' flight time from Japan. The Enola Gay (named after Tibbets ' mother) was accompanied by two other B - 29s. The Great Artiste, commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, carried instrumentation, and a then - nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt, served as the photography aircraft.
After leaving Tinian the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05: 55 at 9,200 feet (2,800 m), and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 31,060 feet (9,470 m). Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb during the flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B - 29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B - 29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.
During the night of August 5 -- 6, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi, 261 en route to Nishinomiya, 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all - clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00: 05. About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay. It read: "Cloud cover less than 3 / 10th at all altitudes. Advice: bomb primary. '' The all - clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07: 09.
At 08: 09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee. The release at 08: 15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg (141 lb) of uranium - 235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 31,000 feet (9,400 m) to a detonation height of about 1,900 feet (580 m) above the city. Enola Gay traveled 11.5 mi (18.5 km) before it felt the shock waves from the blast.
Due to crosswind, the bomb missed the aiming point, the Aioi Bridge, by approximately 800 ft (240 m) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic at 34 ° 23 ′ 41 '' N 132 ° 27 ′ 17 '' E / 34.39468 ° N 132.45462 ° E / 34.39468; 132.45462. It released the equivalent energy of 16 kilotons of TNT (67 TJ), ± 2 kt. The weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7 % of its material fissioning. The radius of total destruction was about 1 mile (1.6 km), with resulting fires across 4.4 square miles (11 km).
People on the ground reported seeing a pika (ピカ) -- a brilliant flash of light -- followed by a don (ドン) -- a loud booming sound. Some 70,000 -- 80,000 people, or around 30 % of the population of Hiroshima, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 injured. Perhaps as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed.
Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was ten miles away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. "It was hard to believe what we saw '', Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said "the whole thing was tremendous and awe - inspiring... the men aboard with me gasped ' My God ' ''. He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to "a close burst of ack - ack fire ''.
Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall, now commonly known as the Genbaku (A-bomb) dome. This building was designed and built by the Czech architect Jan Letzel, and was only 150 m (490 ft) from ground zero. The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective.
The US surveys estimated that 4.7 square miles (12 km) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 -- 7 % damaged. The bombing started fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes. As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective.
Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, who was in the basement of a reinforced concrete building (it remained as the Rest House after the war) only 170 metres (560 ft) from ground zero (the hypocenter) at the time of the attack. He lived into his 80s. Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She had been in the solidly built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters (980 ft) from ground - zero at the time of the attack.
Over 90 % of the doctors and 93 % of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured -- most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage. The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki, remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital. Nonetheless, by early afternoon, the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library.
Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were at physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle, barely 900 yards (820 m) from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground. The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been conscripted / mobilized to serve as a communications officer had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi, when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters (some 100 km away) that "Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near - total destruction. ''
Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Hata, who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including a Korean prince of the Joseon Dynasty, Yi Wu, who was serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Japanese Army. Hata 's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto, who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used suicide boats, intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina. Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city.
Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters located about 1,300 feet (400 m) from the hypocenter of the blast. Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai, where they were stoned to death. Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up.
The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed. About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within 16 km (10 mi) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff.
Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor.
The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km (100 mi) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb. After circling the city in order to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo 's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman 's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later.
After the Hiroshima bombing, Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon. He stated, "We may be grateful to Providence '' that the German atomic bomb project had failed, and that the United States and its allies had "spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history -- and won ''. Truman then warned Japan: "If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware. '' This was a widely broadcast speech picked up by Japanese news agencies.
By August 8, the 50,000 - watt standard wave station on Saipan the OWI radio station, broadcast a similar message to Japan every 15 minutes about Hiroshima, stating that more Japanese cities would face a similar fate in the absence of immediate acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and emphatically urged civilians to evacuate major cities. Radio Japan, which continued to extoll victory for Japan by never surrendering, had informed the Japanese of the destruction of Hiroshima by a single bomb.
Prime Minister Suzuki felt compelled to meet the Japanese press, to whom he reiterated his government 's commitment to ignore the Allies ' demands and fight on. The Japanese government did not react. Emperor Hirohito, the government, and the war council considered four conditions for surrender: the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands, Korea, or Formosa, and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government.
Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact on August 5. At two minutes past midnight on August 9, Tokyo time, Soviet infantry, armor, and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Four hours later, word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's official declaration of war. The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation, with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami, in order to stop anyone attempting to make peace.
On August 7, a day after Hiroshima was destroyed, Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city, and carefully examined the damage. They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by an atomic bomb. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, the Chief of the Naval General Staff, estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied, so they decided to endure the remaining attacks, acknowledging "there would be more destruction but the war would go on ''. American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet 's messages.
Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9. Parsons agreed to try to do so.
The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan, and was of great wartime importance because of its wide - ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards, Electrical Shipyards, Arms Plant, and Steel and Arms Works, which employed about 90 % of the city 's labor force, and accounted for 90 % of the city 's industry. Although an important industrial city, Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN / APQ - 13 radar.
Unlike the other target cities, Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's July 3 directive, and was bombed on a small scale five times. During one of these raids on August 1, a number of conventional high - explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. By early August, the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm (2.8 in) anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries.
In contrast to Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings were of old - fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber - framed buildings with timber walls (with or without plaster) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki.
Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets. Scheduled for August 11 against Kokura, the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five - day period of bad weather forecast to begin on August 10. Three bomb pre-assemblies had been transported to Tinian, labeled F - 31, F - 32, and F - 33 on their exteriors. On August 8, a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane. Assembly F - 33 was expended testing the components and F - 31 was designated for the August 9 mission.
At 03: 49 on the morning of August 9, 1945, Bockscar, flown by Sweeney 's crew, carried Fat Man, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission, with two B - 29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B - 29s in Sweeney 's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission. Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged.
During pre-flight inspection of Bockscar, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 l; 530 imp gal) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission.
This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission, flying as observers on the third plane, Big Stink, flown by the group 's operations officer, Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear. When Sweeney 's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan, Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous. According to Cheshire, Hopkins was at varying heights including 9,000 feet (2,700 m) higher than he should have been, and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock, who was piloting the support B - 29 The Great Artiste. Instead, Hopkins was flying 40 - mile (64 km) dogleg patterns. Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes, Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink, at the urging of Ashworth, the plane 's weaponeer, who was in command of the mission.
After exceeding the original departure time limit by a half - hour, Bockscar, accompanied by The Great Artiste, proceeded to Kokura, thirty minutes away. The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B - 29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. Additionally, the Yawata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar, to produce black smoke. The clouds and smoke resulted in 70 % of the area over Kokura being covered, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses of Yawata, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser, who was monitoring Japanese communications, reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.
After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump, they headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa, which had become entirely Allied - occupied territory only six weeks earlier. After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary, Ashworth ruled that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured.
At about 07: 50 Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the "all clear '' signal was given at 08: 30. When only two B - 29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10: 53, the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given.
A few minutes later at 11: 00, The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes. These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane, a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California, Berkeley, urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction. The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later. In 1949, one of the authors of the letter, Luis Alvarez, met with Sagane and signed the document.
At 11: 01, a last - minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscar 's bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, to visually sight the target as ordered. The Fat Man weapon, containing a core of about 6.4 kg (14 lb) of plutonium, was dropped over the city 's industrial valley at 32 ° 46 ′ 25 '' N 129 ° 51 ′ 48 '' E / 32.77372 ° N 129.86325 ° E / 32.77372; 129.86325. It exploded 47 seconds later at 1,650 ± 33 ft (503 ± 10 m), above a tennis court halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north. This was nearly 3 km (1.9 mi) northwest of the planned hypocenter; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills. The resulting explosion released the equivalent energy of 21 ± 2 kt (87.9 ± 8.4 TJ). The explosion generated temperatures inside the fireball estimated at 3,900 ° C (7,050 ° F) and winds that were estimated at over 1,000 km / h (620 mph).
Big Stink spotted the explosion from a hundred miles away, and flew over to observe. Because of the delays in the mission and the inoperative fuel transfer pump, Bockscar did not have sufficient fuel to reach the emergency landing field at Iwo Jima, so Sweeney and Bock flew to Okinawa. Arriving there, Sweeney circled for 20 minutes trying to contact the control tower for landing clearance, finally concluding that his radio was faulty. Critically low on fuel, Bockscar barely made it to the runway on Okinawa 's Yontan Airfield. With enough fuel for only one landing attempt, Sweeney and Albury brought Bockscar in at 150 miles per hour (240 km / h) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour (190 km / h), firing distress flares to alert the field of the uncleared landing. The number two engine died from fuel starvation as Bockscar began its final approach. Touching the runway hard, the heavy B - 29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B - 24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. The B - 29 's reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately, and with both pilots standing on the brakes, Bockscar made a swerving 90 - degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off the runway. A second engine died from fuel exhaustion by the time the plane came to a stop. The flight engineer later measured fuel in the tanks and concluded that less than five minutes total remained.
Following the mission, there was confusion over the identification of the plane. The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock, reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste. He also noted its "Victor '' number as 77, which was that of Bockscar. Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew, and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste. Except for Enola Gay, none of the 393d 's B - 29s had yet had names painted on the noses, a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account. Unaware of the switch in aircraft, Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste, which was in fact, Victor 89.
Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, the effect was confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including "mobilized '' / conscripted students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000 -- 22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000 to 75,000 At least 35,000 -- 40,000 people were killed and 60,000 others injured. In the days and months following the explosion, more people died from bomb effects. Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers, and a number of military personnel in transit, there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945; a range of 39,000 to 80,000 can be found in various studies.
Unlike Hiroshima 's military death toll, only 150 Japanese soldiers were killed instantly, including thirty - six from the 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division. At least eight known POWs died from the bombing and as many as 13 may have died, including a British prisoner of war, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw, and seven Dutch POWs. One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived.
The radius of total destruction was about 1 mi (1.6 km), followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi (3.2 km) south of the bomb. About 58 % of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78 % of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10 % structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast.
Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, the ambient wind at the time pushed the fire spread along the valley.
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19, with three more in September and a further three in October. On August 10, he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that "the next bomb... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August. '' On the same day, Marshall endorsed the memo with the comment, "It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President. '' Truman had secretly requested this on August 10. This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs "as made ready ''.
There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall. "The problem now (August 13) is whether or not, assuming the Japanese do not capitulate, to continue dropping them every time one is made and shipped out there or whether to hold them... and then pour them all on in a reasonably short time. Not all in one day, but over a short period. And that also takes into consideration the target that we are after. In other words, should we not concentrate on targets that will be of the greatest assistance to an invasion rather than industry, morale, psychology, and the like? Nearer the tactical use rather than other use. ''
Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on August 11 and 14, and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to collect them. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until August 16. Therefore, it could have been ready for use on August 19. Unable to reach Marshall, Groves ordered on his own authority on August 13 that the core should not be shipped.
Until August 9, Japan 's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender. On that day Hirohito ordered Kōichi Kido to "quickly control the situation... because the Soviet Union has declared war against us. '' He then held an Imperial conference during which he authorized minister Shigenori Tōgō to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration "does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler. ''
On August 12, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved. Hirohito simply replied, "Of course. '' As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender.
In his declaration, Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings:
Moreover, the enemy now possesses a new and terrible weapon with the power to destroy many innocent lives and do incalculable damage. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.
Such being the case, how are we to save the millions of our subjects, or to atone ourselves before the hallowed spirits of our imperial ancestors? This is the reason why we have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the joint declaration of the powers.
In his "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors '' delivered on August 17, he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion on his decision to surrender. Hirohito met with General MacArthur on September 27, saying to him that "(t) he peace party did not prevail until the bombing of Hiroshima created a situation which could be dramatized ''. Furthermore, the "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors '' speech he told MacArthur about was just personal, not political, and never stated that the Soviet intervention in Manchuria was the main reason for surrender. In fact, a day after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Hirohito ordered his advisers, primarily Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu, Kawada Mizuho, and Masahiro Yasuoka, to write up a surrender speech. In Hirohito 's speech, days before announcing it on radio on August 15, he gave three major reasons for surrender: Tokyo 's defenses would not be complete before the American invasion of Japan, Ise Shrine would be lost to the Americans, and atomic weapons deployed by the Americans would lead to the death of the entire Japanese race. Despite the Soviet intervention, Hirohito did not mention the Soviets as the main factor for surrender.
During the war, the British embassy in Washington reported that Americans regarded the Japanese as "a nameless mass of vermin ''; caricatures depicting Japanese as less than human, e.g. monkeys, were common. A 1944 opinion poll that asked what should be done with Japan found that 13 % of the U.S. public were in favor of "killing off '' all Japanese people.
After the Hiroshima bomb detonated successfully, Oppenheimer addressed an assembly at Los Alamos "clasping his hands together like a prize - winning boxer ''. The bombing amazed Otto Hahn and other German atomic scientists the British held at Farm Hall in Operation Epsilon. Hahn stated that he had not believed an atomic weapon "would be possible for another twenty years ''; Werner Heisenberg did not believe the news at first. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker said "I think it 's dreadful of the Americans to have done it. I think it is madness on their part '', but Heisenberg replied, "One could equally well say ' That 's the quickest way of ending the war ' ''. Hahn was grateful that the German project had not succeeded in developing "such an inhumane weapon ''; Karl Wirtz observed that even if it had, "we would have obliterated London but would still not have conquered the world, and then they would have dropped them on us ''.
Hahn told the others, "Once I wanted to suggest that all uranium should be sunk to the bottom of the ocean ''. The Vatican agreed; L'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb 's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity. Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse, the Dean of St Albans, prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war 's end, calling the use of atomic weapons "an act of wholesale, indiscriminate massacre ''. Nonetheless, news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S.; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans (22.7 %) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan. The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public (mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud) and the censorship of photographs that showed corpses and maimed survivors. Such "censorship '' was however the status - quo at the time, with no major news outlets depicting corpses or maimed survivors as a result from other events, US or otherwise.
On August 10, 1945, the day after the Nagasaki bombing, Yōsuke Yamahata, correspondent Higashi and artist Yamada arrived in the city with orders to record the destruction for maximum propaganda purposes, Yamahata took scores of photographs and on August 21 they appeared in Mainichi Shimbun, a popular Japanese newspaper. Wilfred Burchett was the first western journalist to visit Hiroshima after the atom bomb was dropped, arriving alone by train from Tokyo on September 2, the day of the formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri. His Morse code dispatch was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on September 5, 1945, entitled "The Atomic Plague '', the first public report to mention the effects of radiation and nuclear fallout. Burchett 's reporting was unpopular with the U.S. military. The U.S. censors suppressed a supporting story submitted by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News, and accused Burchett of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda. Laurence dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale, ignoring his own account of Hiroshima 's radiation sickness published one week earlier.
A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Lieutenant Daniel McGovern, used a film crew to document the results in early 1946. The film crew 's work resulted in a three - hour documentary entitled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb; it showed burned out buildings and cars, and rows of skulls and bones on the ground. It was classified "secret '' for the next 22 years. During this time in America, it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films, magazines, and newspapers. The total of 90,000 ft (27,000 m) of film shot by McGovern 's cameramen had not been fully aired as of 2009. According to Greg Mitchell, with the 2004 documentary film Original Child Bomb, a small part of that footage managed to reach part of the American public "in the unflinching and powerful form its creators intended ''.
Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On October 24, 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha 's reels were then confiscated by the American authorities. These reels were in turn requested by the Japanese government, declassified, and saved from oblivion. Some black - and - white motion pictures were released and shown for the first time to Japanese and American audiences in the years from 1968 to 1970. The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the human effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan, and much of this information was censored until the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951, restoring control to the Japanese.
Only the most politically charged and detailed weapons effects information was censored during this period. The Hiroshima - based magazine, Chugoku Bunka for example, in its first issue published March 10, 1946, devotes itself to detailing the damage from the bombing. Similarly, there was no censorship of the factually written witness accounts, the book Hiroshima written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey, which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker, on August 31, 1946, is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947, and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949. The book narrates the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior to, and months after, the dropping of the Little Boy bomb. Beginning in 1974 a compilation of drawings and artwork made by the survivors of the bombings began to be compiled, with completion in 1977 and under both book and exhibition format, it was titled The Unforgettable Fire.
In the spring of 1948, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences -- National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and in a control city, Kure, located 18 mi (29 km) south of Hiroshima, in order to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure. Dr. James V. Neel led the study which found that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings. Neel also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later.
The National Academy of Sciences questioned Neel 's procedure which did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure. Overall, while a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about 1 km from the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure.
In 1985, Johns Hopkins University human geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel 's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) were still looking for possible birth defects or other causes among the survivors decades later, but found no evidence that they were more common among the survivors. Despite the insignificance of birth defects found in Neel 's study and the detailed medical literature, up to 1987, historians such as Ronald E. Powaski frequently wrote that Hiroshima experienced "an increase in stillbirths, birth defects, and infant mortality '' following the atomic bomb.
As cancers do not immediately emerge after exposure to radiation instead radiation - induced cancer has a minimum latency period of some 5 + years. An epidemiology study by the RERF estimates that from 1950 to 2000, 46 % of leukemia deaths and 11 % of solid cancers of unspecificed lethality, could be due to radiation from the bombs, with the statistical excess being 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality. Both of these statistics being derived from the observation of approximately half of the total survivors, strictly those who took part in the study.
The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha (被爆 者, Japanese pronunciation: (çibakɯ̥ɕa)), a Japanese word that literally translates to "explosion - affected people ''. The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha. As of March 31, 2017, 164,621 are still alive, mostly in Japan. The government of Japan recognizes about 1 % of these as having illnesses caused by radiation. The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, as of August 2017 the memorials record the names of almost 485,000 hibakusha; 308,725 in Hiroshima and 175,743 in Nagasaki.
Hibakusha and their children were (and still are) victims of severe discrimination in Japan due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness, with much of the public believing it to be hereditary or even contagious. This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects or congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A study of the long - term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17 -- 20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms.
On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha. He was confirmed to be 3 km (1.9 mi) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when Little Boy was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, the day before Fat Man was dropped, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings. He died on January 4, 2010, at the age of 93, after a battle with stomach cancer.
The 2006 documentary Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha (lit. double explosion - affected people), and was screened at the United Nations.
During the war, Japan brought as many as 670,000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor. About 5,000 -- 8,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and another 1,500 -- 2,000 died in Nagasaki. For many years, Korean survivors had a difficult time fighting for the same recognition as Hibakusha as afforded to all Japanese survivors, a situation which resulted in the denial of the free health benefits to them. Most issues were eventually addressed in 2008 through lawsuits.
The role of the bombings in Japan 's surrender and the U.S. 's ethical justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. J. Samuel Walker wrote in an April 2005 overview of recent historiography on the issue, "the controversy over the use of the bomb seems certain to continue. '' He wrote that "The fundamental issue that has divided scholars over a period of nearly four decades is whether the use of the bomb was necessary to achieve victory in the war in the Pacific on terms satisfactory to the United States. ''
Supporters of the bombings generally assert that they caused the Japanese surrender, preventing casualties on both sides during Operation Downfall. One figure of speech, "One hundred million (subjects of the Japanese Empire) will die for the Emperor and Nation '', served as a unifying slogan, although that phrase was intended as a figure of speech along the lines of the "ten thousand years '' phrase. In Truman 's 1955 Memoirs, "he states that the atomic bomb probably saved half a million U.S. lives -- anticipated casualties in an Allied invasion of Japan planned for November. Stimson subsequently talked of saving one million U.S. casualties, and Churchill of saving one million American and half that number of British lives. '' Scholars have pointed out various alternatives that could have ended the war without an invasion, but these alternatives could have resulted in the deaths of many more Japanese. Supporters also point to an order given by the Japanese War Ministry on August 1, 1944, ordering the execution of Allied prisoners of war when the POW camp was in the combat zone.
Those who oppose the bombings cite a number of reasons for their view, among them: a belief that atomic bombing is fundamentally immoral, that the bombings counted as war crimes, that they were militarily unnecessary, that they constituted state terrorism, and that they involved racism against and the dehumanization of the Japanese people. The bombings were part of an already fierce conventional bombing campaign. This, together with the naval blockade, could also have eventually led to a Japanese surrender. At the time the United States dropped its atomic bomb on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, the Soviet Union launched a surprise attack with 1.6 million troops against the Kwantung Army in Manchuria. "The Soviet entry into the war '', argued Japanese historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, "played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow 's mediation ''.
Another popular view among critics of the bombings, originating with Gar Alperovitz in 1965 and becoming the default position in Japanese school history textbooks, is the idea of atomic diplomacy: that the United States used nuclear weapons in order to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War.
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how many times did the philadelphia eagles been in the super bowl | History of the Philadelphia Eagles - wikipedia
The history of the Philadelphia Eagles begins in 1933. In their history, the Eagles have appeared in the Super Bowl three times, losing in their first two appearances but winning the third, in 2018. They won three NFL Championships, the precursor to the Super Bowl, in four appearances.
The beginning era of the Eagles history, 1933 to 1939, was influenced by its owner, and then also coach, Bert Bell. After Bell ostensibly sold the team, to Alexis Thompson in 1940, the second era of the Eagles history was largely directed by their coach and future Hall of Famer, Greasy Neale.
In 1931, Philadelphia 's NFL franchise, the Frankford Yellow Jackets, who had won the NFL Championship in 1926, went bankrupt and ceased operations midway through the season. After more than a year searching for a suitable replacement, the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by former University of Pennsylvania teammates Lud Wray and Bert Bell.
In exchange for an entry fee of $2,500, the Bell - Wray group was awarded the assets of the failed Yellow Jackets organization. Drawing inspiration from the insignia of the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal, specifically the National Recovery Act 's "blue eagle, '' Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles, with Bell as president and general manager and Wray as head coach. Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same, citing the aforementioned period of dormancy. The Eagles simply inherited the NFL rights to the Philadelphia area. Further, Wray and Bell assembled an almost entirely new team; only a single player from the 1931 Yellow Jackets ended up with the 1933 Eagles.
The new team played its first game on October 15, 1933, against the New York Giants at the Polo Grounds in New York City. They lost the game 56 - 0. The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade, never winning more than four games. Their best finish was in their second season, 1934, when they finished tied for third in the East. For the most part, the Eagles ' early rosters were composed of former Penn, Temple and Villanova players who put in a few years before going on to other things.
In 1935, Bell proposed an annual college draft to equalize talent across the league. The draft was a revolutionary concept in professional sports. Having teams select players in inverse order of their finish in the standings, a practice still followed today, strove to increase fan interest by guaranteeing that even the worst teams would have the opportunity for annual infusions of the best college talent. Between 1927 (the year the NFL changed from a sprawling Midwestern - based association to a narrower, major - market league) and 1934, a triopoly of three teams (the Chicago Bears, New York Giants and Green Bay Packers) had won all but one title since 1927 (the lone exception being the Providence Steam Roller of 1928).
Having finished last in the standings, the Eagles had the first pick in the 1936 draft, an opportunity they used to select University of Chicago 's Heisman Trophy - winning back, Jay Berwanger. They then traded his rights to the Chicago Bears. Berwanger, who had no interest in playing professional football, elected to go to medical school instead.
The Eagles ' first major recruiting success would come in 1939, with the signing of Texas Christian 's All - America quarterback, Davey O'Brien; O'Brien proceeded to shatter numerous existing single - season NFL passing records in his rookie season. That year, the Eagles participated in the first televised football game, against the Brooklyn Dodgers, at Ebbets Field in Brooklyn (losing the game 23 - 14).
The 1940s would prove a tumultuous and ultimately triumphant decade for the young club. In 1940, the team moved from Philadelphia Municipal Stadium to Shibe Park. Lud Wray 's half - interest in the team was purchased by Art Rooney, who had just sold the Pittsburgh Steelers to Alexis Thompson. Soon thereafter, Bell / Rooney and Thompson swapped franchises, but not teams. Bell / Rooney 's entire Eagles ' corporate organization, including most of the players, moved to Pittsburgh (The Steelers ' corporate name remained "Philadelphia Football Club, Inc. '' until 1945) and Thompson 's Steelers moved to Philadelphia, leaving only the team nicknames in their original cities. Since NFL franchises are territorial rights distinct from individual corporate entities, the NFL does not consider this a franchise move and considers the current Philadelphia Eagles as a single unbroken entity from 1933. (1)
After assuming ownership, Thompson promptly hired Greasy Neale as the team 's head coach. In its first years under Neale, the team continued to struggle. In 1943, when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster, the team temporarily merged with the Steelers to form a team popularly known as the "Steagles. '' The merger, never intended as a permanent arrangement, was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season. This season saw the team 's first winning season in its 11 - year history, with a finish of 5 - 4 - 1. In 1944, however, the Eagles finally experienced good fortune, as they made their finest draft pick to date: running back Steve Van Buren. At last, the team 's fortunes were about to change.
Led by Van Buren and Neale, the Eagles became a serious competitor for the first time. They had their first winning season as a separate team in 1944. After two more second - place finishes (in 1945 and 1946), the Eagles reached the NFL title game for the first time in 1947. Van Buren, end Pete Pihos, and Bosh Pritchard fought valiantly, but the young team fell to the Chicago Cardinals 28 - 21 at Chicago 's Comiskey Park. Undeterred, the young squad rebounded and returned to face the Cardinals once more in the 1948 championship. With home - field advantage (and a blinding snowstorm) on their side, the Eagles won their first NFL Championship 7 - 0. Due to the severity of the weather, few fans were on hand to witness the joyous occasion. That would not be the case the following season, however, when the Eagles returned to the NFL championship game for the third consecutive year and won in dominating fashion in front of a large crowd in Los Angeles, beating the Los Angeles Rams 14 - 0.
In Thompson 's final draft, Chuck Bednarik was selected as the first overall pick in the 1949 NFL Draft. An All - American lineman / linebacker from the University of Pennsylvania, Bednarik would go on to become one of the greatest and most beloved players in Eagles history. The 1949 season also saw the sale of the team by Thompson to a syndicate of 100 buyers, known as the "Happy Hundred '', each of whom paid a fee of $3,000 for their share of the team. While the leader of the "Happy Hundred '' was noted Philadelphia businessman James P. Clark, one unsung investor was Leonard Tose, a name that would eventually become very familiar to Eagles fans.
With the turn of the decade came another turn in team fortunes. The Eagles were slated to open the 1950 season against the AAFC champion Cleveland Browns, who had just (with the other AAFC franchises) joined the NFL. The Eagles were expected to make short work of the Browns, who were widely reckoned at the time as the dominant team in a lesser league. However, the Browns lit up the Eagles ' vaunted defense for 487 total yards, including 246 passing yards, in a 35 - 10 rout. The Eagles never really recovered, and finished 6 - 6.
Neale retired after the season and was replaced by Bo McMillin. Two games into the season, McMillin was forced to retire due to terminal stomach cancer. Wayne Millner finished out the season before being replaced by Jim Trimble. While the remnants of the great 1940s teams managed to stay competitive for the first few years of the decade, and while younger players like Bobby Walston and Sonny Jurgensen occasionally provided infusions of talent, the team lacked the stuff of true greatness for most of the 1950s. The Eagles considered trying to purchase Temple Stadium in 1952 when the team was unhappy with their lease at Shibe Park. Temple University claimed the property to have been appraised for $1 million and said they were uninterested in selling. In 1958, however, the franchise took key steps to improve, hiring Buck Shaw as Head Coach and acquiring Norm Van Brocklin in a trade with the Los Angeles Rams. That year also saw the team move from Connie Mack Stadium (formerly Shibe Park) to Franklin Field, and attendance doubled. The 1959 squad showed real flashes of talent, and finished in second place in the Eastern Division.
1960 remains the most celebrated year in Eagle history. Shaw, Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik (each in his last season before retirement) led a team more notable for its grit than its talent (one observer later quipped that the team had "nothing but a championship '') to its first division title since 1949. The team was aided by their two Pro Bowl receivers, WR Tommy McDonald (who would later pen a short autobiography titled "They Pay Me to Catch Footballs '') and TE Pete Retzlaff. On December 26, 1960, one of the coldest days in recorded Philadelphia history, the Eagles faced Vince Lombardi 's Green Bay Packers in the NFL title game and dealt the mighty Lombardi the sole championship game loss of his storied career. Bednarik lined up at center on offense and at linebacker on defense. Fittingly, the game ended as Bednarik tackled a struggling Jim Taylor and refused to allow him to stand until the last seconds had ticked away.
Flush with excitement from the 17 - 13 victory, with the talented Jurgensen poised to take the reins of the offense, the future looked promising. That promise, however, proved illusory.
In 1961, the Eagles finished just a half - game behind the New York Giants for first place in the Eastern Conference standings with a 10 - 4 record. Despite the on - the - field success, however, the franchise was in turmoil. Van Brocklin had come to Philadelphia and agreed to play through 1960 with the tacit understanding that, upon his retirement as a player, he would succeed Shaw as head coach. Ownership, however, opted to promote assistant Nick Skorich instead, and Van Brocklin quit the organization in a fit of pique, instead becoming head coach of the expansion Minnesota Vikings. In 1962, the bottom dropped out as the team was decimated by injury, managed only three wins and were embarrassed at home 49 - 0 by the Packers. The off - field chaos would continue through 1963, as the remaining 65 shareholders out of the original Happy Hundred sold the team to Jerry Wolman, a 36 - year - old millionaire Washington developer who outbid local bidders for the team, paying an unprecedented $5,505,000 for control of the club. In 1964, Wolman hired former Cardinals and Washington Redskins coach Joe Kuharich to a 15 - year contract.
Many people have heavily criticized Kuharich as a coach, as they say he wasted top - tier talent such as that of Jurgensen, Timmy Brown, Ollie Matson and Ben Hawkins and effectively ran the franchise into the ground. At Kuharich 's insistence, Jurgensen was traded to the Washington Redskins for Norm Snead in 1964: Jurgensen would go on to a Hall of Fame career while Snead, although serviceable, lacked the talent to lift the team out of mediocrity. By 1968, fans were in full revolt. Chants of "Joe must go '' echoed through the increasingly empty bleachers of Franklin Field. Adding insult to injury, the Eagles managed to eke out meaningless wins in two of the last three games of the season, costing the franchise the first pick in the draft, and with it the opportunity to add O.J. Simpson to the roster. (With the second pick, the Eagles chose Leroy Keyes, who played only four years in an Eagles uniform.) The last game of 1968, played on December 15, helped cement the rowdy reputation of Philadelphia fans when some of them booed and threw snowballs at an actor playing Santa Claus. By 1969, Wolman had lost most of his fortune and was bankrupt, leaving the franchise under the administration of a federal bankruptcy court. At the end of the bankruptcy proceedings, the Eagles were sold to Leonard Tose, the self - made trucking millionaire and original member of the Happy Hundred. Tose 's first official act was to fire Kuharich.
With an earned reputation as a fast - living high - flier, Tose infused the organization with some much - needed panache. Initially, however, he ran the team with more enthusiasm than ability, as was exemplified by his choice to replace Kuharich, the hapless Jerry Williams. Tose also selected former Eagles great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager.
In 1971, the Eagles moved from Franklin Field to brand - new Veterans Stadium. In its first season, the "Vet '' was widely acclaimed as a triumph of ultra-modern sports engineering, a consensus that would be short - lived. Equally short - lived was Williams 's tenure as head coach: after a 3 - 10 - 1 record in 1970 and three consecutive blowout losses to Cincinnati, Dallas and San Francisco to open the 1971 season, Williams was fired and replaced by assistant Ed Khayat, a defensive lineman on the Eagles ' 1960 NFL championship team. Williams and Khayat were hampered by Retzlaff 's decision to trade longtime starting quarterback Norm Snead to the Minnesota Vikings in early 1971, leaving the Eagles a choice between journeyman Pete Liske and the raw Rick Arrington.
Khayat lost his first two games, but won six of the final nine in 1971 thanks to the exploits of the defense, led by All - Pro safety Bill Bradley, who led the NFL in interceptions (11) and interception return yardage (248).
The team regressed in 1972, and Khayat was released after the Eagles finished 2 - 11 - 1. The two wins (both on the road) proved to be surprises, however. Philadelphia beat Kansas City (which had the best record in the AFC a year before) 21 - 20 and Houston 18 - 17 on six field goals by kicker Tom Dempsey. The latter game became known as the "Johnny Rodgers Bowl '', because the loser would finish with the worst record in the league and obtain the # 1 draft pick of 1973, which was then assumed to be Nebraska wingback Johnny Rodgers. The Oilers ultimately got the # 1 pick, which instead turned out to be University of Tampa defensive end John Matuszak (who would end up facing Philadelphia in the Super Bowl several years later). With the second pick, the Eagles selected USC tight end Charle Young.
Khayat was replaced by offensive guru Mike McCormick, who, aided by the skills of Roman Gabriel and towering young receiver Harold Carmichael, managed to infuse a bit of vitality into a previously moribund offense. New general manager Jim Murray also began to add talent on the defensive side of the line, most notably through the addition of future Pro Bowl linebacker Bill Bergey. Overall, however, the team was still mired in mediocrity. McCormick was fired after a 4 - 10 1975 season, and replaced by a college coach unknown to most Philadelphians. That coach would become one of the most beloved names in Philadelphia sports history: Dick Vermeil.
Vermeil faced numerous obstacles as he attempted to rejuvenate a franchise that had not seriously contended in well over a decade. Despite the team 's young talent and Gabriel 's occasional flashes of brilliance, the Eagles finished 1976 with the same result -- a 4 - 10 record -- as in 1975. 1977, however, saw the first seeds of hope begin to sprout. Rifle - armed quarterback Ron Jaworski was obtained by trade with the Los Angeles Rams in exchange for popular tight end Charlie Young. The defense, led by Bergey and defensive coordinator Marion Campbell, began earning a reputation as one of the hardest hitting in the league. By the next year, the Eagles had fully taken Vermeil 's enthusiastic attitude, and made the playoffs for the first time since 1960. Young running back Wilbert Montgomery became the first Eagle since Steve Van Buren to exceed 1,000 yards in a single season. (1978 also bore witness to one of the greatest, and unquestionably most surreal moment in Eagles history: "The Miracle at the Meadowlands, '' when Herman Edwards returned a late - game fumble by Giants ' quarterback Joe Pisarcik for a touchdown with 20 seconds left, resulting in a 19 - 17 Eagles victory - the Eagles would later edge into the playoffs that year with a 9 - 7 season.) By 1979, in which the Eagles tied for first place with an 11 - 5 record and Wilbert Montgomery shattered club rushing records with a total of 1,512 yards, the Eagles were poised to join the NFL elite.
In 1980, the team, led by coach Dick Vermeil, quarterback Ron Jaworski, running back Wilbert Montgomery, wide receiver Harold Carmichael, and linebacker Bill Bergey, dominated the NFC, facing its chief nemesis, the Dallas Cowboys, in the NFC Championship. The game was played in cold conditions in front of the Birds ' faithful fans at Veterans Stadium. Led by an incredible rushing performance from Montgomery, whose long cutback TD run in the first half is surely one of the most memorable plays in Eagles history, and a gutsy performance from fullback Leroy Harris, who scored the Eagles ' only other TD that day, the Birds earned a berth in Super Bowl XV with a 20 - 7 victory.
The Eagles traveled to New Orleans for Super Bowl XV and were heavy favorites to knock off the Oakland Raiders, who were merely a wild card team. Things did not go the Eagles ' way, beginning with the disastrous decision by Tose to bring comedian Don Rickles into the pregame locker room to lighten the mood. Jaworski 's first pass was intercepted by Rod Martin, setting up an Oakland touchdown. Later in the first quarter, a potential game - tying 40 - yard touchdown pass to Rodney Parker was nullified by an illegal motion penalty. The final score was 27 - 10. Veteran journeyman quarterback Jim Plunkett was named the game 's MVP. In a bizarre coincidence, Joe Kuharich died on the same day.
The Eagles got off to a great start in the 1981 season, winning their first six games. They eventually ended up 10 - 6 and earned a wild card berth. However, they were unable to repeat as NFC champs when they were knocked out in the wild card round by the New York Giants, 27 - 21. After the Eagles finished 3 - 6 in the strike - shortened 1982 season, Vermeil quit the team, citing "burnout. '' He was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell, aka "the Swamp Fox. '' Campbell had helped to popularize the "bend - do n't - break '' defensive strategy in the 1970s. Under Campbell, however, the team struggled, although his stewardship was notable in that it saw the arrival of all - time football greats Reggie White and Randall Cunningham. The 1983 - 85 seasons would see the Eagles go 5 - 11, 6 - 9 - 1, and 7 - 9, respectively.
Campbell 's reign of error ended in 1986, when Buddy Ryan was named head coach. Immediately infusing the team with his tough, hard - as - nails attitude, the Eagles quickly became known for their tough defense and tougher personalities. Ryan began rejuvenating the team by releasing several aging players, including Ron Jaworski. Randall Cunningham took his place, and despite a 5 - 10 - 1 season, he began showing considerable promise. 1987 saw another strike, reducing the season by one game. The substitutes who were filling in for the strikers turned in a poor performance, being crushed 41 - 22 by the Dallas Cowboys. After the strike ended, the regular Eagles team won a 37 - 20 revenge game against Dallas. The season record was 7 - 8, three games having been played by substitutes. The Eagles would reach the playoffs in 1988, but lost to the Chicago Bears 20 - 12 in what became known as the "Fog Bowl '', due to the weather conditions during the game.
The following two years would see playoff appearances as well, but the team could not make it past the first round. This failure was greatly frustrating to many Eagles fans, as the team was commonly acknowledged as among the most talented in the NFL. On offense, the Eagles were led by quarterback Cunningham, one of the most exciting players of his generation; tight end Keith Jackson; and running back Keith Byars. The defense is commonly acknowledged as among the greatest in league history, and as the best never to win a championship.
The two 1989 matches with Dallas were known as the Bounty Bowls. Both were won easily by the Eagles (the Cowboys finished 1 - 15 that year), and were marked by Ryan insulting new Cowboys coach Jimmy Johnson, putting a "bounty '' on their kicker, and for Eagles fans throwing snowballs on the season ender.
On November 12, 1990, during a Monday Night Football game at the Vet, the Eagles crushed the Washington Redskins by a score of 28 - 14, with the defense scoring three of the team 's four touchdowns. More lopsided than its score would indicate, the game quickly acquired the sobriquet "the Body Bag Game '', attesting to the physical damage inflicted by the tougher Eagles squad. The Eagles knocked out the starting Washington quarterback, and then seriously injured his replacement as well. Running back Brian Mitchell, who would later be signed by the Eagles, was forced to play quarterback for the Redskins. Unfortunately, the Redskins returned to Veterans stadium in the first round of the playoffs and defeated the Eagles 20 - 6, ending their season. Buddy Ryan was fired at the end of the season. Despite his tough talk, the Eagles failed to win a playoff game in the five years he had been head coach.
In 1991, the Eagles became the first NFL team since 1975 to rank first in the league in both rushing and passing yardage allowed, but competing in a strong division were unable to reach the playoffs despite a 10 - 6 record. Along with White, notable defensive stars included Jerome Brown, Clyde Simmons, Seth Joyner, Eric Allen, Wes Hopkins, and Andre Waters.
With Ryan 's firing by Norman Braman, Ryan 's former Offensive Coordinator, Rich Kotite, took the helm of the franchise. Although Cunningham suffered a season - ending ACL tear in the season opener, the Eagles still made a respectable showing, missing the playoffs on a tiebreaker. In 1992, Kotite led the Eagles back into the postseason with an 11 - 5 record. In the Wild Card Round, the Eagles soundly defeated the New Orleans Saints by a final score of 36 - 20. The Eagles were eliminated by Dallas in the next round (34 - 10). At the end of the season, DE Reggie White would leave the team through free agency. In the 1992 NFL Off - season, DT Jerome Brown died in a high - speed automobile crash on June 25. In 1993 and 1994, Kotite 's Eagles would fall apart after initially promising starts, and missed the playoffs in each season, going 8 - 8 and 7 - 9. By this point, Braman had become unpopular among most local fans and a polarizing presence in the front office. Under rising scrutiny and deflating optimism, he sold the team to current owner Jeffrey Lurie. Almost Lurie 's first act was to fire Kotite.
Lurie 's choice to replace Kotite was San Francisco 49ers Defensive Coordinator Ray Rhodes, who successfully lobbied 49ers star Ricky Watters to join the team as a free agent. In 1995, Rhodes 's first season, the Eagles got off to a slow start by losing 3 out their first 4 games: they subsequently rebounded, finishing with a 10 - 6 record and a playoff spot. In the Wild Card Round, the Eagles played at home and overwhelmed the Detroit Lions 58 - 37, with 31 of Philadelphia 's points coming in the second quarter alone. Despite this dominating performance, yet again, the Eagles were eliminated in the next round by the Cowboys (30 - 11). Ironically, this would be Randall Cunningham 's last game as an Eagle. Cunningham would score the only touchdown of the game and the last Eagles post season touchdown for six years.
1995 was perhaps most notable in that it signaled the end of Cunningham 's tenure as starting quarterback. Rhodes benched Cunningham in favor of Rodney Peete, leading to friction between the two. Before the benching, news reports circulated that Lurie and Rhodes tried to trade Cunningham to the Arizona Cardinals. However, no such trade was executed and Cunningham retired shortly after the season.
In 1996, the Eagles donned new uniforms featuring a darker shade of green. They got off to a good start, winning three of their first four games. However, a week - 5 Monday night game at Veterans Stadium against the hated Cowboys would witness a season - ending knee injury to Peete and the loss of the team 's momentum, and the transition to an offense led by Ty Detmer and Watters. While Detmer played well and Watters rushed for 1,411 yards, the season followed an all - too - familiar pattern: 10 - 6 record, and early elimination (a 14 - 0 shutout by the 49ers) in the playoffs. The continued early playoff exits led to fans and local media blaming the high priced free agent signings (Irving Fryar, Watters, Troy Vincent, and Guy McIntyre) for not stepping up in big games, most notably the postseason. Rhodes gradually deteriorated under the stress of the job, and players were beginning to grow tired of his brash demeanor and often autocratic coaching style. After an up - and - down 6 - 9 - 1 campaign in 1997, the bottom fell out in 1998. The Eagles suffered a 3 - 13 record -- the worst in franchise history. They were ranked dead last in numerous offensive statistics. Home game attendance was declining, a quarterback controversy was deteriorating an already rudderless locker room, and the players had all but tuned out the embattled coaching staff. Left with little choice after a disastrous season, fan revolt and sagging team morale, Lurie fired Rhodes.
Resurgence would come under the leadership of new head coach Andy Reid, who began by drafting Syracuse QB Donovan McNabb with the # 2 pick in the 1999 draft (the Eagles would have had the # 1 pick, but it was awarded to the rebooted Cleveland Browns). Despite clearing up roster space for new talent by releasing unpopular, aging veterans (such as Watters and Irving Fryar), Reid was still a virtual unknown at the time of his selection as head coach, and his appointment was met with considerable skepticism in Philadelphia. McNabb was also not considered a good choice to draft by Eagles fans. When he was drafted, many Eagles fans booed the selection, believing that the Eagles should draft Ricky Williams. The choices proved wise, however: with Reid leading the way and McNabb emerging as one of the game 's great players. However, 1999 was a rebuilding year and so the Eagles only won five games and game attendance was still looking stale as two home games were not sold out - resulting in local TV blackouts - while the other 6 were only sold out due to several small business owners purchasing the remainder of the unsold tickets to spare TV viewers. The Week 5 game, on Sunday, October 10, 1999, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, saw Dallas WR Michael Irvin suffer a career - ending spinal injury where Eagles fans stood up and cheered as he lay on the field. Even the TV commentators expressed their disgust at this behavior. The 2000 season saw the team go 11 - 5, reaching the playoffs as a wildcard which rejuvenated the fan base and optimism. After brushing aside the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 21 - 3, the Eagles moved to the second round of the playoffs, only to lose a 20 - 10 game against the Giants.
The 2000 regular season opener in Dallas (September 3), became known in NFL lore as the "Pickle Juice Game ''. Kickoff temperature in Texas Stadium was 109 degrees Fahrenheit and soared to nearly 120, making it the hottest game in league history, beating a previous record set during the 1997 Cowboys - Cardinals match in Arizona. The nickname came about because a certain Eagles trainer had been preparing for the projected high temperatures by having the players drink the juice from jars of dill pickles in order to retain body moisture and stave off cramps and heat exhaustion. The experiment proved a success as the Cowboys lost the game 44 - 14 and had multiple players benched for inability to handle the brutal temperatures (the Eagles had no players benched). The game also had significance because it marked the beginning of Philadelphia 's domination of the NFC East and the end of the Cowboys ' dominance.
After compiling an 11 - 5 record in 2001, the Eagles reached the playoffs again, this time at the top of their division. In a near - rerun of the previous year, they disposed of the Buccaneers in a 31 - 9 game. In the second round, the Eagles defeated the Bears 33 - 19 at Soldier Field. Reaching the NFC Championship game, they were unable to stop the St. Louis Rams, who defeated them 29 - 24
Despite injuries, McNabb led the Eagles to a 12 - 4 season in 2002. Once again, they reached the NFC Championship, but lost at home 27 - 10 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the last game at Veterans Stadium.
The 2003 team lost its first two games, both at their new home. In the opening game of the 2003 season, the Eagles were shut out 17 - 0 by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first regular - season game ever played at Lincoln Financial Field. Once again, the team went 12 - 4 for the season. By reaching the conference championship game in the same year as this defeat, they became the first team in modern history to get that far in the postseason after having been shut out at home in its first game. They achieved that distinction despite getting only five touchdown catches all year from their wide receivers, which tied the league low since the regular - season schedule was lengthened to its present 16 games in 1978 (this record would be broken in 2004 when the New York Giants ' wide receivers caught only two touchdown passes). The Eagle receivers even went through both September and October without a TD catch -- the last time an NFL team had done that was in 1945.
The Eagles actively pursued premier wide receiver Terrell Owens, and acquired him in a controversial three - way deal with the Baltimore Ravens and the San Francisco 49ers, on March 16, 2004. Owens would often feud with McNabb, and was released by the Eagles after the 2005 season.
The 2004 season began with a bang as Owens caught three touchdown passes from McNabb in their season opener against the New York Giants. Owens would end up with exactly 1,200 receiving yards and 14 touchdown receptions, although his season ended prematurely with an ankle injury on December 19, 2005 against the Dallas Cowboys. Their 12 - 7 victory in this game gave them home field advantage throughout the conference playoffs for the third year in a row. (This distinction also includes a "bye '' in the first round (also known as the Wild Card Round) of the playoffs, which the top two teams in each conference receive.) The Eagles tied a record by clinching the NFC East division crown (their fourth straight such title) after only their eleventh game of the season, matching the mark set by the 1985 Chicago Bears and the 1997 San Francisco 49ers. Their final two regular - season games thus rendered meaningless, the Eagles sat out most of their first - string players in these games and lost them both, yet still finished with a 13 - 3 record, their best 16 - game season ever. McNabb had his finest season to date, passing for 3,875 yards and 31 touchdowns, with only eight interceptions. This made him the first quarterback in NFL history to throw 30 or more TD passes and fewer than 10 interceptions in a single regular season. They then began their playoff run with the Divisional round at home against the sixth - seeded Minnesota Vikings. The Eagles led from the start and never looked back, as McNabb led a very efficient passing attack (21 of 33 for 286 yards and 2 TDs), Brian Westbrook dominated on the ground with 70 rushing yards, and Freddie Mitchell performed very well on the receiving corps (5 receptions for 65 yards and a TD), as Philadelphia won 27 - 14, setting up their fourth - straight NFC Championship appearance.
The Eagles ' futility in Conference Championship games had become notorious. In 2002, the Eagles had fallen in the NFC Championship Game against the Rams in St. Louis, 29 - 24. In 2003, the Eagles hosted the Tampa Bay Buccaneers at Veterans Stadium and were widely viewed as the overwhelming favorites -- this view no doubt accentuated by the expected emotional boost that many anticipated would power the team, given that the game was to be the last at "the Vet. '' After a promising start, however, the game slipped away, and the ensuing 27 - 10 loss devastated a fan base that had already become too accustomed to disappointment. In 2004, a banged - up Eagles squad managed to overcome numerous injuries, particularly to its defense, to reach the NFC Championship for the third year in a row, only to suffer a heartbreaking 14 - 3 loss against the Carolina Panthers.
On January 23, 2005, the Eagles reached a fourth consecutive conference championship game (the first time this happened in the salary cap era of the NFL). At long last, the Eagles justified the hopes of their long - suffering fan base, defeating Michael Vick 's much - hyped Atlanta Falcons, 27 - 10, sending them to their first Super Bowl in 24 years. The victory sent the city of Philadelphia into wild celebrations.
With two Super Bowl wins under their belt, the defending champion New England Patriots were heavily favored. McNabb had a great game with 357 yards and three touchdowns, but he also threw three interceptions. Terell Owens returned despite his injury, and caught 122 yards on 9 catches. The game was a defensive struggle through the third quarter, but in the fourth, the Patriots took the lead, with the Eagles trailing ten points. The early game struggle left everyone exhausted, and for his best efforts, McNabb scored one touchdown, but could not get the team within field goal range on the final drive. He was picked off in the closing seconds of the game. The final score was 24 - 21, and the Patriots had won their third Super Bowl in four years.
The defending NFC Champions did not fare well the next year. The 2005 season began in a strange and erratic fashion with a 14 - 10 road loss to the Atlanta Falcons on Monday Night Football, a game in which Donovan McNabb suffered a chest bruise. In addition, Eagles linebacker Jeremiah Trotter was ejected prior to kick - off for getting involved in an altercation with Falcons cornerback Kevin Mathis. In the Week 2 home opener in Philadelphia, the Eagles defeated the San Francisco 49ers in a rout 42 - 3; however, McNabb was diagnosed with a sports hernia following the game. Weeks 3 and 4 saw the Eagles struggle somewhat but still manage to defeat the Oakland Raiders (23 - 20) and mount a stunning comeback from an 18 - point deficit to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs at Arrowhead Stadium (37 - 31). In week 5, the Eagles were manhandled by the Dallas Cowboys in Texas Stadium, losing by 23 points (33 - 10). Following a bye week, the Eagles pulled off a miraculous 20 - 17 win against the San Diego Chargers when cornerback Matt Ware returned a blocked field goal for a touchdown in the fourth quarter. Fans hoped the play would "wake up '' the Eagles and save the season similar to Brian Westbrook 's fourth quarter punt return against the New York Giants in 2003. However, in the next week, the Eagles were unable to stop the running and passing attack of the Denver Broncos, losing 49 - 21.
Week after week, Andy Reid had come under criticism for the Eagles ' lack of dedication to a running game and overworking an injured Donovan McNabb, who was on pace to break the records for all - time passing attempts and completions. The Eagles had also allowed themselves to get behind in the first quarters of games, only to end up fighting from behind in the remaining quarters. Some analysts speculated the Eagles ' problems were due to not finding replacements for former defensive linemen Corey Simon and Derrick Burgess, poor pass rush, poor special teams, and the contract disputes with Brian Westbrook and Terrell Owens, along with Owens ' virtually weekly controversies. They had also been hindered by injuries to McNabb, Correll Buckhalter, Todd Pinkston, Lito Sheppard, Dirk Johnson, and David Akers.
On November 4, 2005, on ESPN, Terrell Owens criticized the Eagles front office for not recognizing his 100th touchdown catch. He also agreed with Michael Irvin 's statement that the Eagles would be undefeated had Brett Favre been the quarterback. Despite Owens 's apology the next day to the front office (but not to McNabb), he was suspended indefinitely. There were also reports that he got into a fist fight with Hugh Douglas and challenged other players in the locker room which contributed to his suspension. At Andy Reid 's press conference after the Washington loss, he announced T.O. would no longer be playing this year for the Eagles due to conduct detrimental to the team.
Things only got worse for the Eagles. They lost a Sunday night match - up to their division rival, the Washington Redskins 17 - 10. Then, when they went home and played a rematch with their much - hated rival, the Cowboys, on Monday Night Football, a late game interception by Roy Williams sealed their doom. Not only did they lose 21 - 20, but the already suffering Donovan McNabb got shoved to the ground, worsening his sports hernia and ending his season.
On November 20, former Detroit quarterback Mike McMahon was named the Eagles starter. However, his wild gun passing did n't do much to phase the Giants, as the Eagles went down again 27 - 17. Then, on November 21 Donovan McNabb announced that he would undergo surgery for his sports hernia. The Eagles would finish the season without at least eight of their projected starters heading into the season, including Pinkston, Hank Fraley, Dirk Johnson, and Pro Bowlers McNabb, Brian Westbrook, Lito Sheppard, Tra Thomas, and the exiled Owens.
Their next - to - last win of the season came a week later against the injury - ravaged Green Bay Packers 19 - 14. At a home game on December 5, on Monday Night Football, the Eagles retired # 92, which had belonged to the late Reggie White. Unfortunately, they got shut out by the NFC West and eventual NFC champion Seattle Seahawks 42 - 0. Afterwards, they lost to the Giants at home 26 - 2. Their last win of the season came on the road against the St. Louis Rams 17 - 16. Then they lost their last two games of the season to the Arizona Cardinals on the road 27 - 21 and then at home to the wild card Washington Redskins 31 - 20. They ended their 2005 season at 6 - 10, which marked the first time since 1999 that the Eagles failed to make the playoffs.
After expectations of a return to the Super Bowl, it appeared the Eagles would have to retool in the 2006 off - season to make another run for the Vince Lombardi Trophy.
In 2006, the Eagles started off hot, beating the Houston Texans in Houston 24 - 10. And they kept the streak going, jumping to a 24 - 7 lead against the Giants before losing 30 - 24 in overtime. They won their next two games easily, beating the 49ers in San Francisco and then returning home to limit Brett Favre 's Packers to three field goals. The Birds ' 3 - 1 record set the stage for Terrell Owens ' return to Philadelphia.
Owens return to Philadelphia was being promoted by Fox as the "game of the year ''. The game had more at stake, because the winner would take the lead in the NFC East. Owens received boos and jokes about his accidental overdose from a sell - out crowd. Lito Sheppard 's game - winning interception for a touchdown sealed the game for the Eagles, 38 - 24.
McNabb 's season was already considered one of the finest in Eagles history and his career. After the win against Owens ' Cowboys, they faced the upstart New Orleans Saints, with critics claiming the winner would be the NFC favorite. The Eagles ended up losing 27 - 24 on a last second field goal. The next week at Tampa, the Eagles would once again lose on a last second field goal. This time the field goal was an improbable 62 yarder by Matt Bryant - the second longest in NFL History.
One week before their bye, the Eagles faced the Jacksonville Jaguars and failed to score a touchdown in a 13 - 6 loss. After their bye, they routed the Redskins, which not only kept Reid / McNabb perfect after the bye week, it put them back on track after three consecutive losses. The Birds were on a roll going into their match with Vince Young 's Titans, but were dominated throughout the game, losing 31 - 13. The bigger loss however was Donovan McNabb - who suffered a season ending injury for the second straight year.
With Donovan McNabb going down to injury, the Eagles called on Jeff Garcia to lead the team. The move was a highly unpopular one, because fans believed A.J. Feeley was their best bet. After falling to Peyton Manning 's Indianapolis Colts, the Eagles ' record stood at 5 - 6, and they did not appear to be in playoff contention.
However, Garcia led the team to an improbable five - game winning streak, which included a three - game NFC East road trip and a Christmas showdown in Dallas. The Eagles finished the season 10 - 6, but lost the tie - breaker to the Saints, meaning they would be the third seed.
The Eagles won their home wild card game against the Giants 23 - 20, on a David Akers ' field goal. The game officially sent Tiki Barber into retirement. Their divisional playoff game was a Week 6 rematch against the Saints. The Eagles lost by the same score as in the regular season: 27 - 24. Andy Reid made the controversial decision to punt with less than two minutes remaining.
2007 marked the Eagles ' 75th season. The Eagles drafted quarterback Kevin Kolb from Houston, signaling a possible life beyond Mcnabb. McNabb delivered average performances, and missed three games due to an injury. The team only achieved an 8 - 8 record and missed the playoffs.
The beginning of 2008 presented a good opportunity for the Eagles. Donovan McNabb got a good start to the season, Brian Westbrook ran for many touchdowns, and rookie receiver DeSean Jackson became an important figure in the Eagles ' passing game. However, the Eagles went against the 1 - 8 Bengals in Week 10 and McNabb played horribly, throwing consistent interceptions and leading the Eagles to a ten - point deficit at the half. Despite being able to score those ten points, the game went into overtime. A Bengals missed field goal led to Eagles ball, but McNabb 's ' Hail Mary ' was deflected with seconds left in overtime, and the game ended in a 13 - 13 tie, the first since 2002. McNabb then sparked controversy by admitting that he was unaware that an NFL game could end in a tie.
Against Baltimore, things were even worse. At halftime, due to bad performance, McNabb was benched. However, the Eagles needed him, and it would show. His backup, Kevin Kolb, managed to get the Eagles to the Baltimore two - yard line; he then threw an interception in the end zone that was returned by Ed Reed for a record 107 - yard touchdown.
By this time, it was obvious that the Eagles needed a good quarterback for the next week 's match - up against the Arizona Cardinals, who for the first time in several decades seemed poised to win their division. The game was scheduled for Thanksgiving night, and the decision was eventually made to start Donovan McNabb, but if he played like he did in the last couple of weeks, he would probably be benched for the season. But McNabb surprised everyone and lead the Eagles to what was perhaps one of the greatest games in franchise history, a 48 - 21 blowout in which McNabb threw for four touchdowns. The Eagles went on a three - game win streak following up the Cardinals victory with wins over the Giants and Browns. The Eagles then lost to a mediocre at best Redskins team, 10 - 3 and putting their post season prospects in serious doubt.
However, getting the help that they needed earlier in the day, the Eagles were able to run over the Dallas Cowboys 44 - 6 on December 28, 2008 and advanced to the playoffs. The Eagles then defeated the Minnesota Vikings 26 - 14 in the first round of the playoffs on January 4, 2009. They defeated their division rival and the defending Super Bowl champions the New York Giants 23 - 11 in the NFC Divisional Round to advance to their fifth NFC Championship game in nine years. For the third time in a decade, an all - Pennsylvania Super Bowl seemed possible, as the Pittsburgh Steelers won the AFC Championship against the Baltimore Ravens. However, the Eagles lost 32 - 25 to the Arizona Cardinals.
In August, the team stirred up controversy by signing ex-Falcons quarterback Michael Vick, who had recently been released from prison for federal dogfighting charges. On the regular season opener against Carolina, McNabb sustained a broken rib and sat out the next two games, with Kevin Kolb taking his place as starter. Afterwards, Philadelphia endured a bad loss to New Orleans, but then beat Kansas City the following week. McNabb returned, and Vick also began playing (as he had been barred from the first two games). He got off to a slow start and was used sparingly for much of the season. After a 13 - 9 loss in Oakland, the Eagles defeated the Redskins 27 - 17 on Monday Night Football. During this game, running back Brian Westbrook suffered a severe concussion and was knocked unconscious. He returned to play in the Week 10 game against San Diego, but was felled by a second concussion. Afterwards, Philadelphia went on a five - game winning streak and clinching a playoff berth after defeating the Broncos in Week 16, which marked Brian Westbrook 's return to action after an absence of five weeks. However, the season ended with a whimper, as they were shut out by a resurgent Cowboys squad the following week. This put Dallas at the top of the NFC East and giving the Eagles a wild card spot. The two teams then had to play again the following week, but Philadelphia went down to defeat a second time, the score being 34 - 14.
On January 11, 2010, General Manager Tom Heckert was hired by the Cleveland Browns in the same role. He was replaced by Howie Roseman, who was promoted from Vice President of Player Personnel. On February 23, 2010 the Eagles released starting running back Brian Westbrook, Eagles ' all - time leader in yards from scrimmage with 9,785 yards.
A bigger surprise came on Easter Sunday, when the team traded quarterback Donovan McNabb to their division rival Washington Redskins for a second - round (37th overall) pick in the 2010 NFL Draft, and a third - or fourth - round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. Kevin Kolb was named team 's starting quarterback.
The Kolb era did not begin on a positive note as the Eagles donned their throwback kelly green jerseys and hosted the Green Bay Packers in their opening game as both teams performed poorly in the first half, although that was partially because of weather conditions and damaged turf in Lincoln Financial Field. Kolb was thrown to the ground by Packers linebacker Clay Matthews and was forced to sit out the game after it was determined that he suffered a concussion. Five other Packers and Eagles players were also injured in the game. Michael Vick replaced Kolb, but the Packers ended up winning the game, 27 - 20, the Packers ' first win in Philadelphia since 1962 and their first - ever win on Lincoln Financial Field.
With Vick taking over as starter, the Eagles traveled and defeated the Detroit Lions 35 - 32 in week 2 with Vick 's impressive performance in the team 's offense. Although Kolb was presumed to be the starter after he recovered from injury, Andy Reid named Vick as the starting quarterback instead. The team then traveled to Jacksonville. Vick scored four touchdowns (three passing and one rushing) and no interceptions in a 28 - 3 rout of the Jaguars.
Week 4 saw the return of McNabb to Philadelphia. He was generally given a warm reception, and the Redskins got a touchdown early in the first quarter. After that, both offenses sputtered and the Eagles had to settle for two field goals. But things rapidly fell apart when Vick was injured late in the first quarter with chest and rib injuries he suffered when two Redskins defensive backs crushed him from both sides while running near to the endzone. Kolb was once again brought out as starter, but delivered an uninspired performance. He did manage a touchdown pass in the fourth quarter, but it was too little too late. A two - point conversion attempt after the touchdown failed, and Washington won 16 - 12. Afterward, Vick was diagnosed with cracked cartilage and forced to sit out at least one game.
With Kolb starting, the Eagles headed to San Francisco for a Sunday Night Football match against the 0 - 4 49ers. Kolb passed for 253 yards and one touchdown to lead his team to a 27 - 24 victory. Philadelphia won its first home game in week 6 by overpowering the Falcons 31 - 17. Kolb continued to improve, passing for 326 yards, three touchdown passes, and one interception. However, he was not able to sustain this momentum in the week 8 game against Tennessee, throwing two interceptions and only one touchdown. The Eagles lost 37 - 19 to enter their bye week at 4 - 3, and once again Vick was brought out as starter prior to hosting Indianapolis in week 10. This game proved an intense, highly physical contest as Vick scored two touchdowns (one passing and one rushing) and Philadelphia overcame stubborn resistance by the Colts to win 27 - 24. Afterwards, the Eagles headed to Washington, where, for the second year in a row, they faced the Redskins on Monday Night Football. Philadelphia quickly marched out to two touchdowns in the first quarter, putting them up at 14 - 0 within five minutes. By the second quarter, they had scored another two, leading by 28 points. Four more touchdowns followed in a 59 - 28 blowout of Washington. All in all, there were eight (four passing, three rushing, and one interception return), six of which were from Michael Vick, who had 333 passing and 80 rushing yards for one of the finest performances of his career.
For the third season in a row, the Eagles traveled to Chicago, a team that Michael Vick had a career 0 - 4 record against. This time would be no different as the Bears ' defense slowed him down to win 31 - 26. Vick also threw his first interception of the season. The Eagles rebounded with a Thursday game against Houston. Despite winning 34 - 24, Philadelphia 's defense turned in a relatively mediocre performance, which may have had to do with the fact that the team had played four games in a 17 - day stretch.
On Sunday Night in Week 14, the Eagles headed to Dallas for a game with their arch - rivals. However, the Cowboys were a considerably weaker team than when they defeated Philadelphia three times in 2009. Their QB Tony Romo was out of commission from an injury, they had had their head coach Wade Phillips fired halfway through the season, and they were barely clinging to life at 4 - 9. Michael Vick delivered an average performance, although one of the game 's highlights was a 90 - yard TD pass to DeSean Jackson. Although Andy Reid had gained a reputation as a pass - happy coach, the Eagles ' scoring was mainly based on run plays and long field goals. Despite a close game, they prevailed 30 - 27 and eliminated Dallas from playoff contention.
In Week 15, the Eagles beat New York in a shocking upset by overcoming a 21 - point deficit in the second half. In the closing seconds of the game, DeSean Jackson returned a punt 65 yards for a touchdown to win 38 - 31. This became known as the Miracle at the New Meadowlands. After locking up their first division title in four years, the Eagles played a surprisingly bad game against Minnesota and lost. The team lost a meaningless season ender against Dallas before preparing to host Green Bay again in the wild card round of the playoffs. Despite playing the Packers hard, Philadelphia 's first home playoff game since 2006 ended in defeat 21 - 16 as Vick threw a hail mary interception in the closing minute of the 4th quarter. Pro bowler David Akers, who had one of the best seasons ever by a kicker, also contributed to the loss having a rare poor game going 1 for 3, missing from 34 & 41 yards.
The off - season was marred by a lockout that began in March after the NFL 's collective bargaining agreement expired, making practices, trades, and free agency impossible. During the draft, the Eagles did comparatively little. After the lockout ended in July, the team embarked on a rash of high - profile FA signings, including Raiders CB Nnamdi Asomugha, Dolphins RB Ronnie Brown, Giants WR Steve Smith, Packers TE Donald Lee, Titans DE Jason Babin, Packers DT Cullen Jenkins, and Cardinals CB Dominique Rodgers - Cromartie. Meanwhile, Kevin Kolb, displeased at losing the starting QB job to Michael Vick in 2010, was traded to Arizona for Cromartie. Replacing him as 2nd - stringer was ex-Titans QB Vince Young. Vince Young made a lot of hype by calling Philadelphia the "Dream Team ''.
Although the Eagles won their 2011 opener in St. Louis, the Dream Team failed to deliver as Michael Vick fell victim to injuries and turnovers. The Eagles lost four straight games. With Vince Young taking over, Philadelphia beat the Washington Redskins at last in Week 6. In Week 8, Vick returned to help crush the Cowboys at home 34 - 7. After further losses to Chicago and Arizona, the Eagles beat the New York Giants and then fell to New England and Seattle before winning their final four matches and finishing 8 - 8.
The Eagles entered 2012 with strong hopes after winning their last 4 games of last season. When the team started 3 - 1, including a 24 - 23 victory over the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens, the fans were thinking playoffs, even Super Bowl. However, these hopes came to a crashing halt as the team lost their next 8 and 11 of their next 12 to finish 4 - 12, their worst record since 1998. The Eagles proceeded to fire Andy Reid, the longest - tenured and winningest coach in team history. Reid would later join the Kansas City Chiefs as head coach.
After the firing of Andy Reid, Chip Kelly was named head coach of the Eagles on January 16, 2013 after a successful four - year reign manning the sidelines at the University of Oregon. Kelly was known for his up tempo approach to football which helped him make the University of Oregon a premier college organization. Many questioned if his methods would work in the NFL, and was met with skepticism by the fans of Philadelphia.
In his first season in professional football, Kelly produced a 10 - 6 record and an NFC East championship, becoming just the second head coach in league history to win a division title in his first season in the NFL. Along the way, the Eagles set a plethora of team records, including points (442), total net yards (6,676), touchdowns (53), passing yards (4,406) and fewest turnovers (19). The Eagles also set an NFL record with 99 plays of 20 + yards and became the first team since the 1991 Buffalo Bills to lead the league in rushing while ranking last in time of possession. Individually, RB LeSean McCoy set the franchise record for rushing yards and scrimmage yards in a season in 2013, while QB Nick Foles had the 3rd best QB rating in NFL history in 2013. In 2014, QB Mark Sanchez set a team record with a 64.1 completion percentage.
After Chip Kelly, Doug Pederson was announced head coach on January 18, 2016, his first NFL head coaching job. The Eagles traded up for the second overall draft pick and chose North Dakota State quarterback Carson Wentz in the 2016 NFL Draft. In Wentz and Pederson 's first season, Philadelphia went 7 - 9, last in the NFC East. In Wentz 's second season, the Eagles improved 13 - 3, including two wins over the Giants. Wentz suffered an injury, causing him to miss the divisional round home game against the Falcons and the NFC Championship against the Vikings to be replaced by backup Nick Foles.
The Eagles defeated the Vikings 38 - 7, to win the NFC Championship. They went on to win their first Super Bowl championship in Super Bowl LII, 41 - 33, against the defending champions (the New England Patriots) on February 4, 2018.
Buffalo Bills Miami Dolphins New England Patriots New York Jets
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Houston Texans Indianapolis Colts Jacksonville Jaguars Tennessee Titans
Denver Broncos Kansas City Chiefs Los Angeles Chargers Oakland Raiders
Dallas Cowboys New York Giants Philadelphia Eagles Washington Redskins
Chicago Bears Detroit Lions Green Bay Packers Minnesota Vikings
Atlanta Falcons Carolina Panthers New Orleans Saints Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Arizona Cardinals Los Angeles Rams San Francisco 49ers Seattle Seahawks
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what would you observe when the water of crystallization of a salt is removed by heating it | Water of crystallization - wikipedia
In chemistry, water of crystallization or water of hydration or crystallization water is water that occurs inside crystals. Water is often incorporated in the formation of crystals from aqueous solutions. In some contexts, water of crystallization is the total weight of water in a substance at a given temperature and is mostly present in a definite (stoichiometric) ratio. Classically, "water of crystallization '' refers to water that is found in the crystalline framework of a metal complex or a salt, which is not directly bonded to the metal cation.
Upon crystallization from water or moist solvents, many compounds incorporate water molecules in their crystalline frameworks. Water of crystallization can generally be removed by heating a sample but the crystalline properties are often lost. For example, in the case of sodium chloride, the dihydrate is unstable at room temperature.
Compared to inorganic salts, proteins crystallize with large amounts of water in the crystal lattice. The water content of 50 % is not uncommon for proteins.
In molecular formulas water of crystallization can be denoted in different ways:
A salt with associated water of crystallization is known as a hydrate. The structure of hydrates can be quite elaborate, because of the existence of hydrogen bonds that define polymeric structures. Historically, the structures of many hydrates were unknown, and the dot in the formula of a hydrate was employed to specify the composition without indicating how the water is bound. Examples:
For many salts, the exact bonding of the water is unimportant because the water molecules are labilized upon dissolution. For example, an aqueous solution prepared from CuSO 5H O and anhydrous CuSO behave identically. Therefore, knowledge of the degree of hydration is important only for determining the equivalent weight: one mole of CuSO 5H O weighs more than one mole of CuSO. In some cases, the degree of hydration can be critical to the resulting chemical properties. For example, anhydrous RhCl is not soluble in water and is relatively useless in organometallic chemistry whereas RhCl 3H O is versatile. Similarly, hydrated AlCl is a poor Lewis acid and thus inactive as a catalyst for Friedel - Crafts reactions. Samples of AlCl must therefore be protected from atmospheric moisture to preclude the formation of hydrates.
Crystals of hydrated copper (II) sulfate consist of (Cu (H O)) centers linked to SO ions. Copper is surrounded by six oxygen atoms, provided by two different sulfate groups and four molecules of water. A fifth water resides elsewhere in the framework but does not bind directly to copper. The cobalt chloride mentioned above occurs as (Co (H O)) and Cl. In tin chloride, each Sn (II) center is pyramidal (mean O / Cl - Sn - O / Cl angle is 83 °) being bound to two chloride ions and one water. The second water in the formula unit is hydrogen - bonded to the chloride and to the coordinated water molecule. Water of crystallization is stabilized by electrostatic attractions, consequently hydrates are common for salts that contain + 2 and + 3 cations as well as − 2 anions. In some cases, the majority of the weight of a compound arises from water. Glauber 's salt, Na SO (H O), is a white crystalline solid with greater than 50 % water by weight.
Consider the case of nickel (II) chloride hexahydrate. This species has the formula NiCl (H O). Crystallographic analysis reveals that the solid consists of (trans - NiCl (H O)) subunits that are hydrogen bonded to each other as well as two additional molecules of H O. Thus 1 / 3 of the water molecules in the crystal are not directly bonded to Ni, and these might be termed "water of crystallization ''.
The water content of most compounds can be determined with a knowledge of its formula. An unknown sample can be determined through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) where the sample is heated strongly, and the accurate weight of a sample is plotted against the temperature. The amount of water driven off is then divided by the molar mass of water to obtain the number of molecules of water bound to the salt.
Water is particularly common solvent to be found in crystals because it is small and polar. But all solvents can be found in some host crystals. Water is noteworthy because it is reactive, whereas other solvents such as benzene are considered to be chemically innocuous. Occasionally more than one solvent is found in a crystal, and often the stoichiometry is variable, reflected in the crystallographic concept of "partial occupancy. '' It is common and conventional for a chemist to "dry '' a sample with a combination of vacuum and heat "to constant weight. ''
For other solvents of crystallization, analysis is conveniently accomplished by dissolving the sample in a deuterated solvent and analyzing the sample for solvent signals by NMR spectroscopy. Single crystal X-ray crystallography is often able to detect the presence of these solvents of crystallization as well. Other methods may be currently available.
In the table below are indicated the number of molecules of water per metal in various salts.
Transition metal sulfates form mono -, tetra -, and pentahydrates, each of which crystallizes in only one form. The water in these salts typically is coordinated, together with sulfate to the metal center. The sulfates of these same metals also crystallize as both tetragonal and monoclinic hexahydrates, wherein all water is coordinated and the sulfate is a counterion. The heptahydrates, which are often the most common salts, crystallize as monoclinic and the less common orthorhombic forms. In the heptahydrates, one water is in the lattice and the other six are coordinated to the ferrous center. Cr (SO) 18H O
Hydrated copper (II) sulfate is bright blue.
Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate is white.
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is apple sauce and apple puree the same | Apple sauce - wikipedia
Apple sauce or applesauce is a sauce made of apples. It can be made with peeled or unpeeled apples and a variety of spices (commonly cinnamon and allspice). Flavorings or sweeteners such as sugar or honey are also commonly added. Apple sauce is inexpensive and is widely used in North America and some European countries.
It can be substituted for fat (e.g. butter / oil) in baking.
Commercial versions of apple sauce are readily available in supermarkets. It may be packaged in several ways, including: glass jars, tins, or plastic tubs. It is also sold in serving - size small plastic cups.
Apple sauce is made by cooking down apples with water or apple cider (fresh apple juice) to the required level. More acidic apples will render a finer purée; the highly acidic Bramley apple is popular for creating a very fine purée. Apples may or may not be peeled; sugar, spices, or lemon juice could also be added for flavoring. Apple butter is similar to apple sauce, but has a high cider to apple ratio, of 8 liters to 100 kilograms.
Apple sauce was once a food prepared for winter, since it keeps well. It is often an accompaniment to a main course. In Sweden and Britain, for instance, apple sauce is usually eaten as a condiment for roast pork. In Germany it accompanies potato pancakes, in the Netherlands, french fries. It is also a popular accompaniment in the United States and is sometimes served as a dessert there as well, alone or used in making apple sauce cake. It is also used alone with toast as a snack. In France where it is referred to as compote, it is mostly viewed as a dessert and served at room temperature, with the notable exception of boudin aux pommes (dark blood sausage with apple sauce). In Portugal as well, maçã cozida (cooked apple) is solely viewed as a dessert.
Apple sauce can be used in baking as a substitute for fat (such as butter or oil) or eggs.
Since it is high in pectin (more of which can be added during the cooking process), apple sauce is a homemade remedy to combat diarrhea. Apple sauce is thus a component of the regimen devised to help children with diarrhea and stomach problems, also known as the BRAT diet: bananas, rice, apple sauce, and toast.
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who won the race at the end of fast five | Fast Five - wikipedia
Fast Five (alternatively known as Fast & Furious 5 or Fast & Furious 5: Rio Heist) is a 2011 American action film directed by Justin Lin and written by Chris Morgan. It is the fifth installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise. It was released first in Australia on April 20, 2011, and then in the United States on April 29, 2011. Fast Five follows Dominic Toretto (Vin Diesel), Brian O'Conner (Paul Walker), and Mia Toretto (Jordana Brewster) as they plan a heist to steal $100 million from corrupt businessman Hernan Reyes (Joaquim de Almeida) while being pursued for arrest by U.S. Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) agent Luke Hobbs (Dwayne Johnson).
While developing Fast Five, Universal Studios deliberately departed from the street racing theme prevalent in previous films in the series, to transform the franchise into a heist action series involving cars. By doing so, they hoped to attract wider audiences that might otherwise be put off by a heavy emphasis on cars and car culture. Fast Five is considered the transitional film in the series, featuring only one car race and giving more attention to action set pieces such as gun fights, brawls, and the heist of $100 million. The production mounted a comprehensive marketing campaign, marketing the film through social media, virtual games, cinema chains, automobile manufacturers, and at NASCAR races.
Fast Five achieved financial success, breaking box office records for the highest - grossing April opening weekend and the second - highest spring opening weekend, and surpassing Fast & Furious (2009) to become the highest - grossing film in the franchise. Fast Five grossed over $625 million worldwide, making it number 66 on the all - time worldwide list of highest - grossing films, in unadjusted dollars, and the seventh - highest - grossing film of 2011.
Fast Five received mostly positive reviews, with critics praising the combination of comedy and "action sequences that toy idly with the laws of physics ''; some labeled it the best film in the series. Johnson was singled out for praise in numerous reviews for his performance, with critics calling him "the best thing, by far, in Fast Five '' and remarking that scenes shared by Johnson and Diesel were often the "best moments ''. Despite the positive response, many were critical of the film 's running time, considering it too long, and others criticized the treatment of women, stating "(Women) cameo strikingly in buttock form. Others actually have first names. '' South American reviewers were critical of the film 's portrayal of Rio de Janeiro as a haven for drug trafficking and corruption, labeling it a "stereotype ''. A sequel, Fast & Furious 6, was released in May 2013 to box office success, surpassing Fast Five as the highest - grossing film in the franchise. Another sequel, Furious 7, released in April 2015, soon surpassed Fast & Furious 6, grossing over $1.5 billion worldwide.
When Dominic "Dom '' Toretto is being transported to Lompoc Prison by bus, his sister Mia Toretto and friend Brian O'Conner lead an assault on the bus, causing it to crash and freeing Dom. While the authorities search for them, the trio escapes to Rio de Janeiro. Awaiting Dom 's arrival, Mia and Brian join their friend Vince and other participants on a job to steal three cars from a train. Brian and Mia discover that agents from the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) are also on the train and that the cars are seized property. When Dom arrives with the rest of the participants, he realizes that one of them, Zizi, is only interested in stealing one car, a Ford GT40. Dom has Mia steal the car herself before he and Brian fight Zizi and his henchmen, during which Zizi kills the DEA agents assigned to the vehicles. Dom and Brian are captured and brought to crime lord Hernan Reyes, the owner of the cars and Zizi 's boss. Reyes orders the pair be interrogated to discover the location of the car, but they manage to escape and retreat to their safehouse.
While Brian, Dom, and Mia examine the car to discover its importance, Vince arrives and is caught trying to remove a computer chip from it. He admits he was planning to sell the chip to Reyes on his own, and Dom forces him to leave. Brian investigates the chip and discovers it contains details of Reyes ' criminal empire, including the locations of US $100 million in cash.
Diplomatic Security Service agent Luke Hobbs and his team arrive in Rio to arrest Dom and Brian. With the help of local officer Elena Neves, they travel to Dom 's safehouse, but find it under assault by Reyes ' men. Brian, Dom and Mia escape; Dom suggests they split up and leave Rio, but Mia announces she is pregnant with Brian 's child. Dom agrees to stick together and suggests they steal the money from Reyes to start a new life. They organize a team to perform the heist: Han, Roman, Tej, Gisele, Leo, and Santos. Vince later joins the team after saving Mia from being captured by Reyes ' men.
Hobbs and his team eventually find and arrest Dom, Mia, Brian, and Vince. While transporting them to the airport for extradition to the United States, the convoy is attacked by Reyes ' men, who kill Hobbs ' team. Hobbs and Elena are saved by Dom, Brian, Mia, and Vince as they fight back and escape, but Vince is shot in the process and dies. Wanting to avenge his murdered team, Hobbs and Elena agree to help with the heist. The gang breaks into the police station and tear the vault holding Reyes ' money from the building using their cars, dragging it through the city. After an extensive police chase, Dom makes Brian continue without him while he attacks the police and the pursuing Reyes, using the vault attached to his car to smash their vehicles. Brian returns and kills Zizi while Reyes is badly injured by Dom 's assault. Hobbs arrives on the scene and executes Reyes to avenge his team. Though Hobbs refuses to let Dom and Brian go free, he gives them a 24 - hour head start to escape on the condition they leave the vault as it is. However, the vault is empty as it had been switched during the chase. After splitting the cash (Vince 's share is given to his family), they go their separate ways.
On a tropical beach, Brian and a visibly pregnant Mia relax. They are met by Dom and Elena. Brian challenges Dom to a final, no - stakes race to prove who is the better driver.
In a mid-credits scene, Hobbs is given a file by Monica Fuentes concerning the hijack of a military convoy in Berlin, where he discovers a recent photo of Dom 's former girlfriend Letty, who had been presumed dead.
The central cast is rounded out by Puerto Rican singers Tego Calderón and Don Omar as Leo and Santos respectively, members of the heist team. Michael Irby plays Reyes ' right - hand man Zizi. Alimi Ballard, Fernando Chien, Yorgo Constantine, and Geoff Meedy portray Hobbs ' team members Fusco, Wilkes, Chato, and Macroy. Michelle Rodriguez appears in photographs as Letty Ortiz, Dominic 's girlfriend who is presumed dead following the events of Fast & Furious. Eva Mendes appears in an uncredited cameo as Agent Monica Fuentes, reprising her role from 2 Fast 2 Furious.
By February 3, 2010, it was confirmed that a fifth film, referred to as Fast Five, was going into production in the Fast and Furious series, and that a sixth film was being planned. It was also confirmed that Diesel, Walker, writer Chris Morgan and producer Neal H. Moritz would all return to their roles for the new installment. Moritz said that, following the success of Fast & Furious (2009), which had reunited Diesel, Brewster, Walker and Rodriguez from the original film, the production wanted to bring them back again for the next one. Diesel felt that the story between the characters portrayed by himself and Walker should continue, envisioning it as three chapters, of which Fast Five would be the last. Diesel also wanted to bring back a variety of characters that had been in previous films without interacting, put them together and "have a lot of fun ''.
The production had originally intended to film on location in Rio de Janeiro. However, the Puerto Rican government offered tax incentives totaling nearly $11 million, influencing the decision to film there, using Puerto Rico to represent Rio de Janeiro.
Universal intended to transform the series from street - racing action into a series of heist films with car chases in the vein of The Italian Job (1969) and The French Connection (1971), with Fast Five as the transitional movie. In April 2011, Universal chairman Adam Fogelson said:
The question putting Fast Five and Fast Six together for us was: Can we take it out of being a pure car culture movie and into being a true action franchise in the spirit of those great heist films made 10 or 15 years ago?
Fogelson said that the racing aspect had put a "ceiling '' on the number of people willing to see films in the series, and that, by turning it into a series where car driving ability is just one aspect of the film, he hoped to increase the series ' audience.
Lin wanted to explore the elements of "freedom and family '' in the film and collaborated with Morgan towards that ideal, both having worked together on previous installments of the franchise. Morgan worked with Diesel to produce a story arc that would further explore and develop Diesel 's character. An idea involving heisting a large safe had been conceived by Morgan during the production of Fast & Furious, but that film 's premise did not work with how Morgan envisioned it. He later incorporated it into Fast Five.
On a budget of $125 million, the shooting of Fast Five was scheduled for July and August 2010. Shooting had started by July 14, 2010, but it took longer than forecast: the film was still being shot in early November 2010.
Three film units worked simultaneously. The main cast were required to travel to Rio at the behest of Lin, who felt it important to understand the area and its culture to give the film a good sense of place. Diesel agreed that it was important to shoot key scenes in Brazil, commenting "we were able to shoot where other productions might not be able to shoot because our franchise has such good street cred. ''
The Rio film unit captured aerial shots of the city including Sugarloaf Mountain, Fort Copacabana, Ipanema Beach, the Dona Marta lookout point and the Christ the Redeemer statue. Establishing shots of the heist team members were taken as each arrived in Rio. Gibson was filmed arriving in character at Galeão International Airport but, when it became publicly known that a scene was being shot at the airport, the cast and crew were mobbed. A similar situation occurred while Ludacris was shooting a scene in which his character buys a car to drive around the city. A scene where the completed heist team walk down a beach was filmed in Copacabana.
The rooftop chase across favelas was filmed in Puerto Rico, where the production could have more control over the area. The main and second filming units began filming in and around the capital, San Juan. The island 's mixture of tropical greenery and wide streets allowed the production to re-create the densely populated favelas of Rio while completing the larger action and external scenes without incident. Production designer Peter Wenham had the task of transforming Puerto Rico and Atlanta into the previously scouted Rio locations in four weeks, as the production deemed Rio unsuitable for filming many of the larger scenes. Wenham had to reinforce buildings to support the heavy camera equipment, and to alter the colors of more than 30 buildings in the city to make them suitable for filming. His team needed to alter the buildings and strew debris to make the area look disheveled and appear as a Rio shantytown. Wenham remarked that, though the development was difficult, in part due to the heat, it was "a walk in the park '' compared with filming in the Rio favelas themselves. Wenham aimed to maintain a monochromatic color scheme for the film, with muted blacks and grays, including his choice of colors for the cars used. He only chose to add a multitude of colors in the favela set. The Teodoro Moscosco bridge connecting San Juan to neighboring Isla Verde was used to film the final showdown between Dom and Reyes, while a U.S. Navy base pier 60 miles outside San Juan stood in for the bridge for scenes involving the vault smashing cars. Action scenes were also filmed in the Hato Rey and Río Piedras districts of San Juan.
A foot pursuit in which Diesel, Brewster and Walker are chased across favela rooftops by Johnson and his team was filmed over the course of a week in the small hillside town of Naranjito, Puerto Rico. The scene was considered difficult to shoot, as pathways were slippery from moist tropical heat and the scene involved actors and stunt doubles running while avoiding dogs, chickens and other stray animals loose in the area. To capture the scene, a 420 - foot cable - camera rig was used to allow for a fast moving, birds - eye view of the action, and cameras on cranes were set up on rooftops and in alleyways. Walker and Brewster made multiple takes of the conclusion of the scene, requiring them to jump nearly 30 feet from a building onto a waiting safety mat. In total the production employed 236 technicians, 13,145 extras, and generated 16,824 room nights at hotels, contributing $27 million to the Puerto Rican community.
Filming moved to Atlanta, Georgia for the final phase. Wenham and his team transformed a defunct train yard into an abandoned auto plant used by the protagonists as their headquarters. Redesigning the train yard took place over several months. It was required to allow enough space for stunt drivers to drive into the building, and it had to include an integrated lighting system. The design team removed walls, hauled out old railway cars, suspended rusted car parts and auto - plant car rails, and constructed smaller buildings within the main building to transform the site. With twenty - five pages of script to shoot in a limited time, cinematographer Stephen Windon and his team spent three weeks setting up a series of high - powered, motorized lights in the rafters of the building, that could be controlled remotely to allow lighting to be altered quickly while fully illuminating the set. An exterior scene involving Diesel and Walker attending a car party, involving several high - performance cars, was filmed near the Georgia Dome. The train heist scene was filmed in Rice, California over three weeks.
A brawl scene between Johnson 's and Diesel 's characters was considered difficult to choreograph. The characters were written to be equally formidable, so the fight was punctuated with moments of character development, as Moritz felt this made the fight more exciting. The scene required several weeks of rehearsal and more than a week of filming by the actors and their stunt doubles, who incurred several minor injuries.
The climatic vault heist required four weeks of preparation with every scene and camera angle determined in advance. The filmmakers hired stunt director Spiro Razatos and stunt coordinator Jack Gill to direct the second - unit action filming. The pair initially began research for the stunt by testing the capabilities of the prop vaults and the Dodge Chargers driven by Diesel and Walker. Filmed on the streets of Hato Rey, the chaotic scene demanded specific timing that had to be synchronized with the various character interactions also occurring during the scene. Razatos chose to use a series of camera cars including a crane - mounted camera atop a Porsche Cayenne, which allowed him to film from a variety of angles and heights while the vehicles were in motion, and a Subaru Impreza with a steel cage built around it that allowed for tracking shots. The Subaru 's driver Allen Padelford would occasionally accidentally collide with the vault, creating a shower of sparks that inadvertently became useful footage. Padelford also developed a top - mount dual - drive system for the Chargers that allowed a stunt driver to control the vehicle from the roof, while the actor focused on their performance inside the car.
Six versions of the 8 - foot high vault were built, each with specific uses. One of the vaults was a façade built onto the front of a semitruck and was used for filming close shots of the vault destroying street cars. Another vault was a reinforced, four - wheel self - drive vehicle that was connected to 30 - foot cables and dragged through the streets of San Juan by the two stunt Dodge Chargers. The four - ton vault was driven by stunt driver Henry Kingi, who had to wear a temperature controlled suit to compensate for the temperatures within that could exceed 100 degrees. A scene where the vault tumbled as the cars rounded a corner was a practical effect, and the result was more violent than the filmmakers had anticipated. Over 200 vehicles were destroyed by the vault during filming. Several stunts had to be cut including a final scene that would have seen the vault hanging over the edge of the Teodoro Moscoso Bridge. This stunt was abandoned when it was determined that even the powerful Chargers would not be able to support the vault 's weight.
The train heist presented several challenges. The filmmakers were required to effectively purchase a length of working railroad for filming and the trains necessary to ride the tracks. Then trucks had to be built that could race the train and meet the needs of the heist itself. Lin also required that the cars being carried on the train be able to jump out of the train at full speed. The scene took precise execution. The filmmakers chose to use cars they could cheaply replicate for the train heist -- a 1972 De Tomaso Pantera, a 2007 Chevrolet Corvette GS Roadster, and a Ford GT40 -- to avoid the expense of replacing a genuine $2 million Ford GT40.
Fast Five (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) was released on iTunes on April 25, 2011, and on CD on May 3, 2011, by ABKCO Records. It features many reggaeton and rhythmic Latin tracks, including songs by Don Omar, Busta Rhymes and many others, with three pieces from Tyler 's original score for the film: "Assembling the Team '', "Mad Skills '' and "Fast Five Suite ''. Music guide AllMusic awarded the album 3 stars out of 5, commenting that "The goal here is to accompany a picture that, as usual, is packed with driving sequences involving flashy cars, beautiful, scantily clad women, and muscled men. That goal is accomplished with this beat - heavy music and the gruff, aggressive Latin rapping. '' Ludacris collaborated with Slaughterhouse and Claret Jai for the soundtrack 's lead single, "Furiously Dangerous ''.
The film score was released on May 3, 2011, by Varèse Sarabande. The release has 25 tracks and plays for 78 minutes. The score spent four weeks on the Billboard 200, peaking as high as number 60 and reaching number 24 on the digital albums chart and number 5 on the soundtrack - only chart.
The first trailer for Fast Five was released on Diesel 's Facebook page on December 14, 2010, in what was believed to be the first ever use of this marketing approach. At the time, Diesel 's page had over 20 million subscribers (one of the top five personal sites of celebrities), providing a wide audience for the trailer. Following this debut, other members of the cast with personal social media platforms released the teaser trailer to their own fans.
The Facebook game Car Town by Cie Games and the theater chain Regal Entertainment Group (REG) collaborated with Universal in a cross-media marketing promotion. Car Town allowed players to view the trailer for the film in an REG - branded, in - game drive - in theater and race around a virtual Rio de Janeiro. The game also featured missions and locations based on the plot of the film, while allowing players to race against Fast Five characters and take part in a bank heist. REG offered players of Car Town the ability to purchase tickets in - game via Fandango for films at REG theaters. By buying these tickets in - game, players were given promotional codes which in turn allowed them to unlock a virtual 1970s Dodge Charger, used by Diesel 's character in the original film. REG promoted the partnership between the film and the game in their theaters across 37 states, online and through social media, while Universal promoted it via their own Facebook, Twitter and YouTube sites. In October 2011, it was claimed that over 200 million races had taken place within the virtual Rio de Janeiro environment in the six months since the campaign 's April launch.
Automobile manufacturer Dodge collaborated with Universal in marketing the film, supplying several Dodge Chargers to use in it. The partnership with Dodge included the "Fast Five '' Dodge Charger driven by Robby Gordon in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series throughout April 2011 -- the opening month of Fast Five. Dodge also sponsored the world premiere of the film in Rio de Janeiro.
The premiere of Fast Five took place on April 15, 2011, at the Cinépolis Lagoon theater in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It was hosted by actress Susie Castillo and sponsored by car manufacturer Dodge.
Fast Five grossed $209.8 million (33.5 %) in the United States and Canada and $416.3 million (66.5 %) in other territories for a total of $626.1 million. Worldwide, it is the seventy - first highest - grossing film, the seventh highest - grossing 2011 film, the fourth highest - grossing film in the Fast & Furious series (behind Fast & Furious 6, The Fate of the Furious, and Furious 7), and the fifth highest - grossing Universal film. It achieved a worldwide opening weekend of $109.6 million. The film reached a peak of number 55 on the list of all - time highest - grossing films worldwide in October 2011. It became the highest - grossing film of the series in worldwide grosses (as well as separately in the US and Canada, and outside the US and Canada) but was out - grossed in all three cases by Fast & Furious 6.
Fast Five is the ninth highest - grossing 2011 film, the third highest - grossing film of the Fast and Furious franchise (behind Fast 6 and Furious 7) and the fifth highest - grossing Universal film. It was initially released in Australia on Wednesday, April 20, 2011 -- nine days before the release date in North America -- followed by releases in the UK, South Korea and New Zealand. The earlier start in these countries was timed to coincide with their Easter holidays and avoided competition from forthcoming summer films, although this placed it in direct competition with Thor in some countries. By the end of its opening weekend, the film had accrued a total of $23.4 million from these countries. On its second weekend, Fast Five earned $46.3 million across 3,139 theaters in 14 countries, ranking first at the box office in each of its ten new markets. For the overall weekend, it ranked second behind Thor. In the third weekend of release, Fast Five topped the box office in a further 44 countries, playing in a total of 6,979 theaters across 58 countries. It ranked first during the weekend with $85.8 million. It set an opening - weekend record in the United Arab Emirates ($1.65 million), holding this record for two weeks before being out - grossed by Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides ($2.24 million).
Across all markets, the film scored Universal 's highest - grossing opening weekend in Russia, Spain, Turkey, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, France, India, Italy, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates and Vietnam.
Fast Five is the third highest - grossing film in the Fast and Furious franchise (behind Fast 6 and Furious 7), the sixteenth highest - grossing Universal film, the sixth highest - grossing 2011 film, the second highest - grossing heist / caper film, behind Inception, and the second highest - grossing car - racing film, behind Cars. According to Box Office Mojo, Fast Five is one of the most successful sequels of 2011, when taking into account that it is one of few to have outperformed the immediately - preceding instalment of its franchise in the US and Canada.
Fast Five opened on April 29, 2011, in 3,644 theaters, It took $3.8 million in midnight showings, setting new records for the Fast and the Furious series and Universal (both records overtaken by Fast 6). By the end of its opening day, it had accrued a total of $34.4 million (including midnight earnings), setting an April opening - day record, replacing Fast & Furious ($30.1 million), and marking the third largest Friday outside of the summer and holiday period, behind The Hunger Games and Alice in Wonderland. In total, Fast Five earned $86.2 million during its opening weekend, an average of $23,655 per theater, with IMAX showings contributing over $8 million. It thus set an opening - weekend record for the Fast and Furious series, for Universal, (both records overtaken by Fast 6) and for films released in April (the record was surpassed in 2014 by Captain America: The Winter Soldier). It also achieved the third - largest spring opening, behind The Hunger Games and Alice in Wonderland. The film also set an opening - weekend record among films starring Diesel, Walker, Brewster, Johnson, Moritz and Lin, records overtaken in all cases by Fast 6.
The film opened dropped 62 % on its second weekend, earning $32.4 million, and ranking second behind Thor. This result was partially attributed to the reduction in IMAX and large - format screens showing the film (reduced from 244 to 20), since IMAX only contributed $510,000 to the film 's second - weekend gross. On June 4, 2011, 37 days after release in the US, the film became the first of 2011 to accrue more than $200 million. The film received a one - week re-release in IMAX theaters on September 30, 2011.
Note (s)
Fast Five received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 77 %, based on 193 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Sleek, loud, and over the top, Fast Five proudly embraces its brainless action thrills and injects new life into the franchise. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, praising it as "a skillfully assembled 130 minutes at the movies, with actors capable of doing absurd things with straight faces, and action sequences that toy idly with the laws of physics '', while Richard Corliss of Time considered it "maybe the first great film of the post-human era ''. The New York Times said it deftly combined action and humor, stating "The only time you wo n't be watching the screen is when your eyes have squeezed shut because you 're laughing so hard. '' The Telegraph appreciated the presence of Johnson and Diesel together, calling it a "cosmic event '', and added that director Lin had revitalized the series, saying "the start and finish here, defying every imaginable law of physics, are series highs. '' Empire also heaped praise on Johnson, saying "How to re-ignite an ageing franchise? Drop (Johnson) on it. The best thing, by far, in Fast Five... Dwayne Johnson hulks through the movie leaving testosterone trails in his wake. '' However, Empire took the view that the film itself was "not, by any normal criteria, a good film '', arguing that it was too long, although conceding that the action scenes, in particular the final car chase, made the film "the most entertaining in the series. '' Anna Smith of Time Out London also commented that the film was too long and criticized the simplistic characters and dialog, but she called the film "slick '' and stated that these criticisms could be overlooked because "it does n't take itself too seriously. '' Variety focused on the roles of Johnson and Diesel, lamenting the current lack of 1980s - style "brawny '' leading men and of the "manly men '' typical of the 1950s and 1960s, and calling their pairing "a welcome injection of tough - guy vigor ''. Variety commented that, based on Fast Five, a "sixth entry could be something worth waiting for ''. The New Yorker called the action scenes "spectacular '', praising director Lin by saying his "direction and the sharp editing never confuse or lose momentum '', but also found the film too long and criticized the dialog, labeling it "subpar Ocean 's Eleven - style banter ''. On the characters, The New Yorker considered Walker and Diesel "serviceable '', but singled out Johnson for praise for bringing a "hip, comic knowingness to his role... his enjoyment is infectious and keeps the movie speeding along. ''
Total Film welcomed the return of Ludacris and Tyrese Gibson to "(inject) the film with much - needed laughs '' and felt that Johnson fit into the established cast with ease, though it believed the film itself was "no mould - breaker. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone, who disliked the previous movies, gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4, praising the transformation of the series into a heist film ("Damn it, it works ''), commenting favorably on scenes between Johnson and Diesel, and judging that "Fast Five will push all your action buttons, and some you have n't thought of. '' The Los Angeles Times felt that scenes shared by Diesel and Johnson were the "best moments '' and appreciated the humor, but considered the pacing a "strange mix '', switching between exposition, comedy scenes and then sudden action. The reviewer echoed other critics ' sentiments concerning the running time of the film, but concluded that "the sheer audacity of "Fast Five '' is kind of breathtaking in a metal - twisting, death - defying, mission - implausible, B - movie - on - steroids kind of way ", labeling it the "best '' of the series.
Both Empire and Variety noted that the final chase scene of Fast Five contained allusions to Bad Boys II (2003): Variety stated that the scene "seems inspired in part by a similarly spectacular scene in Bad Boys II ''; Empire said that it "nearly out - Bad - Boys - 2s Bad Boys 2 ''.
Not all reviews were positive, however. Film4 criticized both the film 's long running time and its treatment of female characters, remarking "(Females) cameo strikingly in buttock form. Others actually have first names ''. But Film4 praised Johnson 's role as DSS agent Luke Hobbs, saying he "provides a more credible anti-antagonist to our anti-heroes than the straight up villains can manage ''. The Boston Herald gave a more mixed reaction: it derided the lack of realism as removing any sense of threat to the protagonists, but conceded that "these films may be robustly anti-intellectual and deplorably commercialized, but they are the envy of the rest of the world. '' Despite giving the film a positive review and praising the action, The Hollywood Reporter was critical of its stars, saying "it 's clear the budget was n't used on acting lessons for the cast. '' The New York Post 's Kyle Smith gave the film a negative review, criticizing the shortage of car - related action before the finale and calling it less a "vroomer '' and more a "knucklehead Ocean 's Eleven ''. Smith went on to call the film 's villain Reyes (Almeida) "unforgivably dull '' and considered the long running time a result of taking "that long to read every item in the cliché dictionary. '' Time Out New York stated that "The Fast and the Furious movies have n't exactly gotten better as they 've gone along '' but gave the director a backhanded compliment, saying "Justin Lin, taking his third turn behind the franchise 's wheel, is at least a competent hack. '' Ebert was more complimentary, saying "Justin Lin is emerging as a first - rate director in this second - rate genre '' and Rolling Stone managed "Justin Lin, who misdirected the last two sequels, finds his pace this time, staging dynamite action. ''
Brazilian reviewers criticized the use of Rio de Janeiro in the film, claiming it was stereotyped as "dominated by heavily armed drug traffickers, corrupt police, and sexy women ''. O Globo accused the producers of using "aerial shots and quick editing '' to "deceive the viewer '' into believing that the criminal acts take place in Rio. Globo also reacted negatively to the use of "foreigners '' to represent Brazilians, "speaking Portuguese with laughable accents ''. Veja agreed with O Globo, saying, "The city of Rio and the Rio Film Commission supported the production. But the image that will spread across the world is exactly what the city does n't want. ''
Tyler 's score for Fast Five earned him an award at the 2011 BMI Film Music Awards. The marketing components of Fast Five were nominated for three Golden Trailer Awards, winning one for Best Summer Blockbuster 2011 TV Spot. For the 2011 Teen Choice Awards, Fast Five received five nominations, including Choice Action Movie and Choice Action Movie Actress. Three of the five available nomination slots for Choice Action Movie Actor were taken by actors from Fast Five: Vin Diesel, Dwayne Johnson and Paul Walker. The film ultimately received one Teen Choice Award, for Choice Action Movie. The film received two nominations for the 2011 People 's Choice Awards for Favorite Action Movie, and Favorite Action Movie Star for Diesel. Diesel was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture. The film 's sound and music editing was nominated for a Golden Reel Award for Sound Effects and Foley in a Feature Film by the Motion Picture Sound Editors society. The film also received two Saturn Award nominations from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films for Best Action / Adventure Film and Best Editing for Kelly Matsumoto, Fred Raskin, and Christian Watner.
In December, 2011, Richard Corliss ranked the film number 10 on his list of the Top 10 Best Movies of 2011, saying, "A carnival of roguish heroes and pretty girls, car chases and cliffhangers, Fast Five is as much a tribute as The Artist or Hugo to the cinema 's primal thrills. '' Empire placed the film number 20 on its list of the Top 20 Films of 2011, while IGN named it the "Best Action Movie '' of 2011. Fast Five was listed as the number 1 most illegally downloaded film of 2011 on BitTorrent with approximately 9.3 million downloads.
On August 2, 2011, USA Network purchased the rights to the United States network premiere of Fast Five. The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray in the United Kingdom on September 5, 2011, and in the United States on October 4, 2011, in 2.35: 1 aspect ratio with DTS HD Master Audio 5.1 sound. A triple pack was also released containing a Blu - ray, DVD, and digital copy of the film in either Blu - ray or DVD packaging. The Blu - ray versions contains several exclusive additional features, including behind - the - scenes footage, cast and crew interviews, a "virtual car garage '' that provides further details on the vehicles used in the production, and music tracks from the film. Both the DVD and the Blu - ray contain a theatrical and extended cut of the film, director commentary, deleted scenes, a gag reel and features on the three central characters. Commenting on the extended cut, Lin said "this is the version that I prefer. '' During first week sales in the United States the DVD was the number 1 selling DVD, the number 1 rental DVD, and the number 2 selling Blu - ray disc behind the Blu - ray re-release of The Lion King. 57 % of the total first week disc sales of Fast Five were the Blu - ray disc version.
To promote the release of the DVD and Blu - ray, Universal Studios Home Entertainment sponsored the first race of the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series, at the Chicagoland Speedway. The event, renamed as the "Fast Five 225 '', took place on September 16, 2011, with Gibson and Brewster as Grand Marshals; Gibson sang the American national anthem for the event and Brewster acted as honorary starter. The event served as the kickoff for the first weekend of the Chase for the Sprint Cup and was won by Austin Dillon. The deal marked the first time that a film promotion had been allowed to take over a NASCAR race as a title sponsor. Continuing the partnership with Car Town, the game was used as the exclusive means of pre-ordering the Blu - ray / DVD combo release at Walmart, via players clicking on a Walmart - themed truck, which in turn provided the player with Fast Five branded in - game rewards.
A sixth film in The Fast and The Furious series was planned in February 2010 as development on Fast Five began, and in April 2011, it was confirmed that Morgan had begun work on a script for the potential sixth film. Diesel and Moritz returned as producers for the film and Lin would return to direct. Fast & Furious 6 was released on May 24, 2013.
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how many seasons of gilmore girl are there | Gilmore Girls - wikipedia
Gilmore Girls is an American comedy - drama television series, created by Amy Sherman - Palladino and starring Lauren Graham and Alexis Bledel. The show debuted on October 5, 2000 on The WB and became a flagship series for the network. Gilmore Girls originally ran for seven seasons, with the final season moving to The CW, and ended its run on May 15, 2007.
The show 's main focus is on the relationship between single mother Lorelai Gilmore and her daughter Rory, who live in Stars Hollow, Connecticut, a small fictional town filled with colorful characters. The series explores issues of family, romance, education, friendship, disappointment, and ambition, along with generational divides and social class, the latter themes manifesting through Lorelai 's difficult relationship with her high society parents, Emily and Richard, and Rory 's experiences at an elite high school and later on at Yale.
Sherman - Palladino, who served as showrunner for the majority of the series, infused Gilmore Girls with distinctive fast - paced dialogue filled with pop culture references. After season six, when the series moved to its new network, Sherman - Palladino left the show and was replaced by David S. Rosenthal for the final season. The series was produced and distributed by Warner Bros. Television and filmed on the studio 's lot in Burbank, California.
Television critics praised Gilmore Girls for its witty dialogue, cross-generational appeal, and effective mix of humor and drama. It never drew large ratings but was a relative success for The WB, peaking during season five as the network 's second most - popular show. The series has been in daily syndication since 2004, while a growing and dedicated fandom has led to its status as a cult classic. Since coming off the air, Gilmore Girls has been cited in TV (The Book) and Time magazine as one of the 100 greatest television shows of all time. In 2016, the main cast and Sherman - Palladino returned for a four - part miniseries revival titled Gilmore Girls: A Year in the Life, which streamed on Netflix.
The series has two protagonists: witty "thirty - something '' mother Lorelai Gilmore and her intellectual teenage daughter Rory. Their backstory is established early in the show: Lorelai grew up in Hartford with her old money parents, Richard and Emily, but always felt stifled by this environment. She accidentally became pregnant at age sixteen and left home a year later to raise Rory in the close - knit town of Stars Hollow. Lorelai found work and shelter at the Independence Inn, where she eventually progressed from maid to executive manager. Lorelai and Rory develop a very close relationship, living like best friends, and Lorelai is proud of the independent life she has formed away from her parents. In the pilot episode, she is forced to go to them when Rory is admitted to Chilton Preparatory School, but she can not afford the tuition fees. Emily and Richard agree to provide a loan, so long as the girls join them every Friday night for dinner. This sets up the show 's primary conflict, as the Gilmores are forced to face their differences and complicated past. The contrasting mother -- daughter relationships of Emily -- Lorelai and Lorelai -- Rory become a defining theme of the show. Series creator Amy Sherman - Palladino has summarized the core of Gilmore Girls:
"I think the theme was always family and connection. I always felt like the underlying thing about Gilmore was that, if you happened to be born into a family that does n't really understand you, go out and make your own. That 's what Lorelai did. She went out and she made her own family. The ironic twist in her life is that then this daughter that she created this half family for, likes the family that she left. It was a cycle of crazy family. ''
The series also focuses on both girls ' ambition: Rory to attend an Ivy League college and become a journalist, and Lorelai to open an inn with her best friend Sookie St. James. The romantic relationships of the protagonists are another key feature; throughout the series Lorelai has a "will - they - wo n't - they '' dynamic with her friend, local diner owner Luke Danes, while also harboring unresolved feelings for Rory 's father, Christopher Hayden. Rory has three boyfriends during the run of the show - local boy Dean Forrester, mysterious, well read bad boy Jess Mariano, and wealthy charismatic Logan Huntzberger. The quirky townspeople of Stars Hollow are a constant presence. Along with series - long and season - long arcs, Gilmore Girls is also episodic in nature, with mini-plots within each episode - such as a town festival, an issue at Lorelai 's inn, or a school project of Rory 's.
Rory has a difficult time settling in at Chilton, struggling to match the demands of private school and attracting the fury of classmate Paris Geller, her academic rival. She meets her first boyfriend, Dean, but the pair break up when Rory does n't reciprocate his, "I love you ''. She is also pursued by arrogant Chilton student Tristin, but she has little interest. After being romantically pursued by Rory 's teacher, Max Medina, Lorelai decides with a conflicted heart to give the relationship a chance. This dynamic creates some tension between Lorelai and Rory. At the same time, she has a close friendship with the local diner owner, Luke Danes, and several people comment on their mutual attraction -- but Lorelai is in denial and Luke does n't act on it. Rory 's father, Christopher Hayden, returns and also wants Lorelai but she tells him he is too immature for a family. All the while, Lorelai struggles to adjust to having her parents in her life on a regular basis. Emily and Richard enjoy developing a relationship with their granddaughter, but also realize how much they have missed. The season ends with Rory reuniting with Dean, and Max proposing to Lorelai.
Lorelai accepts Max 's proposal, but realises shortly before the wedding that it is n't right and they break up. She and Sookie get excited about opening their own business at the dilapidated Dragonfly Inn but the owner refuses to sell. Sookie gets engaged to Jackson Belleville, a local farmer. Luke 's teenage nephew, Jess Mariano, comes to live under his care. Jess is sullen and angry with everyone apart from Rory. The two strike up a friendship, causing jealousy in Dean. Lorelai is disapproving, especially when they are in a car accident, which leads to a blow - up with Luke. Richard announces that he has retired but soon becomes bored and sets up his own insurance company. Christopher appears to have his life together and Lorelai decides to reunite with him. But at Sookie 's wedding Christopher learns that his recently estranged fiancé is pregnant and decides to return to her, leaving Lorelai heartbroken. At the same time, Rory impulsively kisses Jess.
Rory 's attraction to Jess grows stronger, and she gets jealous when he teases her with a new girlfriend. Dean ca n't ignore what is going on, and eventually ends their relationship. Rory and Jess immediately become a couple. Meanwhile, she and Paris spend the year as Student Body Presidents at Chilton and both submit applications to Harvard University. Paris is devastated when she does n't get in. Rory is accepted but decides to attend Yale University instead, much to Emily and Richard 's delight. The Independence Inn is badly damaged in a fire, but Lorelai and Sookie are able to buy the Dragonfly when its elderly owner dies. Jess tries to force Rory to have sex with him, which lead to a fight between Dean and Jess. Luke begins dating a lawyer named Nicole. Lane Kim, Rory 's best friend, starts a band called Hep Alien and tries to convince her strict mother to let her date the guitarist, Dave, while keeping the band secret. As the season ends, Jess abruptly leaves Stars Hollow to track down his estranged father in California, and Rory graduates High School as valedictorian.
Rory starts her college education at Yale, with Paris - now a friend - as her roommate. Both start working for the Yale Daily News. Rory is surprised when Dean quickly marries his new girlfriend. The pair grow closer again over the season, leading Rory to turn down Jess when he returns and declares his love. Lorelai spends the season renovating the Dragonfly Inn in preparation for its open, along with Sookie and their colleague Michel. She also begins a relationship with Richard 's new business partner, Jason Stiles, which she keeps secret from her parents. Lane 's mother learns about Hep Alien and throws her out of the house. Sookie and Jackson have a son. Emily feels neglected by Richard and the two separate, with Richard moving into the poolhouse. Luke and Nicole elope during a cruise, but quickly decide to divorce. Towards the end of the season, Luke accepts that he is in love with Lorelai and begins wooing her. The pair finally kiss on the Dragonfly 's opening night, while Rory loses her virginity to a married Dean.
Lorelai and Luke start a relationship. Emily and Richard - who reunite and renew their wedding vows - disapprove, and Emily interferes by telling Christopher to try and win her back. Luke feels overwhelmed, resulting in a brief separation between him and Lorelai and a rift between Lorelai and Emily. Rory tries to have another relationship with Dean, now separated from his wife, but it soon ends when he realizes how different their lives are. She falls for Logan Huntzberger, a wealthy playboy Yale student whose parents think she is beneath him. Lane and Paris both start relationships: the former with her bandmate Zack, the latter with Yale Daily News editor Doyle. Sookie has a daughter. Rory gets an internship at Logan 's father 's newspaper but is deflated when he tells her she "does n't have it. '' She and Logan are arrested for stealing a yacht, after which Rory announces that she is quitting Yale and moves in with Emily and Richard. When Lorelai sees how supportive Luke is over the situation, she asks him to marry her.
Lorelai is devastated by Rory 's actions but insists that she ca n't force her back to Yale: it 's a decision Rory must make for herself. Mother and daughter do n't speak for six months. Rory has to complete community service and Emily gets her a job with the DAR. Richard becomes concerned but eventually, after encouragement from Jess, Rory returns to Yale and reunites with Lorelai. She replaces Paris as editor of the Yale Daily News, which causes issues in their friendship, and after a short separation from Logan the relationship gets serious. Rory is crushed when Logan 's father sends him to work in London. Hep Alien disband then come back together; Lane and Zack get married. Lorelai plans a wedding with Luke, but things get difficult when Luke learns that he has a 12 - year - old daughter named April. He starts building a relationship with her but keeps Lorelai separate. Lorelai tries to accept this but eventually snaps and issues him an ultimatum. When he does n't agree to elope, Lorelai goes to Christopher.
Lorelai and Luke officially split when she tells him she slept with Christopher. Before much time had passed, Christopher convinces Lorelai to try a relationship. The pair spontaneously marry during a trip in Paris, but Lorelai soon accepts that it is n't right and they split amicably. Luke has a custody battle over April, after her mother moves them to New Mexico, and wins the right to see her during holidays. Lane and Zack have twins, and Sookie becomes pregnant again. Rory completes her final year of college. She and Logan spend half the season in a long - distance relationship until he eventually moves back to Connecticut. He proposes, but Rory says that she wants to keep her options open, which leads to their separation. She panics about what she will do after graduating; following some rejection, she gets a job reporting on the Barack Obama campaign trail. Stars Hollow throws a surprise goodbye party for Rory. When Lorelai finds out that Luke organized it, the pair reconcile with a kiss. Lorelai promises Emily that she will continue attending Friday Night Dinners. Before Lorelai and Rory have to say goodbye, they have one last breakfast at Luke 's Diner.
Nine years after the end of the original series, Netflix produced a much awaited sequel to Gilmore Girls. In this short, four episode revival, Rory is struggling in her journalism career and having a no - strings - attached, secret affair with Logan in London, while technically having a boyfriend named Paul that she often forgets about. While Logan is engaged to be married the two of them ca n't seem to stay apart. Lorelai and Luke live together but are still having communication problems. Richard has recently died of a heart attack, which causes tension between Lorelai and Emily and they end up in joint therapy. Lorelai starts to question her life, so travels to California with intentions to hike the Pacific Crest Trail, where she has an epiphany: she fixes the rift with Emily by recounting a happy story about Richard, and goes home to propose to Luke. Emily decides to sell the Gilmore mansion and move to Nantucket, where she starts working in a museum. After encouragement from Jess, Rory decides to write a book about her life called "Gilmore Girls ''. After Luke and Lorelai marry, Rory tells her mom that she is pregnant and the father is left unknown.
Many of the original cast returned for the revival, including Milo Ventimiglia, who plays Jess, however he reportedly told USA Today afterwards that, "I hear rumors that they 're bringing back everything that I 've ever been a part of... I think it 's exciting. At times, though, I think it 's too much. There are more stories to tell with a lot of these characters, but at the same time some of these characters for some of us actors are more than a decade in the past. It was exciting going back to Gilmore Girls for the four Netflix movies, but I 'm satisfied with it (.) I think the stories were told. I think it was great for the audience and fans to get just one small taste of that world again. But, at the same time, I think people should not get so greedy. ''
-- Amy Sherman - Palladino on her initial pitch to The WB
Amy Sherman - Palladino, who came from a background of writing for half - hour sitcoms, had Gilmore Girls approved by The WB after several of her previous pitches were turned down. On a whim, she suggested a show about a mother and daughter but had put little thought into the idea. Having to create a pilot, she drew inspiration for the show 's setting of "Stars Hollow, Connecticut '' after making a trip to Washington Depot, Connecticut, where she stayed at the Mayflower Inn. She explained: "If I can make people feel this much of what I felt walking around this fairy town, I thought that would be wonderful... At the time I was there, it was beautiful, it was magical, and it was feeling of warmth and small - town camaraderie... There was a longing for that in my own life, and I thought -- that 's something that I would really love to put out there. ''
Once the setting was established, Gilmore Girls developed as a mixture of sitcom and family drama. Sherman - Palladino 's aim was to create "A family show that does n't make parents want to stick something sharp in their eyes while they 're watching it and does n't talk down to kids. '' She wanted the family dynamic to be important because "It 's a constant evolution... You never run out of conflict. '' The show 's pace, dialogue, and focus on class divisions was heavily inspired by the screwball comedies of the 1930s and Katharine Hepburn -- Spencer Tracy films. Sherman - Palladino was also influenced by the "acerbic wit '' of Dorothy Parker.
The pilot episode of Gilmore Girls received financial support from the script development fund of the Family Friendly Programming Forum, which includes some of the nation 's leading advertisers, making it one of the first network shows to reach the air with such funding. The show was green - lit by The WB, and Sherman - Palladino proceeded to exercise control over all aspects of its production. Her husband Daniel Palladino was a consultant and occasional writer for the first season, then agreed to quit his producer position on Family Guy to commit to Gilmore Girls; he became an executive producer with the second season, and also played a major role. The show 's third executive producer was Gavin Polone.
Alexis Bledel was cast in the key role of Rory despite having no previous acting experience. Sherman - Palladino was drawn to her shyness and innocence, which she said was essential for the character, and felt she photographed well. Lauren Graham was pursued by the casting directors from the start of the process, but she was committed to another show on NBC. A week before shooting, they had still failed to cast Lorelai so they asked Graham to audition anyway. Sherman - Palladino cast her that day, on the hope that Graham 's other show (M.Y.O.B.) would be cancelled, which it soon was. She later explained how Graham met all the criteria she had been looking for: "Lorelai 's a hard fucking part. You 've got to be funny, you 've got to talk really fucking fast, you 've got to be able to act, you 've got to be sexy, but not scary sexy. You 've got to be strong, but not like ' I hate men ' ''. Graham and Bledel only met the night before they started filming the pilot.
In casting the grandparents, Sherman - Palladino had veteran actor Edward Herrmann in mind for Richard and was delighted when he agreed. Kelly Bishop, a fellow New York stage actress, was cast straight after her audition; Sherman - Palladino recalled knowing immediately "and there 's Emily ''. The role of the Stars Hollow diner owner was originally a woman, but the network reported that they needed more men and Scott Patterson was cast as Luke. It was advertised as a guest role, but Patterson said he treated the pilot as "a chemistry test '' and he was promptly promoted to series regular.
In the pilot, Sookie was played by Alex Borstein but she could not be released from her Mad TV contract. She was therefore replaced by Melissa McCarthy, who re-filmed Sookie 's scenes. The role of Dean also changed after the pilot, with the original actor replaced by newcomer Jared Padalecki. The character Lane was based on Sherman - Palladino 's friend and fellow producer Helen Pai; Japanese - American actress Keiko Agena was cast in the role when they could not find an appropriate Korean - American actress. Liza Weil auditioned to play Rory, and while she was considered wrong for the part -- Sherman - Palladino liked her so much that she wrote the role of Paris especially for her.
Headed by Amy Sherman - Palladino and Daniel Palladino from seasons 1 to 6, Gilmore Girls had a small writing staff that changed regularly throughout the series. The Palladinos wrote a high percentage of episodes, and would review and rework the dialogue in episodes allocated to others. As such, the show is considered to have a distinctive "voice ''. Sherman - Palladino said "every draft either I write, or it passes through my hands... so that there is a consistency of tone. It 's very important that it feel like the same show every week, because it is so verbal. '' The main job of the writers ' room was to help develop storylines and create detailed episode outlines. Notable writers who worked on the show at some point include Jenji Kohan, Bill Prady, Jane Espenson, Rebecca Rand Kirshner, and Janet Leahy.
As signalled by its tagline "Life 's short. Talk fast '', Gilmore Girls is known for its fast - paced dialogue and "witty repartee ''. Sherman - Palladino wanted a snappy delivery from the characters because she believes that "comedy dies slow '', which required large volumes of dialogue to fill the hour - long time slot. Scripts averaged 80 pages per episode, compared to an "hour - long '' average of 55 -- 60 pages, with one page translating to 20 - 25 seconds of screen time.
Much of the dialogue is peppered with references to film, television shows, music, literature, and celebrity culture. The range of references is broad, summarised by critic Ken Tucker as "some cross between Mystery Science Theater 3000 and Ulysses ''. Sherman - Palladino wanted the characters to speak this way as an indicator of their worldliness and intelligence, and to cater to a broad audience. At the start, she argued with the network about the frequently old - fashioned references; when she refused to remove a comment about Oscar Levant, she felt the executives adopted an attitude of "Let the crazy woman dig her own grave. '' The relative obscurity of some of the allusions resulted in explanatory "Gilmore - isms '' booklets being included in the DVD sets of the first four seasons.
In contrast to the rapid - fire dialogue, storylines on Gilmore Girls move slowly. Sherman - Palladino 's motto was "make the small big, make the big small '', which she learned from her days writing for Roseanne. She chose to be "very stingy with events '', and the drama is low - key because "sometimes the average every day things are more impactful ''. Key incidents often take place off - screen and are only revealed through character conversations, which journalist Constance Grady says is because "On Gilmore Girls, the explosion is never what matters: It 's the fallout. '' The show similarly uses subtext rather than exposition, "where people will talk a great deal in order to obscure what they really mean to say ''. The writers did not like moments to be overly sentimental, preferring characters to show love through actions and behavior. Sherman - Palladino stated that the network did not interfere or request changes, though there is speculation that she delivered scripts at the last minute to avoid their input.
Sherman - Palladino treated Lorelai as a reflection of herself. Her husband commented: "Amy writing for Lorelai Gilmore has always been really special. No surprise, they 're kind of dopplegangers... Amy and Lorelai are very, very similar. That character is a great cipher for a lot of what Amy is and has been, from the very beginning. ''
The pilot episode was shot in the Toronto suburb of Unionville. The rest of the series was filmed at the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank, California. Exterior scenes of Stars Hollow, along with those at Luke 's Diner and Miss Patty 's dance studio, were all filmed on the backlot -- with dozens of background actors utilized to make it look like a functioning town. Production designers regularly had to decorate the town square with fake leaves or fake snow to make it look like a New England fall or winter. Interiors of Lorelai 's house and inn, and all scenes at Yale and the Gilmore mansion, were filmed on a sound stage. Very occasionally, the show was filmed on location. The exterior shots of Rory 's preparatory school, Chilton, were filmed at Greystone Mansion in Beverly Hills, California. Rory 's visit to Harvard was filmed at UCLA, and her initial visit to Yale was filmed at Pomona College.
Gilmore Girls relied on a master shot filming style, in which a scene is filmed to frame characters and their dialogue together within a long and uninterrupted, single take; often illustrated through another method regularly employed on the show, the walk and talk. Sherman - Palladino explained "There 's an energy and style to our show that 's very simple, in my mind... (it) almost needs to be shot like a play. That 's how we get our pace, our energy, and our flow... I do n't think it could work any other way. ''
It took eight working days to shoot an episode, and days were regularly 14 -- 20 hours long. Lauren Graham said: "We filmed alongside The West Wing, and Aaron Sorkin shows are known for having the worst hours ever, they go on and on, but we were always there even after they had gone home, because you could n't change a word of the script. '' The cast were required to be word - perfect in all the scenes, while also reciting large amounts of dialogue at speed. Matt Czuchry, who had a main role for the final three seasons, commented "The pace of the dialogue was what made that show incredibly unique, and also incredibly difficult as an actor. To be able to maintain that speed, tone, and at the same time, try to make layered choices was a great experience to have early in my career. It really challenged me. '' The combination of the difficult dialogue and long takes meant each scene had to be shot many times; Graham said in 2015: "never before or since have I done as many takes of anything ''. Alexis Bledel recalled that one scene required 38 takes. Graham added, "that show -- as fun and breezy and light as it is -- is technically really challenging ''.
Gilmore Girls ' non-diegetic score was composed by singer - songwriter Sam Phillips throughout its entire run. Sherman - Palladino, who served as the music supervisor of the series, was a big fan of the musician and secured her involvement. For the score 's instrumental arrangement, Phillips primarily used her voice and an acoustic guitar, and on occasion included piano, violin, and drums. Many of the musical cues are accompanied by melodic "la - la '' s and "ahh '' s, which developed because Sherman - Palladino wanted the score to sound connected to the girls themselves, almost like "an extension of their thoughts... if they had music going in their head during a certain emotional thing in their life. '' Sherman - Palladino felt that the score elevated the series "because it was n't a wasted element in the show. Everything was trying to say a little something, add a little something to it. '' Several of Phillips ' album tracks are also played in the show, and she made an appearance in the season six finale, performing part of "Taking Pictures ''.
The theme song is a version of Carole King 's 1971 song "Where You Lead ''. King made a new recording specially for Gilmore Girls: a duet with her daughter Louise Goffin. She was happy that it gave the song "a deeper meaning of love between a mother and her child ''. King appeared in several episodes as Sophie, the town music shop owner, and performed a brief portion of her song "I Feel the Earth Move '' in the revival.
Music also plays a large part in the show as a frequent topic of conversation between characters and in live performances within scenes. Musical acts who made appearances include The Bangles, Sonic Youth, Sparks, and The Shins (S04E17). Grant - Lee Phillips appears in at least one episode per season as the town 's troubadour, singing his own songs and covers. In 2002, a soundtrack to Gilmore Girls was released by Rhino Records, entitled Our Little Corner of the World: Music from Gilmore Girls. The CD booklet features anecdotes from show producers Amy Sherman - Palladino and Daniel Palladino about the large part music has played in their lives.
In 2006, the WB merged with UPN to form a new network, The CW. Gilmore Girls survived the merger, being selected as one of seven WB shows to be transferred for a new season, but it resulted in a significant change. In April that year, it was announced that Amy Sherman - Palladino and her husband Daniel could not come to an agreement with The CW and would be leaving the show when their contracts expired that summer. Journalist Michael Ausiello said of the decision: "The thought of Gilmore Girls heading into what is likely to be its final season (and its first on a brand - new network) without its mama or her right - hand man is unfathomable. '' Discussing the departure later, Sherman - Palladino reflected on the contract dispute in an interview with Vulture, saying:
"It was a botched negotiation. It really was about the fact that I was working too much. I was going to be the crazy person who was locked in my house and never came out. I heard a lot of ' Amy does n't need a writing staff because she and Dan Palladino write everything! ' I thought, That 's a great mentality on your part, but if you want to keep the show going for two more years, let me hire more writers. By the way, all this shit we asked for? They had to do (it) anyway when we left. They hired this big writing staff and a producer - director onstage. That 's what bugged me the most. They wound up having to do what we 'd asked for anyway, and I was n't there. ''
David S. Rosenthal, who worked on the show as a writer and producer for season 6, was selected by Sherman - Palladino to replace her as showrunner. Commenting on this change, an article in Wired says: "the Palladinos had written the majority of the episodes up to that point, and their distinctive rhythms and obsessions were what defined Gilmore Girls. What remains after their departure is something that seems like Gilmore Girls Adjacent more than anything. ''
There was speculation during the seventh season that it would be the show 's final year, as Graham and Bledel 's contracts were both coming to an end. As negotiations continued between the actresses and the network, Rosenthal planned a finale that "could serve as an ending or a beginning of a new chapter and a new season ''. Graham later said that at the time they finished filming, "there was a 50 / 50 chance we 'd be returning '', and requested that the finale provide "an opportunity to say goodbye '' to the characters, in case of cancellation. The cast and crew did not have a final wrap party or an opportunity to say farewells.
The CW initially considered bringing the show back for a shortened, 13 - episode season but then decided against the idea. On May 3, 2007, the network announced that the series would not be renewed. Graham explained that the possibility of returning fell through because "We were trying to find a way we (she and Bledel) could have a slightly easier schedule, and there was really no way to do that and still have it be Gilmore Girls. ''
Because the final season was not written by the series ' creator, and the new writers had not known that the finale was definitely the last episode, Lauren Graham noted that a lot of fans "were disappointed with how it (the series) ended ''. In 2009, Amy Sherman - Palladino expressed an interest in pursuing a Gilmore Girls film, to finish the series as she originally intended. Over the following years, fans and journalists continued to ask regularly if the show would return. Privately, Sherman - Palladino stayed in contact with Graham, Bledel, Patterson and Bishop to discuss the possibility, but nothing came to fruition.
In June 2015, for the 15th anniversary of the show, the cast and showrunners reunited for a special panel at the ATX Television Festival. When asked about a possible revival, Sherman - Palladino told the audience "I 'm sorry, there 's nothing in the works at the moment. '' The hype generated by the reunion, however, empowered Sherman - Palladino to pitch new episodes and encouraged Netflix to produce them. In October 2015 -- eight years after the show had ended -- TVLine reported that the streaming channel struck a deal with Warner Bros. to revive the series in a limited run, consisting of four 90 - minute episodes, written and directed by Amy and Daniel Palladino. The Palladinos explained that it felt like the right time creatively to continue the story, and that the freedom provided by Netflix made it possible.
The revival miniseries, titled Gilmore Girls: A Year in the Life, was filmed from February to May 2016. Aside from Edward Herrmann, who died a year prior, every cast member who received a main credit on the show returned for at least a scene, while many supporting characters also made an appearance. The sets all had to be rebuilt from scratch, using nothing but photos and footage from the original series. The revival was released on Netflix on November 25, 2016 to positive reviews. There is speculation regarding a possible second revival, with Netflix reportedly keen.
Gilmore Girls ' first season commenced on The WB in the Thursday 8pm / 7pm Central time slot, as a lead in for Charmed. Renewed for a second season, the show was relocated on Tuesdays 8pm / 7pm, the time slot of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, which transferred to UPN, and served as a lead - in for Smallville. Later seasons saw it lead into One Tree Hill. First season reruns aired on Monday nights from March until May 2001, to spread audience awareness. An additional run of the first season aired in 2002 on Sunday nights under the title Gilmore Girls Beginnings (which featured a modified opening sequence voiced with a monologue detailing the premise from Graham), and was one of two shows on The WB to give the Beginnings in its title for reruns (the other being 7th Heaven).
In the United Kingdom, Gilmore Girls was initially screened on Nickelodeon from 2003. Only the first three seasons were shown, with episodes edited for content and some, like "The Big One '', dropped entirely. The series was subsequently picked up by the Hallmark Channel, which gave UK premieres to seasons 4 and 5. In Ireland, the series aired its entire run on RTÉ One on Sundays.
In the US, the show began its syndicated release on ABC Family in 2004. The network has continued to air the show daily under its new name Freeform. In October 2015, Gilmore Girls concurrently became available on a second network, Up. Josef Adalian of Vulture commented on how rare this is: "not that many non-procedural, hour - long shows from the early part of the century -- particularly those from a small network such as WB -- are still even airing regularly on one cable network, let alone two. '' Up showed Gilmore Girls 1,100 times in its first year; Freeform aired it 400 times in the same period. From 2009 to 2013, Gilmore Girls also aired in weekend timeslots on SOAPnet.
In the UK, E4 showed all seven seasons in rotation until January 2012. The show moved to 5Star, where it has been airing since 2013. In Australia, from March 2015, Gilmore Girls began airing again weeknights on digital terrestrial network GEM.
Warner Home Video released all seven seasons of Gilmore Girls on DVD, in regions 1, 2 and 4, mainly in full - screen 4: 3 ratio due to Amy Sherman - Palladino 's preference at the time of original release. The full series DVD boxset was released in 2007. Special features include deleted scenes, three behind - the - scenes featurettes, cast interviews, montages, and one episode commentary (for "You Jump, I Jump, Jack '').
On October 1, 2014, all seven seasons of the series began streaming on Netflix 's "Watch Instantly '' service in the United States. On July 1, 2016, Gilmore Girls became available on Netflix worldwide. All seasons of Gilmore Girls are also available for digital download on the iTunes Store, Amazon.com and other digital sales websites, with all digital sites offering all episodes in HD.
Upon debut, Gilmore Girls was lauded for the distinct, dialogue - infused style created by Amy Sherman - Palladino, the strength of the dynamic familial themes, and the performances of its cast, particularly leading star Lauren Graham. On Metacritic, the first season has an average rating of 81 out of 100 from 26 reviews, indicating "universal praise ''.
In the San Francisco Chronicle, John Carman wrote "It 's cross-generational, warm - the - cockles viewing, and it 's a terrific show. Can this really be the WB, niche broadcaster to horny mall rats? '' Caryn James of The New York Times called it a "witty, charming show '' that "is redefining family in a realistic, entertaining way for today 's audience, all the while avoiding the sappiness that makes sophisticated viewers run from anything labeled a ' family show. ' '' Ray Richmond of The Hollywood Reporter declared it "a genuine gem in the making, a family - friendly hour unburdened by trite cliche or precocious pablum, '' while Jonathan Storm of The Philadelphia Inquirer dubbed it "a touching, funny, lively show that really does appeal to all ages ''. David Zurawik of The Baltimore Sun called Gilmore Girls "One of the most pleasant surprises of the new season ''.
For the second - season premiere, Hal Boedeker of the Orlando Sentinel praised the show as "one of television 's great, unsung pleasures '', and said "Series creator Amy Sherman - Palladino writes clever dialogue and ingratiating comedy, but she also knows how to do bittersweet drama. '' Emily Yahr of The Washington Post retrospectively called the second instalment "Pretty much a perfect season of television ''. Viewers were concerned that the show would suffer when Rory left for college after season 3, and Yahr commented that the show was not "the same '' from this point but gave seasons four and five a positive 7 / 10.
The last two seasons were less positively received. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune described the sixth season as "uneven at best '', explaining, "the protracted fight between Lorelai and Rory Gilmore left the writers scrambling to cram the show with filler plots that stretched many fans ' patience to the limit. '' The introduction of Luke 's daughter has been described as "pretty much the most hated plot device in Gilmore Girls history ''. Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly rated the seventh season "C '', describing it as "a death - blow season (which) was more accurately Gilmore Ghosts, as the exhausted actors bumped into the furniture searching for their departed souls and smart punchlines ''. But he concluded that before this came "six seasons of magnificent mixed emotions '' among a "perfect television idyll ''. Giving the show an overall rating of "A - '', he added, "industry ignorance of the writing and of Graham 's performance in particular will remain an eternal scandal ''.
Gilmore Girls was listed as one of Time magazine 's "All - TIME 100 TV Shows ''. and was ranked the 87th greatest American television series in TV (The Book), authored by critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz in 2016. Entertainment Weekly placed Gilmore Girls 32nd on its "New TV Classics '' list, and included the show on its end - of - the - 2000s "best - of '' list, and The A.V. Club named "They Shoot Gilmores, Do n't They? '' as one of the best TV episodes of the decade. Alan Sepinwall included the show in his "Best of the 00s in Comedies '' list, saying: "Gilmore offered up an unconventional but enormously appealing family... As the quippy, pop culture - quoting younger Gilmores were forced to reconnect with their repressed elders, creator Amy Sherman - Palladino got plenty of laughs and tears out of the generational divide, and out of showing the family Lorelai created for herself and her daughter in the idealized, Norman Rockwell-esque town of Stars Hollow. At its best, Gilmore Girls was pure, concentrated happiness. ''
In 2016, Amy Plitt of Rolling Stone reflected on the enduring appeal of Gilmore Girls, and noted that it stood out from other family shows like 7th Heaven, The OC and Everwood by being "far richer, deeper... The characters were funny and relatable, the banter was zinger - heavy, the familial drama was poignant and the romantic chemistry... was off the charts. ''
Viewer ratings for Gilmore Girls were not large, but the numbers were a relative success for the small WB network and it became one of their flagship series. For its first season the show aired in the tough Thursday 8pm / 7pm Central time slot dominated by Friends on NBC and Survivor on CBS. Critical acclaim encouraged the network to move it to Tuesday evenings, as part of a push to promote the series and due to the move of Tuesday stalwart Buffy the Vampire Slayer to UPN in the same timeslot. During season 2, ratings for Gilmore Girls surpassed Buffy and it became The WB 's third - highest - rated show, with viewer numbers that grew by double digits in all major demographics. For seasons 4 -- 7, Gilmore Girls was up against the US 's top - rated show American Idol, which led to a drop in viewers, but with Season 5 it became The WB 's second-most - watched prime time show. The series was often in the top 3 most - viewed shows in its timeslot for women under 35.
In its 2016 syndicated release, Gilmore Girls averaged 100,000 - 120,000 viewers per episode, for an annual viewership of 11 million on each of its networks. The same year, the Chief Content Officer for Netflix, Ted Sarandos, cited Gilmore Girls as one of the streaming channel 's most watched shows worldwide.
Gilmore Girls earned several accolades, but did not receive much attention from the major awarding bodies. Its only Emmy nomination was for Outstanding Makeup for a Series, for the episode "The Festival of Living Art '', which it won in 2004. Michael Ausiello has attributed this to "a notorious bias against the WB ''. Recognition did come from the American Film Institute, who named Gimore Girls one of the ten best shows of 2002, and the Television Critics Association (TCA) who named it Outstanding New Program of the Year in 2001. The TCA Awards also nominated the show for Outstanding Drama in 2001 and 2002, and Outstanding Comedy in 2005. The Satellite Awards nominated it for Best Series -- Musical or Comedy in 2002 and 2004, while it was nominated for Favorite Television Drama at the People 's Choice Awards 2005. The show was honored by the Viewers for Quality Television with a "seal of quality '' in 2000. The series also achieved considerable attention from the Teen Choice Awards, where it received multiple nominations and wins including the award for Choice Comedy Series in 2005.
Lauren Graham was nominated for one Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards for her work on the first and second seasons, and received five successive nominations at the Satellite Awards. The TCAs nominated her for Individual Achievement in Drama in 2002, then for Comedy in 2006. She also received a Family Television Award, and she won the Teen Choice Award for Best TV Mom twice. Alexis Bledel won a Young Artist Award, two Teen Choice Awards, and a Family Television Award. She was also nominated by the Satellite Awards in 2002, as was Kelly Bishop for her supporting performance in 2002 and 2004.
Gilmore Girls is considered a cult classic, with an "avid following ''. During the run of the show this was mostly a small but dedicated group, predominantly of females, but its audience has grown steadily since it came off the air. The series experienced a resurgence when it became available on Netflix in October 2014, introducing it to a new generation of viewers. When the revival was announced in 2015, star Lauren Graham credited it to the campaigning and persistence of the fans. At this point, according to The Washington Post, the show became "a quirky pop culture obsession. '' The enduring popularity of Gilmore Girls is considered to come from its comforting quality and cross-generational appeal. It is particularly known as a show that mothers and daughters watch together.
For the 16th anniversary of the show, 200 coffee houses around the US were transformed into "Luke 's Diners ''. In October 2016, the first Gilmore Girls Fan Fest took place in Washington Depot, Connecticut. The sold - out festival included panels with cast and crew members, themed activities, and screenings. The second took place in Kent, Connecticut in October 2017. The show has an active fandom, posting in internet forums and creating work such as fan fiction. Special Gilmore Girls trivia nights have been held at venues in multiple different cities.
The Irish Independent has commented that "Even though it preceded social media, Gilmore Girls has been internet gold for the past few years. Thanks to its snappy one - liners, it 's spawned thousands of memes that have introduced the Buzzfeed generation to its coffee - swilling, cheeseburger - loving, critically - thinking characters. '' The show has been parodied on Mad TV and Family Guy, and featured in an episode of Six Feet Under. A cocktail bar in Brooklyn devised a menu inspired by the show. Warner Bros. has produced a range of Gilmore Girls merchandise, including T - shirts, mugs, and dolls.
Two collections of academic essays that analyse the show have been published: Gilmore Girls and the Politics of Identity (2008) and Screwball Television: Critical Perspectives on Gilmore Girls (2010). In 2002, four young adult novels were published that adapted scripts from the first and second seasons into novel form, told from Rory 's first - person point of view. There have also been two unofficial guides to the series Coffee At Luke 's: An Unauthorized Gilmore Girls Gab Fest (2007) and The Gilmore Girls Companion (2010). The show has also produced a book club, in which followers aim to read all 339 books referenced on the show, and inspired a cook book called Eat Like a Gilmore.
The show is the basis for the successful podcast Gilmore Guys (2014 -- 2017), which established a following of its own and was named by Time as one of the 50 best podcasts of 2017 -- the only television - based inclusion. It follows the hosts, Kevin T. Porter and Demi Adejuyigbe, as they watch every episode of the series. Sadaf Ahsan of the National Post commented that it "helped reignite -- and, for some, initiate -- fan fervour '' towards Gilmore Girls.
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what was the last episode of big time rush | List of Big Time Rush episodes - wikipedia
Big Time Rush, (also known as BTR), is an American television series created by Scott Fellows about the Hollywood misadventures of four hockey players from Minnesota -- Kendall, James, Carlos, and Logan, after they are selected to form a boy band. The series premiered with an hour - long pilot episode, "Big Time Audition '', on Nickelodeon, on November 28, 2009. Its official debut episode premiered on January 18, 2010, earning 6.8 million viewers, making it Nickelodeon 's highest - rated live - action series debut ever. The final episode aired on July 25, 2013, after four seasons comprising a total of 74 episodes.
Four hockey players from Minnesota, Kendall Knight (Kendall Schmidt), James Diamond (James Maslow), Carlos Garcia (Carlos Pena Jr.) and Logan Mitchell (Logan Henderson), learn that record producer Gustavo (Stephen Kramer Glickman) is conducting a talent search, and go to audition. Kendall gets mad at Gustavo for turning James down, and sings "the giant turd song '' to him. Gustavo is impressed with Kendall 's fiery personality and offers to bring him to Los Angeles, but Kendall will not go without the other three. Gustavo agrees to this, but the record label CEO gives him only three days to turn the boys, who are terrible at dancing, singing, and cooperating, into a successful band. The boys goof off and get fired, but then go back, work hard, and please CEO Griffin with a performance of "Big Time Rush ''. Griffin gives them three months to produce a demo CD. The journey begins...
Special guest star: Nicole Scherzinger as herself
Guest stars: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Erin Sanders as Camille, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Fred Tallaksen as Mr. X, Rachel Quaintance as Roberta, Michael Ng as Rob, Ted Garcia as himself, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Anne Johnson as Mrs. Magicowski, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1, Spencer Locke as Jennifer 2, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, Tucker Albrizzi as Tyler, Alyssa Preston as Tyler 's Mom, Obdul Reid as Obdul and Sammy Jay as Jenny Tinkler
Production: Taped in early 2009, in Hollywood.
Songs Featured: Famous, Big Time Rush
The boys get a dose of reality when told that they have to attend school for at least four hours every day while living in Los Angeles. They want to go to the fun Palm Woods school, but learn that Gustavo has arranged to have their school located at the recording studio, to keep them under his grip. The boys do whatever is necessary to take down the "School of Rocque '' and go to the Palm Woods school. Mrs. Knight fails in an attempt to home - school Katie, so she tries, with the help of Mr. Bitters, to get Katie to act in a commercial so that she can be admitted to the Palm Woods school.
Guest Starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Chris Masters as himself Dee Bradley Baker as Mr. Smitty, Roz Witt as Mrs. Chisdak, Tara Strong as Ms. Collins, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Ralph Cole, Jr. as Mr. Abramowitz, Maxine Weldon as Laxative Auditioner, Joe Dietl and Jennifer Say Gan as The Audition Holders, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1, Spencer Locke as Jennifer 2, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Tucker Albrizzi as Tyler, Nick Vogels as Elliot and Peggy Flood as Elliot 's Mom.
The boys are not thrilled with their boring apartment at the Palm Woods, and hatch a plan to improve it when Gustavo creates a fun "fake '' living area for them on the soundstage of an Electronic Press Kit shoot. They enlist the help of all their friends at Palm Woods, including Camille and The Jennifers, to move the games and gadgets from the set to their apartment.
Songs Featured: Big Time Rush
Griffin thinks that the band needs a "bad boy '' presence to broaden their appeal, and pairs them with "Wayne Wayne '', an Eminem parody who tries to inject dissension and tension into the group. Gustavo and the guys join together to get him booted out of the band. After Kendall defeats him in a "bad boy '' contest, Wayne Wayne is teamed with a parody version of The Wiggles. Mrs. Knight becomes afraid of the Palm Woods handyman, who she believes is an axe maniac. Katie is suspicious of Molly, a girl whom Mrs. Knight forces Katie to play with, and who turns out to be a 20 - year - old con artist who poses as an 11 - year - old girl.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille, Matt Angel as Wayne Wayne, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Tony Rago and Malcolm Foster Smith as The Police Officers, Ted Garcia as Himself, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1, Spencer Locke as Jennifer 2, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Obdul Reid as Obdul, and Allegra Dawn Fetyko as Molly Finster
Jo moves into the Palm Woods, and the boys fight over her attention. James has a severe allergic reaction to a body spray. Gustavo 's personal helper "Freight Train '' is introduced. Katie chooses Gustavo as the subject for a school report so that she does not have to read anything. Griffin wants the band to record a slow love song, but Gustavo can not make the song ("Any Kind of Guy '') work.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Tiana Madry and Tiera Madry as the Simms Twins, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Stephen Keys as Freight Train, Lorenzo Lamas as Dr. Hollywood, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1, Spencer Locke as Jennifer 2, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, Obdul Reid as Obdul and Rachel DiPillo as Rachael
The boys "mansion sit '' for Gustavo when he goes away to check out a new boy band called The Windmills. Gustavo reluctantly allows the boys to mansion sit, but they must follow his rules or be fired. What the boys expect to be an easy task turns into a "big time disaster '' when things do n't go according to plan. Mrs. Knight feels less needed with Kendall and the guys away, so Katie helps her mother by pretending to be sick.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Eric Nelsen, A.J. Mendoza, and Kamen Edwards as Windmills and Stephen Keys as Freight Train
In a flashback, the severely injured boys tell how got beaten up so badly. They had their very first photo shoot as Big Time Rush, however, with Gustavo and Kelly doing community service for vandalizing Matthew McConaughey 's mailbox, Griffin took over and made them "space matadors with stuffy puppies ''. Meanwhile, Katie and her mom are determined to get the autograph of teen hunk Dak Zevon, a possible Zac Efron parody. When Zevon 's security guards are mean to Katie, Mrs. Knight gathers Dak 's fans and tries to barricade the door to Dak 's recording room.
The boys learn that Gustavo is taking the day off, and are relieved to finally be able to spend some time apart. Logan is determined to get into a math lecture taught by Danica McKellar parody Phoebe Nachee, but is disappointed to find that the lecture is at an all - girls school. Carlos panics when he realizes that his helmet is missing, but gets a surprise visit from his policeman father, played by Erik Estrada in parody of his own role on CHiPs, who accompanies him to retrieve his helmet. James spends his day off trying to launch his acting career, with Camille 's help. Kendall is desperate to spend time with his crush, Jo, but is discouraged when she continuously reminds him that she has a boyfriend. Katie finds out that Jo does not have a boyfriend, and tells Kendall, who is determined to get the truth out of her.
Guest starring: Erik Estrada as Officer Garcia, Erin Sanders as Camille, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Maggie Henry as Phoebe Nachee, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Raquel Bell as Security Guard, Tucker Albrizzi as Tyler, Alyssa Preston as Tyler 's Mom, Taylar Hollomon as Phoebe Nachee Fan, Diane Robin as Casting Director and Parker Young as Travis
The boys want desperately to remain in Los Angeles, but will be forced to head back to Minnesota if the record company does not approve their CD. Griffin 's daughter Mercedes pretends to be the one who picks the demos. They discover that the demos are picked by a chimpanzee, and try to bribe it to pick theirs. Mrs. Knight tries to become assistant manager of the Palm Woods, to stay there for Katie 's sake.
Guest star (s): Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Carlie Casey as Mercedes Griffin, Matt Riedy as Griffin, James Arnold Taylor as Regional Manager Taylor, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Grace Lee as Old Assistant Manager, Obdul Reid as Obdul and Kevin "Repo '' Thomas as The 3K Resident
The boys find out that they are not invited to their own party at Rocque Records, and decide to throw their own in the Palm Woods, but are threatened by Mr. Bitters with eviction if they do so. They instead call the party a ' social gathering ', which there is no rule against, and agree to invite three friends each. The party turns huge when Carlos mistakenly invites the entire contact list of his phone. Mr. Bitters hears the party, but Kendall and Jo divert him away from finding it. Camille and Mercedes both claim Logan as their date, and Logan tries to spend time with each without the other finding out.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters Bonnie Morgan as Russian Acrobat Rena, Chris Grabher as Russian Acrobat Sergei, Carlie Casey as Mercedes Griffin, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Obdul Reid as Obdul, J.P. Gillain as Dutchman Koji Kataoka as Fujisaki and Ashley Monique Clark as Soda Girl
Gustavo tires of paying for things the boys break. He makes them get jobs, and bans them from the Palm Woods pool until they repay his $2,000.30. Carlos becomes Gustavo 's production assistant, while James attempts to become a model, with Katie as his manager. Logan and Kendall start a babysitting service, but find it more difficult than expected, and eventually make the kids wash cars. Carlos has trouble when Gustavo 's automated coffee maker, C.A.L., becomes sentient and hostile, and attacks Carlos with espresso foam. The boys repay Gustavo, but the problems they cause at their jobs cost more than the boys earn, and Gustavo is stuck with the bill.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Stephen Keys as Freight Train, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Darren Schnase as Cuda Photographer, Erica Shaffer as Wendell 's Mom, Evan Lake Schelton as Wendell, Melisa LeGree as Lead Stylist, Obdul Reid as Obdul, and Rob Paulsen as Voice of C.A.L.
The boys must impress Deke, a well - known blogger whose words can control their career. Gustavo hires people to train the boys to have a good "Day with Deke '', but Deke writes an unfavorable review, and the four must get him to change his mind before he posts it. In a Twitter parody, Gustavo gets into trouble when he gets a "Scuttlebutter '' account and tries to send a Scutbut that he hates brussels sprouts, but instead types that he hates Brussels as in "Brussels, Belgium ''.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Matthew Moy as Deke, Rachel Quaintance as Roberta, Ahmed Best as Rob, Ted Garcia as Himself, Reece Kirk as Jean - Luc Varn Darn, and Clyde Yasuhara as Mr. Fong
Gustavo moves in with the boys at the Palm Woods when his mansion floods, but the boys do n't want him there, and will do whatever it takes to make him leave. Carlos and Mr. Bitters try to prove that there is a ghost in the Palm Woods, while Logan tries to prove them wrong.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Tristin Mays as Stephanie King, Keith Pillow as Mr. King and Rachel DiPillo as Rachael
Songs Featured: Stuck, City Is Ours, Shot In The Dark
The Palm Woods school is holding its first school dance, and Big Time Rush must perform. As each looks for his perfect date, they face the pressure of their first live performance. Kendall and Katie attempt to find a date for their mother, who will settle for no one less than the supermodel Fabio. Jo is upset that Kendall forgets to ask her to the dance. The Jennifers reject all the guys who ask them, including Carlos, but then all pick Carlos as their date, with the requirement that he appear as three different personas. Logan ca n't find the courage to ask Camille, and James inadvertently asks out numerous girls in his attempt to help Logan.
Special guest star: Fabio Lanzoni as himself
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Keith Allan as Pitchman, Tristin Mays as Stephanie, Tara Strong as Miss Collins, Fred Tallaksen as Mr. X, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1, Kelli Goss as Jennifer 2, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Tucker Albrizzi as Tyler and Rachel DiPillo as Rachael
Songs Featured: Stuck, City Is Ours
Gustavo believes that the boys are bad luck, and tells them to stay away from Jordin Sparks while she stays at the Palm Woods and records at Rocque Records. They try to protect her, but accidentally push her into a well. Kendall tries to help her, but Jo catches him and thinks he is cheating on her. The boys duet with Jordin to record "Countin on You ''. Meanwhile, Gustavo and Kelly receive a package from Gustavo 's rival producer "Hawk '' with a skunk inside. They must get rid of it before it sprays the entire building.
Special guest star: Jordin Sparks as herself
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Stephen Keys as Freight Train, Phil LaMarr as Hawk, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Phillipi Sparks Jr. as himself and Merry Simkins as Sunblock Mom
Absent: Ciara Bravo as Katie Knight
Songs Featured: Countin On You
The boys find out that James has "Hollywood fever '', when he continuously uses a tanning - spray that ends up turning his skin orange. Gustavo tells Kendall, Logan, and Carlos to fix James, or he will replace him. The three try to get rid of the tanning - spray by chasing him around with water - guns, but Carlos catches Hollywood fever from the Jennifers. Guitar Dude gives Logan a set of bongos and tells him to chill out, and Logan catches the fever, leaving it up to Kendall to get his friends back to normal. Meanwhile, in a massive heat wave, Katie sets up a snow - cone stand at the pool, at which Bitters tries to force her give him a part of the profits or shut the stand down.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright Erin Sanders as Camille, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Hira Ambrosino as the psychiatrist, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1, Kelli Goss as Jennifer 2, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, Tucker Albrizzi as Tyler and Joe Thornton, Jr. as the health inspector
Songs Featured: Stuck, Famous
Camille is leaving the Palm Woods unless she gets an acting job, and the boys promise her, along with Jo and everyone else at the Palm Woods, a part in their upcoming music video. Gustavo disallows this. The boys decide to make the video themselves, with Marcos del Posey directing. They film a video for "City is Ours '', using Mr. Bitters ' stolen car, and include Jo, Camille and all their Palm Woods friends. Gustavo likes the video so much that he buys Mr. Bitters ' car, and gives it to the boys.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Carlos Alazraqui as Marcos Del Posey, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1, Kelli Goss as Jennifer 2, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude and David Goldman as Camille 's Dad
Songs Featured: City Is Ours, Big Time Rush
On the eve of the album release, Griffin cancels the album, tour, and concert, and forces the boys to return to Minnesota. James does n't want to leave the music business, and joins Gustavo 's archrival, Hawk. Gustavo has to come up with $2,000,000 to buy the band 's contract from Griffin. The boys come back to Los Angeles and hold an audition to replace James, but ca n't find anyone. James returns, and they prepare for the concert.
Special guest star: Ed Begley, Jr., as himself.
Guest starring: Tanya Chisholm as Kelly Wainwright, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Phil LaMarr as Hawk Camilla Luddington as Rebecca, Fred Tallaksen as Mr. X, Curt Hansen as Dak Zevon, Rachel Quaintance as Roberta, Stephen Keys as Freight Train, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Sam Stone as Skippy, Anne E. Johnson as Mrs. Magicowski, Ed Brigadier as Sebastian, Andray Johnson as Executive, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, Ted Garcia as Himself, Obdul Reid as Obdul, Lucas Kwan Peterson as Keyboardist, Aaron M. Kahn as Bassist, Adam Conway as Guitarist, Maurice Whitfield as Drummer, and Brian McGovern as James ' Dad
Songs Featured: City Is Ours, This Is Our Someday, Famous, Big Time Rush
The boys return from their six - week tour triumphant and tired, and must catch up on the schoolwork they missed, to maintain their grade averages and attend Rocktoberfest. Kendall and Jo 's relationship is put to the test when she lands a part in a new television series, New Town High, and must make out with the male lead, Jett Stetson. After having to endure an entire day of Kendall 's paranoid overprotectiveness, Jo tells Kendall that he should forget about her, but after Kendall leaves an apology on her phone, she holds an "I Heart Kendall '' sign as BTR sing "Til ' I Forget About You '' at their concert.
Guest starring: Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Tara Strong as Ms. Collins, David Cade as Jett Stetson, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Nick Bush as State Fair Reporter, Thomas Kasp as David, Mahaley Hessam as Sandra, Jose Brooks as cole, Justin Giddings as Roadie, Denyse Tontz as Jennifer 1 Kelli Goss as Jennifer 2 Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, Obdul Reid as Obdul, Charlene deGuzman as Keyboardist, Aaron M. Kahn as Bassist, Adam Conway as Guitarist, Maurice Whitfield as Drummer, Christopher Weir as DJ and Glenn McCuen as Lil Lee Roth
Notes: This episode aired as part of Nickelodeon 's Worldwide Day of Play lineup, hosted by Keke Palmer, Victoria Justice, and Isabella Collins.
Disaster results when the boys ignore advice not to give promises or personal information to fans. Dangerously clumsy hometown friend Jenny Tinkler shows up when Carlos promises her that the boys will help her achieve her dream of fame, and her accidents get them kicked out of the Palm Woods. A young fan befriends James, then locks him in the basement and assumes his identity. Death Smash, "the world 's most destructive band '', is unhappy about the broken air conditioning in Gustavo 's studio, and threatens to cause more damage if it is not fixed.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Jonathan Brett as Buddy Simmons, Ray Conchado, Ron Ransen and Clint Tauscher as Death Smash, Ted Garcia as Himself, Seth Robert Dusky as LJ, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, and Sammy Jay as Jenny Tinkler
Logan and Camille finally become a couple, but their relationship, along with Logan 's friendship with James, is placed in jeopardy when James kisses Camille while helping her prepare for a movie audition. Gustavo wants the boys to sing a breakup song, and hires an actress to pretend to be Carlos ' first girlfriend, so Carlos can learn a lesson about heartbreak. Kendall and Jo 's schedules keep them from seeing each other.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Chelsea Ricketts as Sasha, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters and Mike Carlucci as Jo 's Driver
Songs Featured: I Know You Know, Boyfriend
The boys are scheduled for their first television appearance, on the local morning show A.M. LA. When it looks like they will be bumped from the schedule, the four do whatever it takes to make their TV debut happen. Katie becomes addicted to a DS game that battles a shebeast. Gustavo and Kelly must pass a test to keep their studio location, but Griffin rigs the test against them.
Special guest star: Ed Begley, Jr., as himself.
Guest starring: Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Crista Flanagan as Jane Kennedy, Robert Curtis Brown as Miles Bainbridge, Andrew Patrick Ralston as Teleprompter Gary, Obdul Reid as Obdul, Bashir Gavriel and Kyle S. More as Video Gamers and Shane Yoon as Weatherman
It 's Halloween in Palm Woodsylvania, and the monstrous personas of Big Time Rush come to light. James is a vampire, and in love with a Buffy - style vampire slayer (Jeanine Mason), who tries to slay him. Logan is a zombie who keeps losing his limbs, and has to devise a plan to keep Lightning from biting his body parts off. Carlos is Franken - Carlos, and Kendall is a werewolf who is trying to hide his real identity from Jo. Griffin tells Gustavo that the boys can not perform on his "Big Night of Fright '' unless he turns them into "normals. '' Gustavo tests his "Hot Boy Band Machine '', which results in more trouble.
Guest starring: Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, Obdul Reid as Obdul, Charlene deGuzman as Keyboardist, Aaron M. Kahn as Bassist, Adam Conway as Guitarist, Maurice Whitfield as Drummer and Jeanine Mason as Muffy
Jo 's publicist wants the press to think that she is dating her co-star Jett, so she and Kendall must keep their relationship hidden by going on dates in disguise. Carlos and Katie name themselves Robin and Hoodie when Bitters overprices their favorite snacks, and the pair try to find other ways to get their Fruit Smackers. James and Logan try to buy and resell sneakers.
The Palm Woods ' annual prank - day contest becomes a battle of boys vs. girls. Logan hurts his eyes when his prank backfires, and becomes Dr. Hollywood 's assistant for the day. Gustavo and Kelly 's prank - themed day escalates into minor destruction and violence. The prank war ends with Kendall and Katie as champions.
The boys are excited about their holiday trip to Minnesota, but hours before their flight, Griffin insists that they record a Christmas EP, and will not let them leave until it is done. Two of the songs are celebrity duets, "Have a Miranda 's Little Christmas '' with Miranda Cosgrove, and another with Snoop Dogg. Mrs. Knight attempts to avoid a luggage fee by packing presents and clothes, and Katie tries to give a Scrooge-esque Mr. Bitters some holiday cheer.
Special guest star (s): Miranda Cosgrove as herself, Snoop Dogg as himself, Tom Kane as the narrator, and Fabio as himself.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Stacey Moseley as Miranda 's producer, Obdul Reid as Obdul, and Matt Riedy as Griffin.
Songs featured: "Beautiful Christmas '', "All I Want for Christmas ''
An angry Gustavo chases BTR into the Palm Woods, where Buddha Bob performs a "Himalayan monkey pinch '' that makes Gustavo so mellow that he ca n't write a good song for the New Town High soundtrack. Kelly and Kendall team up to help Gustavo return to his regular, angry self before the New Town High producers find out that there 's a problem. A "Swagger '' app that Logan downloads to his phone increases his swagger, but decreases James ' so much that James almost "dies '' from low swagger counts. Carlos panics when told by the parrot who 's advising him that he has 24 hours to live. The horrified Carlos hides in the bathroom of the apartment.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Rob Paulsen as Superparrot, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Jeffrey Ross as a fake record producer, and David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters.
Kendall and Jo help Carlos find a date. Logan flirts with a new girl, Peggy, while confused about his feelings for Camille. James tries to help Katie get closer to her new crush, Kyle, but acts like an overprotective brother instead. Logan wants to get back together with Camille, but she goes on a date with Steve. In the end, the boys all go alone to a movie they had planned to see with their dates.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Carlson Young as Peggy, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Jerry Phillips as Kyle, Kim Hidalgo as Megan, Najarra Townsend as James ' date, Bryan Cid Borrero as Steve, and Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight.
The boys make a deal with Griffin that, if they have a number one hit, they and their Palm Woods friends can have a party at his Malibu beach house. Jo is on a film shoot, and Kendall arrives alone. A crazed fan named Sandy claims that she is Kendall 's girlfriend and tries to ' steal ' Kendall from Jo. Sandy posts pictures of Kendall and herself, which makes Jo very jealous. James believes that Annie (Gage Golightly), a girl who saved him while surfing, is a mermaid. He tries to prove it with Camille 's help, but falls in love with her. Logan and Carlos search for gold, in hopes of impressing the Jennifers with a beach house. They meet the SpongeBob SquarePants character Patchy the Pirate (Tom Kenny), and together try to find Patchy the Pirate 's buried treasure. Katie attempts to become Russell Brand 's manager, and Mrs Knight attacks the boys with suntan lotion.
Special guest star (s): Russell Brand as himself, Tom Kenny as Patchy the Pirate, Gage Golightly as Annie.
Guest stars: Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Jayme Lynn Evans as Sandy, Matt Riedy s Griffin, Rick Gifford as Marvin, June Mock as Russell 's assistant, Mike Carlucci as Jo 's driver, Robert Pine as J.D., Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Obdul Reid as Obdul, and Jack DePew as Tad.
Griffin is releasing the BTR deluxe edition album. Gustavo hires songwriters who only fight, and Gustavo has to write the song himself. The boys want to write a song, but Gustavo wo n't allow it, so they get Katie to distract him by opening a health spa in the Palm Woods. Kendall and Carlos write a song named "Oh '', and fight with James and Logan, who prefer their song, "Yeah ''. They combine the songs into "Oh Yeah '', which Griffin approves.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Dorian Kingi and Trampas Thompson as Jambox and Daryl, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Obdul Reid as Obdul, and Matt Riedy as Griffin.
Griffin turns BTR into a reality show, and allows an audience vote that will eliminate a member of the band. To keep audience interest, Carlos and James fight nonstop, while Logan and Camille fake a melodramatic relationship. Kendall attempts to unplug all the cameras, after one catches him off - guard at the Palm Woods pool. In order to get the show cancelled and keep the group together, the boys must prove to Griffin that a reality show is a bad idea.
The boys of Big Time Rush are jealous when their single "I Know You Know '' is taken by Kat 's Crew, a female pop group whom Gustavo is working with. A war begins between Kat 's Crew and Big Time Rush, who believe that Gustavo will lose interest, and cancel them. BTR seek advice from Gustavo 's first boy band, Boys in the Attic, whom also were destroyed by a female group. Gustavo chooses BTR over Kat 's Crew, but the two bands produce a song and video together. Meanwhile, Katie and Mrs. Knight try to find good friends.
Special guest star: Cymphonique Miller as Kat, the lead singer of Kat 's Crew
Guest Starring: Fred Tallaksen as Mr. X, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Tucker Albrizzi as Tyler, Danielle Bessler and Cristal Guel as Kat 's Crew, Andrew Bowen as the leader of Boys in the Attic, and Daran Norris as Buddha Bob.
In a class Earth Day competition to win a week without school, Kendall is partnered with his enemy Jett. Logan is teamed up with the school bully, and is forced to do all the work for his project. Carlos and James work together and, after finding that all their ideas are already taken, decide to put a cow in every apartment. Kendall 's last - minute idea to put energy - waster Jett in a box wins the contest. To Kendall and Jett 's dismay, they must speak to the governor, and thus must spend an extra week together. Katie tries to stop Rocque Records from using foam cups, but Griffin wo n't allow it, because foam cups are RCM CBT Globalnet Sanyoid 's biggest product. Under pressure from Katie, Gustavo, Kelly and Obdul, Griffin decides to sell paper cups.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Tara Strong as Ms. Collins, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Stefan Van Ray as Ozzy Clark, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Obdul Reid as Obdul, and David Cade as Jett Stetson.
James ' mom, nicknamed the "Estee Lauder of the Midwest '' for her successful cosmetics line, arrives at the Palm Woods to bring James home and groom him to take over the family company. The boys must act fast to save the band, and need to stand up to a woman who is not used to being told "no ''.
Special guest star: Lita Ford as herself.
Guest starring: Lisa Rinna as Mrs. Brooke Diamond, Challen Cates as Mrs. Jennifer Knight, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Hahn Cho as angry resident, Jill - Michele Melean as Mrs. Sylvia Garcia, Holly Wortell as Mrs. Joanne Mitchell, Casey Burke and Mario Lara as pet owners, Peggy Miley as Mr. Bitters ' Mom, and David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Reginald Bitters.
The Palm Woods school is having its annual prom, and Kendall, James, Carlos and Logan are each determined to win the title of Prom King. Carlos takes one of the Jennifers as his date, but mistakenly dumps her, and the Jennifers team up to destroy him. Jo is grounded, and Kendall sneaks her out of her apartment, but they get caught by her father. Logan is jealous that Camille is going with someone else to the prom, so he tries to make sure that James and his date will be Prom King and Queen. James tries to get Aubrey Stewart, from "The Vampire Stories Chronicles Saga Trilogy '', as his date, but is hunted by her bodyguards. James and Logan are voted Prom King and Queen: Logan wins King, while James is Queen.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Todd Bryant as lead bodyguard, Tom Schmidt as Jo 's father, Barnett O'Hara as Guitar Dude, Bryan Cid Borrero as Steve, and Denyse Tontz, Kelli Goss, and Savannah Jayde as the Jennifers.
Jo is offered a role in a film that is shooting in New Zealand for the next three years. She tells Kendall that she can not do the movie due to her New Town High contract, but Kendall and Katie find that she can be released from the contract if offered a part in a major motion picture. Meanwhile, James and Latino pop star, Selana enter a three - day whirlwind relationship, while Logan and Kelly join forces to separate Carlos from his beloved hockey helmet after Gustavo demands that he not wear it anymore. Kendall tries to get Jo to break up with him, then convinces her to take the role. After her limo leaves, the boys realize that Kendall and Jo forgot their signature "goodbye kiss '', and rush to the airport for a proper goodbye.
Guest starring: Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Christian Castellanos as Selana, Linda Cevallos as Selana 's manager, Mike Carlucci as Jo 's driver, and Nikea Gamby - Turner as female airport security worker.
James, Carlos, and Logan help Kendall cheer up after his break - up with Jo, so he can get prepared for the band 's new single. Kendall tells them that they ca n't know what he 's going through because they 've never had their hearts broken, so they each date a girl from the Palm Woods just to break up with them. James dates the Jennifers, then gets upset when Blonde Jennifer ruins his perfect "never - been - dumped '' record by breaking up with him, instead of vice versa. A heartbroken Carlos dates ' red - shirted girl ' for "the best 12 minutes of his life. '' Gustavo suffers from writer 's block while trying to write the band 's summer single. Katie, who 's writing a school report about Gustavo, helps him think of a song idea.
Guest starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Denyse Tontz, Kelli Goss, and Savannah Jayde as the Jennifers, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Obdul Reid as Obdul.
Big Time Rush have a number one record in the country of Kerplankistan, and its King and Princess visit America. The King plans for his daughter to marry one of them. James inadvertently proposes marriage to her, and the boys try to free James. Kendall, Logan, and Carlos enlist the help of the King 's ' dirt boy ', who is the one the princess really loves, to ruin the wedding. Katie discovers that Buddha Bob is a Canadian immigrant who is about to be sent back. She convinces her mother to marry him so he can stay, and Mrs. Knight finds that Buddha Bob would be a good husband. It is discovered that Mr. Bitters is no longer qualified to perform marriages, so the wedding is invalid.
Guest starring: Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Challen Cates as Mrs. Jennifer Knight, Annet Mahendru as Princess Svetlana, Matthew Florida as dirt boy, Nikka Far as Princess of Kerplankistan, Hamilton Mitchell as government agent and David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters.
Eighteen - year - old rocker Lucy Stone moves into the Palm Woods, and James and Carlos compete to see who she will choose as her boyfriend. Lucy agrees to date both of them, but gets them to break up with her in order to put them in the ' friend zone '. Kendall teams up with Gustavo and Kelly to prove to Lucy that Big Time Rush ' rocks '. They tell Lucy that BTR will be on the morning news, then make the news by performing their new song "Paralyzed '' on top of a bus parked in the middle of a busy downtown intersection. While rehearsing for her role in an upcoming movie, Spy High, Camille takes things too far, and steals all of the money from the safe in Bitters ' office.
Special Guest Star: Malese Jow as Lucy Stone
Guest Starring: Erin Sanders as Camille and David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters.
The boys take a stand against Gustavo 's harsh management style, which includes electric shocks, and refrain from recording a song for their follow - up album. They write a list of requests, but Gustavo does n't accept. Gustavo attempts to get a new band and modify their vocals to sound like BTR, but the boys thwart him. They plan to get their fans behind their cause by uploading a music video to the web, but the only song they have the rights to is "The Giant Turd Song ''. Katie says that being a mother is an easy job, so Mrs. Knight goes on strike, and leaves Katie to do the household chores. Katie admits that being a mom is hard work, and Mrs. Knight pressures Gustavo into meeting some of the boys ' demands.
Guest Starring: Challen Cates as Mrs. Jennifer Knight, Matt Riedy as Griffin.
Four BTR fans win a Pop Tiger magazine contest to spend a day with one of the boys from Big Time Rush. The winners include Bobby, a demanding young boy who develops a crush on Katie, and Bruna, an outgoing older woman who has never heard of the band. James constantly switches dates (Jennette and Tiffany) with Carlos, as he continually feels the other girl is better. At the final party, Katie dances with Bobby, Bruna invites her young niece, Muriela, to be Logan 's date instead, and Jennette and Tiffany both go with Carlos while James spends his time at the buffet.
Hawk steals the only hard - drive containing Big Time Rush 's second album, and gives the songs to Zwagger, a new band that he 's producing. Gustavo, Kelly, and the boys go to Hawk Records to retrieve the hard drive, but are caught and sent to jail. Kelly bails them out, but they are warned that if they are seen near Hawk Records again, there will be no bail. They assume super-hero personas, and go back to get the drive away from Hawk. In a Ghostbusters parody at the Palm Woods, Katie helps Buddha Bob rid the Palmwoods of a persistent clog that once shut down the building for a year, and appears ready to do so again.
Special Guest Stars: Forrest Burnham as Zwagger and Cedric Yarbrough as Chief Lieutenant Officer.
Guest Stars: Phil LaMarr as Hawk, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight and David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters.
James admits that he threw away a note to Carlos from Heather Fox (Elizabeth Gillies), Carlos ' camp crush. Obligated under the "best friend code '', James discovers that Heather is at Colossal Studios filming a commercial. He finds her, and plans a Camp Wonky Donky day at the Palm Woods for the three of them. Heather gives Carlos a note that says that she likes James, and Carlos passes the note on to James. Logan is worried when Lucy notices Kendall sneaking away with Camille sneaking off together, but finds that Kendall and Camille have been learning to figure skate, and that Kendall wanted to keep this secret from the other hockey players. Gustavo and Kelly become obsessed with trying to get Mrs. Knight 's recipe for snickerdoodles, which Mrs. Knight claims is a family secret for those over 21, but turns out to be a store - bought mix.
Special Guest Stars: Elizabeth Gillies as Heather Fox and Malese Jow as Lucy Stone.
The boys sit down for a major Hollywood interview. They recall their greatest moments and reveal pictures and secrets.
Guest Starring: Michelle Madison as herself and Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight.
After a big fight, the boys decide to move out. James squats in a cool retiree 's apartment and adopts his swinging senior lifestyle, Logan moves into a Palm Woods cabana, and Carlos goes rustic in a cardboard house in Palm Woods Park. Kendall is determined to convince them to move back to their real home and make them realize that no fight is worth losing a friend over.
Guest Starring: Erin Sanders as Camille, Malese Jow as Lucy Stone, Savannah Jayde as Jennifer 3, David "Gruber '' Allen as therapist, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters and Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight.
En route to the first stop of the Big Time Rush "All Over The World Tour '', Carlos has a dream in which he is a spy, and the group rescues a princess. At the airport, an M16 agent pursued by British agents switches Kendall 's backpack with his identical one, which is revealed to contain an evil gravitational device. The boys team up with the kidnapped MI6 agent 's daughter, Penny Lane, and promise to help save her father. Their tour director wants to cancel the tour, while Gustavo and Kelly try to save it, but secret agents tell them that BTR want to take over the world. The boys meet with the villain, Atticus Moon, and escape with Penny 's father and the backpack. Moon 's spies kidnap Katie, and the boys drive Penny 's spy - van into Moon 's castle to rescue her and defeat Moon. The British government then helps BTR save their world tour. As the movie ends, the boys leave with Penny and father in the spy - van.
Guest Stars: Emma Lahana as Penny Lane, Emily Holmes as MI6 agent # 2, Trevor Devall as Atticus Moon, Christopher Shyer as Agent Lane, Garry Chalk as MI6 agent # 1 and Challen Cates as Mrs. Jennifer Knight.
Songs Featured: Help!, Ca n't Buy Me Love, We Can Work It Out, Revolution, A Hard Day 's Night, Elevate
On May 24, 2011, Nickelodeon renewed Big Time Rush for a third season. Malese Jow joins the show Recurring as Lucy Stone. Filming for this season began on April 3, 2012.
On their last day of their "All Over the World Tour '', the boys want to learn how to change costumes faster, so they can break a record. Logan wanted to finish a book before the tour ends and French Inspector Henri Duchamp was looking for Carlos after posting online that he took a cricket out of France. Meanwhile, Kelly must save the boys from a faulty stage trampoline, but she is trapped outside.
Guest Stars: Jonathan Schmock as the French Inspector
Big Time Rush returns to the Palm Woods after their world tour and learn they are now famous. Logan decides he wants to date Camille again and let her make the first move, but Buddha Bob tells Camille to let Logan make the first move. Wanting to pick up where he left off with Lucy, James invokes the ' Rule of Dibs ' and forbids Kendall to talk or be anywhere near her. Carlos must choose the group 's newest single to play on the radio, but is caught between Griffin, who wants Love Me, Love Me and Gustavo, who wants Elevate. Meanwhile, Mrs. Knight battles with Mr. Bitters to stop his paparazzi - like experience from intruding on the boys ' lives.
Note: Logan and Camille get back together in this episode.
Songs featured: "Windows Down '', "Elevate '', "Love Me, Love Me ''
Because of the paparazzi and crazy fans, Gustavo moves the boys to Bel - Air, but guys dislike the confinements of their new ritzy lifestyle and make a plan to return to the Palm Woods. When Gustavo and Kelly want to visit to boys, the security wo n't let them in.
Songs featured: "Movin ' Up to Bel Air '', "Love Me Love Me '', "Windows Down '', "Elevate ''
Guest Stars: Erin Sanders as Camille, Challen Cates as Jennifer Knight, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, & Kelli Goss, Savannah Jayde and Denyse Tontz as The Jennifers
Kendall has dinner with Lucy and her parents who believe she is a classical musician. Meanwhile, Logan goes on a date with a girl he has the same interests, after a fight with Camille and Carlos is on a date with a Jennifer and James wants to help him.
Guest Stars: Malese Jow as Lucy Stone, Erin Sanders as Camille, Denyse Tontz, Kelli Goss & Savannah Jayde as The Jennifers, David Cade as Jett Stetson, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Susan Yeagley as Mrs. Stone, Charles Chun as Mr. Stone, Cooper Neu as Lindsay (Logan 's Date)
The boys dislike Griffin 's new line of Big Time Rush merchandise and attempt to sabotage his sales plan, but they wind up making matters worse. Meanwhile, Katie accidentally destroys her mother 's Palm Woods robe and buys a replacement robe from Bitters, only that the robe she was sold does n't include a belt, and Bitters refuses any refunds or returns so she attempts to get her money 's worth by getting the belt the robe was supposed to have.
Guest Stars: Matt Riedy as Griffin, Rob Paulsen as Sam Sellmart, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Rachel Quaintance & Ahmed Best as Marketing Team
Kendall attempts to ask Lucy out on a date, until her ex-boyfriend Beau arrives at the Palm Woods to reunite with her. Moments later, he is caught also making out with other girls at the Palm Woods. With James, Jett and Camille to assist, Kendall is determined to document evidence of Beau 's activity, though every one of their attempts ends in a failure. Nonetheless, Lucy overhears the latest of Beau 's intentions and she immediately dismisses him and starts a relationship with Kendall. But their first kiss, however, is interrupted by the shocking reappearance of Kendall 's ex-girlfriend, Jo.
Guest Stars: Malese Jow as Lucy Stone, Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Bryan Lillis as Beau, David Cade as Jett Stetson, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Darran Norris as Buddha Bob, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Obdul Reid as Obdul
Immediately picking up where the previous episode had ended, Jo returns to the Palm Woods having her movie career in New Zealand ended early due to the set burning down in a fire. Kendall is unsure whether he has moved on with Lucy during Jo 's absence, or whether he still has feelings for Jo and has to pick one girl before the other one leaves the Palm Woods. Meanwhile, Carlos has to make a choice to stand by either his best friend James, or his new benefactor Mr. Bitters, during a supposed zombie apocalypse. Katie finds Kendall outside Rocque Records, after briefly running the company. Katie tells Kendall to follow his heart, though finding signs and pictures that resemble Lucy. He knocks on Jo 's door, and they get back together.
Guest Stars: Malese Jow as Lucy Stone, Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Darran Norris as Buddha Bob, Matt Riedy as Griffin, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters
Songs featured: Time Of Our Life, No Idea
Kendall and Logan have to babysit a rock legend before his hall of fame induction, but he keeps having heart attacks. Meanwhile, Carlos and James have to babysit Katie, and keep her from leaving the Palmwoods, so they can get toys. And, Gustavo and Kelly try to get the special Green Kiwi Jellybeans that Puppy Dog stole from Babylace, so they wo n't get fired. Along with, Jo and Kendall 's relationship is becoming awkward with Jo seeing Kendall kiss Lucy.
Camille finds a gold necklace and believes it 's Logan anniversary gift to her, when it 's really Kendall 's birthday gift for Jo. Meanwhile, James and Carlos want to find out if they can listen to BTR in pure gold without getting caught by Gustavo, but end up finding out (along with Kelly and Gustavo), that it 's just an old record painted gold.
Guest Stars: Erin Sanders as Camille, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Darran Norris as Buddha Bob, Matt Riedy as Griffin, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters
Gustavo does n't allow the boys to go camping because he fears for their safety, so they resort to camping on a sound stage with Jo, Camille, and the Jennifers, but end up with a face off (Boys vs Girls). Meanwhile, Gustavo is trying to stop the boys camping section with the help of Kelly because he is afraid of them getting hurt. Elsewhere, Katie and Mrs. Knight are camping outside to get a new iSlab 3, but Mr. Bitters had saved Jett a space on line.
Note: As of this episode, Carlos has dated every Jennifer. iSlab 3 is a parody of the iPad 3.
Guest Stars: Erin Sanders as Camille, Denyse Tontz, Kelli Goss & Savannah Jayde as The Jennifers, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, David Cade as Jett Stetson, Wendy Worthington as Beulah, Nathan Anderson as Director, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters and Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight
James and Logan volunteer at a dog shelter and ends up adopting eight dogs. Meanwhile, Kendall finds Carlos and Jennifer 's puppy love sickening so asks for Jo 's help to break the relationship.
Guest Stars: Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Kelli Goss as Jennifer 2, David Cade as Jett Stetson, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters and Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight
The boys mistakenly destroy the tape with their last episode of Season 3, so they quickly set up a bloopers and outtakes episode hosted by Stephen Kramer Glickman and Ciara Bravo as themselves.
Special Guest Star: Chris Paul as himself
On August 6, 2012, Nickelodeon renewed Big Time Rush for a 13 - episode fourth season. Cher Lloyd, Nick Cannon, Austin Mahone, Victoria Justice, and more guest - starred in this season. This is the final season of Big Time Rush.
The new British boy bands "invade '' the music business, and Big Time Rush are afraid they are going to end their career. For save their career, they decide to hire new managers, but disagree on who they are going to take, so Kendall and Carlos go with the first and James and Logan with the second. At the end, they understand that they have to do their job like "Nobody 's Around '' and sing that song. Meanwhile, Katie is trying to find a best friend to talk about boys, but Mr. Bitters has turned the Palm Woods into a businessmen living place, so along with Buddha Bob they try to kick them out.
Guest Starring: Challen Chates as Mrs. Knight, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Timothy Brennen as Manager # 1, J.P. Manoux as Mitchell Gold, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Matt Riedy as Griffin, Obdul Reid as Obdul, Katelyn Tarver as Jo and Erin Sanders as Camille.
Special Guest Stars: Jon Stewart, Gavin DeGraw and Terrence Jenkins.
Big Time Rush are accused for scandals: Lucy Stone releases an album about a bad break - up with a guy who is rumored to be Kendall, Carlos tries to swat a bee and is accused for hitting grannies and Logan is accused for trying to rob a granny, which was really helping. Meanwhile, James spreads up a rumor about him doing a duet with Cher Lloyd. In the end, Lucy admits in a press conference that the song is n't about Kendall, James and Cher are really posting a video with a duet and the truth about Carlos and Logan is revealed. Also, Lucy moves back in to the Palm Woods.
Guest Stars: Malese Jow as Lucy Stone, Katelyn Tarver as Jo Taylor, Erin Sanders as Camille, David Cade as Jett, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob
Special Guest Stars: Cher Lloyd as herself, Terrence Jenkins
Songs Featured: Picture This, With Ur Love (Cher Lloyd 's "new song '' in the episode.)
Lucy tries to get Kendall back, but Kendall lies to Jo and tells nothing is happening. Meanwhile, James and Carlos lie to Gustavo about destroying his office and make up a story about a robbery and Logan lies to Camille about being sick, because he does n't want to come to a boring play. In the end, Lucy apologizes and confesses she only tried to create drama for help her write new songs, and she and Jo even become friends. Carlos and James learn a lesson about lying and Logan and Doc Hollywood are enjoying the play in a bubble, while Camille is not.
Guest Stars: Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Erin Sanders as Camille, Malese Jow as Lucy Stone, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Lorenzo Lamas as Dr. Hollywood, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight.
Special Guest Star: Cedric Yarbrough as Chief Lieutenant Officer.
Griffin gives the boys a $20,000 bonus and wants them to prove him they will spend them with responsibility. Kendall wants to invest them on oranges, but he accidentally buys a truck full of oranges, James buys a snake to impress Lucy, but it turns out she does n't like snakes and then he loses the snake and spends all his money to retrieve it, Carlos buys a personal assistant and Logan ca n't resist tipping people. In the end, they all run out of money, but they buy jelly beans with their last dollar, the jelly beans attract James 's snake, they sell the snake for $100, and with that, they hire Carlos 's assistant for one more hour and tells them to sell the oranges to his old boss. Finally, they have all $20,000 back and show them to Griffin, who is proven to be the orange buyer.
Guest Stars: Matt Riedy as Griffin, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille, Malese Jow as Lucy, Mason McCulley as Carlos ' assistant, John Jenkinson as Palm Woods Food Seller, Alden Ray as Guy who James hired to find his snake, Obdul Reid as Obdul
Gustavo books the boys to a lot of painful TV show cameos, but they decide to do no more cameos, until they get booked for "Coco. 0 '', a show Carlos loves and has a pretty main character, Dara. But Dara 's evil stepmother always controls her life, and decides what she will eat and say and who she will date, so Carlos ca n't kiss her. Along with Kendall, they create a plan for make them to kiss. Meanwhile, James and Logan try to sneak in Yo Gabba Gabba 's stage for eat their snacks and Gustavo, Kelly and Katie try to come up with a better script for Big Time Rush 's cameo. In the end, they force the stepmother to let Dara live her life and kiss Carlos, and sing "Confetti Falling '', and James and Logan make a cameo on Yo Gabba Gabba and they let them eat snacks.
Guest Stars: Daniela Bobadilla as Dara, Lisa Arch as Stepmother, Yo Gabba Gabba as themselves, Sinead Devries as Dara 's best friend and Challen Cates as Mrs. Jennifer Knight
Special Guest Stars: Lucas Cruikshank as himself and Scott Baio as himself
Big Time Rush is on the way to their concert to San Diego, in tour buses, but they get stuck in traffic due to a Tractor Trailer Accident. Kendall is with Carlos, who is filming videos with his camera all the time and Logan is with James and they have roommate problems, as the other three say they ca n't roommate with Logan and he gets offfended, while Kendall finds out a bunch of BTR hater sites and wants to change their opinion about BTR. Meanwhile, Victoria Justice keeps the crowd busy until Big Time Rush shows up and Mrs. Knight and Katie are also stuck in traffic. In the end, Kendall learns that the only way to deal with haters is to ignore them, James learns that Logan is a really good roommate and they all film a "Crazy for U '' music video on the tour bus and finally arrive at the concert.
Guest Stars: Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Katelyn Tarver as Jo
Special Guest Stars: Victoria Justice as herself
Palm Woods ' prank wars kick off again, and this time the kids battle the adults. Logan pranks himself out and becomes "The Prankster Gangster '', supplying prank tools to the kids. First, the kids beat the adults, but after Griffin brings black ops and Mrs. Knight and Gustavo get confetti launchers from Logan, the game is hard. In the end, it 's a battle between Kendall, Katie and Mrs. Knight. Mrs. Knight wins and decides to continue the "Day of Pranks '' next year.
Guest Stars: Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Erin Sanders as Camille, Malese Jow as Lucy, David Cade as Jett, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Matt Riedy as Griffin, David Anthony Higgins as Bitters, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Obdul Reid as Obdul
James buys a motorcycle to try to impress Lucy; Kendall teaches Jo how to drive a stick - shift; Carlos and Logan hold on to a childhood treasure (wood wagon).
Logan brings Carlos along to the MCAT test as his good luck charm; James is upset because Lucy is off for a European tour and he becomes obsessed with relationship quizzes; Griffin puts on a product testing lab at Rocque Records and asks for Katie, Gustavo and Kelly to test the products for him.
Guest Starring: Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, David Anthony Higgins as Mr. Bitters, Matt Riedy as Griffin and Daran Norris as Buddha Bob
The boys have been approached by two huge companies that are interested in expanding the BTR brand a little farther. They have two options of choosing between getting their own cartoon or their own video game and seem really excited about doing the video game, but they would have to cancel the concert to Hawaii on the private jet and wear on green ball suits. After hearing about the cartoon they end up changing their minds and do the video game instead. After getting locked out of the studio, they get themselves into a big mix up with the people in downtown LA making them think that they 're aliens. They finally decide to do the cartoon which turns out pretty well. Meanwhile, back at the Palm Woods while watching The Fairly OddParents, Buddha Bob ends up falling off his ladder and thinks that he 's Cosmo and that he can grant wishes. It 's up to Katie and Mrs. Knight to bring his memory back by calling in Dr. Hollywood and he ends up hitting Buddha Bob in his head with a frying pan.
Guest Starring: Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Lorenzo Lamas as Dr. Hollywood, Butch Hartman as himself.
At a party at Rocque Records, celebrating the release of their third studio album, Griffin asks the boys about which one of them is going to leave Big Time Rush and break out. Carlos wants to become a big Broadway hit, Logan becomes a game show host, James has intentions of becoming a solo singer with his new album, Break Out Dreams, and Kendall just really wants the band to come back together.
Guest Stars: Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, Matt Riedy as Arthur Griffin, Challen Cates as Jennifer Knight, Erin Sanders as Camille Roberts.
Songs Featured: Run Wild, Untouchable
The guys are invited to the 24th annual Tween Choice Awards, where the boy banders are nominated and booked to close the show. But before the foursome can take the stage, they uncover an evil plot to brainwash everyone in the audience. So BTR have to take down the bad guys and make sure the show rolls on as scheduled.
Guest star: Katelyn Tarver as Jo, Malese Jow as Lucy, Erin Sanders as Camille, Daran Norris as Buddha Bob, David Cade as Jett, Challen Cates as Mrs. Knight, David Anthony Higgins as Bitters, Matt Riedy as Griffin, David Hoffman as Martin Sharkis, Kelli Goss and Savannah Jayde as The Jennifers
Special Guest Stars: Austin Mahone as himself, Mindless Behavior as themselves, Nick Cannon as himself, Karmin as themselves, Alexa Vega as herself, Ryan Newman as herself.
Songs Featured: Get Up, Run Wild, We Are, Big Time Rush
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natural resources of the midwest region of the united states | Midwestern United states - wikipedia
The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the American Midwest, Middle West, or simply the Midwest, is one of four geographic regions defined by the United States Census Bureau. It occupies the northern central part of the United States of America. It was officially named the North Central region by the Census Bureau until 1984. It is located between the Northeastern U.S. and the Western U.S., with Canada to its north and the Southern U.S. to its south.
The Census Bureau 's definition consists of 12 states in the north central United States: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. The region generally lies on the broad Interior Plain between the states occupying the Appalachian Mountain range and the states occupying the Rocky Mountain range. Major rivers in the region include, from east to west, the Ohio River, the Upper Mississippi River, and the Missouri River. A 2012 report from the United States Census put the population of the Midwest at 65,377,684. The Midwest is divided by the Census Bureau into two divisions. The East North Central Division includes Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin, all of which are also part of the Great Lakes region. The West North Central Division includes Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, Nebraska, and South Dakota, several of which are located at least partly, within the Great Plains region.
Chicago is the most populated city in the American Midwest and the third most populous in the entire country. Other large Midwest cities include (in order by population): Columbus, Indianapolis, Detroit, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, Cleveland, Wichita and St. Louis. Chicago and its suburbs form the largest metropolitan statistical area with 9.8 million people, followed by Metro Detroit, Minneapolis -- St. Paul, Greater St. Louis, Greater Cleveland, Greater Cincinnati, Kansas City metro area, and the Columbus metro area.
The term Midwestern has been in use since the 1880s to refer to portions of the central United States. A variant term, Middle West, has been used since the 19th century and remains relatively common. Another term sometimes applied to the same general region is the heartland. Other designations for the region have fallen out of use, such as the Northwest or Old Northwest (from "Northwest Territory '') and Mid-America. The Northwest Territory (1787) was one of the earliest territories of the United States, stretching northwest from the Ohio River to northern Minnesota and the upper - Mississippi. The upper - Mississippi watershed including the Missouri and Illinois Rivers was the setting for the earlier French settlements of the Illinois Country.
Economically the region is balanced between heavy industry and agriculture (large sections of this land area make up the United States ' Corn Belt), with finance and services such as medicine and education becoming increasingly important. Its central location makes it a transportation crossroads for river boats, railroads, autos, trucks and airplanes. Politically the region swings back and forth between the parties, and thus is heavily contested and often decisive in elections.
After the sociological study Middletown (1929), which was based on Muncie, Indiana, commentators used Midwestern cities (and the Midwest generally) as "typical '' of the nation. The region has a higher employment - to - population ratio (the percentage of employed people at least 16 years - old) than the Northeast, the West, the South, or the Sun Belt states as of 2011.
Traditional definitions of the Midwest include the Northwest Ordinance Old Northwest states and many states that were part of the Louisiana Purchase. The states of the Old Northwest are also known as Great Lakes states and are east - north central in the United States. The Ohio River runs along the southeastern section while the Mississippi River runs north to south near the center. Many of the Louisiana Purchase states in the west - north central United States, are also known as Great Plains states, where the Missouri River is a major waterway joining with the Mississippi. The Midwest lies north of the 36 ° 30 ′ parallel that the 1820 Missouri Compromise established as the dividing line between future slave and non-slave states.
The Midwest Region is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as these 12 states:
The Midwest Region of the National Park Service consists of these twelve states plus the state of Arkansas.
The Council of State Governments, an organization for communication and coordination among state governments, includes in its Midwest regional office 11 states from the above list, omitting Missouri, which is in the CSG South region. Bold text
The vast central area of the U.S., into Canada, is a landscape of low, flat to rolling terrain in the Interior Plains. Most of its eastern two - thirds form the Interior Lowlands. The Lowlands gradually rise westward, from a line passing through eastern Kansas, up to over 5,000 feet (1,500 m) in the unit known as the Great Plains. Most of the Great Plains area is now farmed.
While these states are for the most part relatively flat, consisting either of plains or of rolling and small hills, there is a measure of geographical variation. In particular, the following areas exhibit a high degree of topographical variety: the eastern Midwest near the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains; the Great Lakes Basin; the Ozark Mountains of southern Missouri; the rugged topography of Southern Indiana and far Southern Illinois; and the Driftless Area of northwestern Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, southeastern Minnesota, and northeastern Iowa.
Proceeding westward, the Appalachian Plateau topography gradually gives way to gently rolling hills and then (in central Ohio) to flat lands converted principally to farms and urban areas. This is the beginning of the vast Interior Plains of North America. As a result, prairies cover most of the Great Plains states. Iowa and much of Illinois lie within an area called the prairie peninsula, an eastward extension of prairies that borders conifer and mixed forests to the north, and hardwood deciduous forests to the east and south.
Geographers subdivide the Interior Plains into the Interior Lowlands and the Great Plains on the basis of elevation. The Lowlands are mostly below 1,500 feet (460 m) above sea level whereas the Great Plains to the west are higher, rising in Colorado to around 5,000 feet (1,500 m). The Lowlands, then, are confined to parts of Minnesota, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Missouri and Arkansas have regions of Lowlands elevations, but in the Ozarks (within the Interior Highlands) are higher. Those familiar with the topography of eastern Ohio may be confused by this; that region is hilly, but its rocks are horizontal and are an extension of the Appalachian Plateau.
The Interior Plains are largely coincident with the vast Mississippi River Drainage System (other major components are the Missouri and Ohio Rivers). These rivers have for tens of millions of years been eroding downward into the mostly horizontal sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic ages. The modern Mississippi River system has developed during the Pleistocene Epoch of the Cenozoic.
Rainfall decreases from east to west, resulting in different types of prairies, with the tallgrass prairie in the wetter eastern region, mixed - grass prairie in the central Great Plains, and shortgrass prairie towards the rain shadow of the Rockies. Today, these three prairie types largely correspond to the corn / soybean area, the wheat belt, and the western rangelands, respectively.
Although hardwood forests in the northern Midwest were clear - cut in the late 19th century, they were replaced by new growth. Ohio and Michigan 's forests are still growing. The majority of the Midwest can now be categorized as urbanized areas or pastoral agricultural areas.
Among the American Indians Paleoindian cultures were the earliest in North America, with a presence in the Great Plains and Great Lakes areas from about 12,000 BCE to around 8,000 BCE.
Following the Paleo - Indian period is the Archaic period (8,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE), the Woodland Tradition (1,000 BCE to 100 CE), and the Mississippian Period (900 to 1500 CE). Archaeological evidence indicates that Mississippian culture traits probably began in the St. Louis, Missouri area and spread northwest along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers and entered the state along the Kankakee River system. It also spread northward into Indiana along the Wabash, Tippecanoe, and White Rivers.
Mississippian peoples in the Midwest were mostly farmers who followed the rich, flat floodplains of Midwestern rivers. They brought with them a well - developed agricultural complex based on three major crops -- maize, beans, and squash. Maize, or corn, was the primary crop of Mississippian farmers. They gathered a wide variety of seeds, nuts, and berries, and fished and hunted for fowl to supplement their diets. With such an intensive form of agriculture, this culture supported large populations.
The Mississippi period was characterized by a mound - building culture. The Mississippians suffered a tremendous population decline about 1400, coinciding with the global climate change of the Little Ice Age. Their culture effectively ended before 1492.
The major tribes of the Great Lakes region included the Hurons, Ottawa, Chippewas or Ojibwas, Potawatomis, Winnebago (Ho - chunk), Menominees, Sacs, Neutrals, Fox, and the Miami. Most numerous were the Hurons and Chippewas. Fighting and battle were often launched between tribes, with the losers forced to flee.
Most are of the Algonquian language family. Some tribes -- such as the Stockbridge - Munsee and the Brothertown -- are also Algonkian - speaking tribes who relocated from the eastern seaboard to the Great Lakes region in the 19th century. The Oneida belong to the Iroquois language group and the Ho - Chunk of Wisconsin are one of the few Great Lakes tribes to speak a Siouan language. American Indians in this area did not develop a written form of language.
In the 16th century, American Indians used projectiles and tools of stone, bone, and wood to hunt and farm. They made canoes for fishing. Most of them lived in oval or conical wigwams that could be easily moved away. Various tribes had different ways of living. The Ojibwas were primarily hunters and fishing was also important in the Ojibwas economy. Other tribes such as Sac, Fox, and Miami, both hunted and farmed.
They were oriented toward the open prairies where they engaged in communal hunts for buffalo (bison). In the northern forests, the Ottawas and Potawatomis separated into small family groups for hunting. The Winnebagos and Menominees used both hunting methods interchangeably and built up widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Hurons reckoned descent through the female line, while the others favored the patrilineal method. All tribes were governed under chiefdoms or complex chiefdoms. For example, Hurons were divided into matrilineal clans, each represented by a chief in the town council, where they met with a town chief on civic matters. But Chippewa people 's social and political life was simpler than that of settled tribes.
The religious beliefs varied among tribes. Hurons believed in Yoscaha, a supernatural being who lived in the sky and was believed to have created the world and the Huron people. At death, Hurons thought the soul left the body to live in a village in the sky. Chippewas were a deeply religious people who believed in the Great Spirit. They worshiped the Great Spirit through all their seasonal activities and viewed religion as a private matter: each person 's relation with his personal guardian spirit was part of his thinking every day of life. Ottawa and Potawatomi people had very similar religious beliefs to those of the Chippewas.
The Plains Indians are the indigenous peoples who live on the plains and rolling hills of the Great Plains of North America. Their colorful equestrian culture and famous conflicts with settlers and the US Army have made the Plains Indians archetypical in literature and art for American Indians everywhere.
Plains Indians are usually divided into two broad classifications, with some degree of overlap. The first group were fully nomadic, following the vast herds of buffalo. Some tribes occasionally engaged in agriculture; growing tobacco and corn primarily. These included the Blackfoot, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Plains Apache (or Kiowa Apache), Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwe, Sarsi, Shoshone, Stoney, and Tonkawa.
The second group of Plains Indians (sometimes referred to as Prairie Indians) were the semi-sedentary tribes who, in addition to hunting buffalo, lived in villages and raised crops. These included the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw (or Kansa), Kitsai, Mandan, Missouria, Nez Perce, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Santee, Wichita, and Yankton.
The nomadic tribes of the Great Plains survived on hunting, some of their major hunts centered on deer and buffalo. Some tribes are described as part of the ' Buffalo Culture ' (sometimes called, for the American Bison). Although the Plains Indians hunted other animals, such as elk or antelope, bison was their primary game food source. Bison flesh, hide, and bones from Bison hunting provided the chief source of raw materials for items that Plains Indians made, including food, cups, decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing.
The tribes followed the bison 's seasonal grazing and migration. The Plains Indians lived in teepees because they were easily disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game. When Spanish horses were obtained, the Plains tribes rapidly integrated them into their daily lives. By the early 18th century, many tribes had fully adopted a horse culture. Before their adoption of guns, the Plains Indians hunted with spears, bows, and bows and arrows, and various forms of clubs. The use of horses by the Plains Indians made hunting (and warfare) much easier.
Among the most powerful and dominant tribes were the Dakota or Sioux, who occupied large amounts of territory in the Great Plains of the Midwest. The area of the Great Sioux Nation spread throughout the South and Midwest, up into the areas of Minnesota and stretching out west into the Rocky Mountains. At the same time, they occupied the heart of prime buffalo range, and also an excellent region for furs they could sell to French and American traders for goods such as guns. The Sioux (Dakota) became the most powerful of the Plains tribes and the greatest threat to American expansion.
The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on Siouan dialect and subculture:
Today, the Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations, communities, and reserves in the Dakotas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Montana in the United States, as well as Manitoba and southern Saskatchewan in Canada.
European settlement of the area began in the 17th century following French exploration of the region and became known as New France. The French period began with the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with their expulsion by the British, who split New France with Spain in 1763.
In 1673, the governor of New France sent Jacques Marquette, a Catholic priest and missionary, and Louis Jolliet, a fur trader to map the way to the Northwest Passage to the Pacific. They traveled through Michigan 's upper peninsula to the northern tip of Lake Michigan. On canoes, they crossed the massive lake and landed at present - day Green Bay, Wisconsin. They entered the Mississippi River on June 17, 1673.
Marquette and Jolliet soon realized that the Mississippi could not possibly be the Northwest Passage because it flowed south. Nevertheless, the journey continued. They recorded much of the wildlife they encountered. They turned around at the junction of the Mississippi River and Arkansas River and headed back.
Marquette and Jolliet were the first to map the northern portion of the Mississippi River. They confirmed that it was easy to travel from the St. Lawrence River through the Great Lakes all the way to the Gulf of Mexico by water, that the native peoples who lived along the route were generally friendly, and that the natural resources of the lands in between were extraordinary. New France officials led by LaSalle followed up and erected a 4,000 - mile network of fur trading posts.
At the end of the American Revolution, there were few, if any, American settlers in the Midwest. However, the U.S. gained possession of the entire Midwest east of the Mississippi, and pioneers headed to Ohio, where large tracts had been awarded to war veterans.
While French control ended in 1763 after their defeat by Britain, most of the several hundred French settlers in small villages along the Mississippi River and its tributaries remained and were not disturbed by the new British government. By the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Spain was given Louisiana; the area west of the Mississippi. St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve in Missouri were the main towns, but there was little new settlement. France regained Louisiana from Spain in exchange for Tuscany by the terms of the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. Napoleon had lost interest in reestablishing a French colonial empire in North America following the Haitian Revolution and together with the fact that France could not effectively defend Louisiana from Great Britain, he sold the territory to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Meanwhile, the British maintained forts and trading posts in U.S. territory, not giving them up until the mid-1790s by the Jay Treaty.
American settlement began either via routes over the Appalachian Mountains or through the waterways of the Great Lakes. Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh) at the source of the Ohio River became the main base for settlers moving into the Midwest. Marietta, Ohio in 1787 became the first settlement in Ohio, but not until the defeat of Indian tribes at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 was large - scale settlement possible. Large numbers also came north from Kentucky into southern Ohio, Indiana and Illinois.
The region 's fertile soil produced corn and vegetables; most farmers were self - sufficient. They cut trees and claimed the land, then sold it to newcomers and then moved further west to repeat the process.
In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition that took place between May 1804 and September 1806. The goal was to explore the Louisiana Purchase, and establish trade and U.S. sovereignty over the native peoples along the Missouri River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with more than two dozen indigenous nations west of the Missouri River. The Expedition returned east to St. Louis in the spring of 1806.
In 1791, General Arthur St. Clair became commander of the United States Army and led a punitive expedition with two Regular Army regiments and some militia. Near modern - day Fort Recovery, his force advanced to the location of Indian settlements near the headwaters of the Wabash River, but on November 4 they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket. More than 600 soldiers and scores of women and children were killed in the battle, which has since borne the name "St. Clair 's Defeat. '' It remains the greatest defeat of a U.S. Army by Native Americans.
The British had a long - standing goal of building a "neutral '', but pro-British Indian buffer state in the American Midwest. They demanded a neutral Indian state at the peace conference that ended the War of 1812, but failed to gain any of it because they had lost control of the region in the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the Thames in 1813, where Tecumseh was killed. The British then abandoned the Indians south of the lakes. The Indians were major losers in the War of 1812. Apart from the short Black Hawk War of 1832, the days of Indian warfare east of the Mississippi River had ended.
Yankee settlers from New England started arriving in Ohio before 1800, and spread throughout the northern half of the Midwest. Most of them started as farmers, but later the larger proportion moved to towns and cities as entrepreneurs, businessmen, and urban professionals. Since its beginnings in the 1830s, Chicago has grown to dominate the Midwestern metropolis landscape for over a century.
Historian John Bunker has examined the worldview of the Yankee settlers in the Midwest:
Because they arrived first and had a strong sense of community and mission, Yankees were able to transplant New England institutions, values, and mores, altered only by the conditions of frontier life. They established a public culture that emphasized the work ethic, the sanctity of private property, individual responsibility, faith in residential and social mobility, practicality, piety, public order and decorum, reverence for public education, activists, honest, and frugal government, town meeting democracy, and he believed that there was a public interest that transcends particular and stick ambitions. Regarding themselves as the elect and just in a world rife with sin, air, and corruption, they felt a strong moral obligation to define and enforce standards of community and personal behavior... This pietistic worldview was substantially shared by British, Scandinavian, Swiss, English - Canadian and Dutch Reformed immigrants, as well as by German Protestants and many of the Forty - Eighters.
Midwestern politics pitted Yankees against the German Catholics and Lutherans, who were often led by the Irish Catholics. These large groups, Buenker argues:
Generally subscribed to the work ethic, a strong sense of community, and activist government, but were less committed to economic individualism and privatism and ferociously opposed to government supervision of the personal habits. Southern and eastern European immigrants generally leaned more toward the Germanic view of things, while modernization, industrialization, and urbanization modified nearly everyone 's sense of individual economic responsibility and put a premium on organization, political involvement, and education.
Three waterways have been important to the development of the Midwest. The first and foremost was the Ohio River, which flowed into the Mississippi River. Development of the region was halted until 1795 due to Spain 's control of the southern part of the Mississippi and its refusal to allow the shipment of American crops down the river and into the Atlantic Ocean.
The second waterway is the network of routes within the Great Lakes. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 completed an all - water shipping route, more direct than the Mississippi, to New York and the seaport of New York City. In 1848, The Illinois and Michigan Canal breached the continental divide spanning the Chicago Portage and linking the waters of the Great Lakes with those of the Mississippi Valley and the Gulf of Mexico. Lakeport and river cities grew up to handle these new shipping routes. During the Industrial Revolution, the lakes became a conduit for iron ore from the Mesabi Range of Minnesota to steel mills in the Mid-Atlantic States. The Saint Lawrence Seaway (1862, widened 1959) opened the Midwest to the Atlantic Ocean.
The third waterway, the Missouri River, extended water travel from the Mississippi almost to the Rocky Mountains.
In the 1870s and 1880s, the Mississippi River inspired two classic books -- Life on the Mississippi and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn -- written by native Missourian Samuel Clemens, who used the pseudonym Mark Twain. His stories became staples of Midwestern lore. Twain 's hometown of Hannibal, Missouri is a tourist attraction offering a glimpse into the Midwest of his time.
Inland canals in Ohio and Indiana constituted another important waterway, which connected with Great Lakes and Ohio River traffic. The commodities that the Midwest funneled into the Erie Canal down the Ohio River contributed to the wealth of New York City, which overtook Boston and Philadelphia.
During the mid-19th century, the region got its first railroads, and the railroad junction in Chicago became the world 's largest. During the century, Chicago became the nation 's railroad center. By 1910, over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals. Even today, a century after Henry Ford, six Class I railroads meet in Chicago.
In the period from 1890 to 1930, many Midwestern cities were connected by electric interurban railroads, similar to streetcars. The Midwest had more interurbans than any other region. In 1916, Ohio led all states with 2,798 miles (4,503 km), Indiana followed with 1,825 miles (2,937 km). These two states alone had almost a third of the country 's interurban trackage. The nation 's largest interurban junction was in Indianapolis. During the 1900s (decade), the city 's 38 percent growth in population was attributed largely to the interurban.
Competition with automobiles and buses undermined the interurban and other railroad passenger business. By 1900, Detroit was the world center of the auto industry, and soon practically every city within 200 miles was producing auto parts that fed into its giant factories.
In 1903, Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company. Ford 's manufacturing -- and those of automotive pioneers William C. Durant, the Dodge brothers, Packard, and Walter Chrysler -- established Detroit 's status in the early 20th century as the world 's automotive capital. The proliferation of businesses created a synergy that also encouraged truck manufacturers such as Rapid and Grabowsky.
The growth of the auto industry was reflected by changes in businesses throughout the Midwest and nation, with the development of garages to service vehicles and gas stations, as well as factories for parts and tires. Today, greater Detroit remains home to General Motors, Chrysler, and the Ford Motor Company.
The Northwest Ordinance region, comprising the heart of the Midwest, was the first large region of the United States that prohibited slavery (the Northeastern United States emancipated slaves in the 1830s). The regional southern boundary was the Ohio River, the border of freedom and slavery in American history and literature (see Uncle Tom 's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe and Beloved by Toni Morrison).
The Midwest, particularly Ohio, provided the primary routes for the Underground Railroad, whereby Midwesterners assisted slaves to freedom from their crossing of the Ohio River through their departure on Lake Erie to Canada. Created in the early 19th century, the Underground Railroad was at its height between 1850 and 1860. One estimate suggests that by 1850, 100,000 slaves had escaped via the Underground Railroad.
The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses and assistance provided by abolitionist sympathizers. Individuals were often organized in small, independent groups; this helped to maintain secrecy because individuals knew some connecting "stations '' along the route, but knew few details of their immediate area. Escaped slaves would move north along the route from one way station to the next. Although the fugitives sometimes traveled on boat or train, they usually traveled on foot or by wagon.
The region was shaped by the relative absence of slavery (except for Missouri), pioneer settlement, education in one - room free public schools, democratic notions brought by American Revolutionary War veterans, Protestant faiths and experimentation, and agricultural wealth transported on the Ohio River riverboats, flatboats, canal boats, and railroads.
The first violent conflicts leading up to the Civil War occurred between two neighboring Midwestern states, Kansas and Missouri, involving anti-slavery Free - Staters and pro-slavery "Border Ruffian '' elements, that took place in the Kansas Territory and the western frontier towns of Missouri roughly between 1854 and 1858. At the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free state or slave state. As such, Bleeding Kansas was a proxy war between Northerners and Southerners over the issue of slavery. The term "Bleeding Kansas '' was coined by Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune; the events it encompasses directly presaged the Civil War.
Setting in motion the events later known as "Bleeding Kansas '' was the Kansas - Nebraska Act. The Act created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, opened new lands that would help settlement in them, repealed the Missouri Compromise, and allowed settlers in those territories to determine through popular sovereignty whether to allow slavery within their boundaries. It was hoped the Act would ease relations between the North and the South, because the South could expand slavery to new territories, but the North still had the right to abolish slavery in its states. Instead, opponents denounced the law as a concession to the slave power of the South.
The new Republican Party, born in the Midwest (Ripon, Wisconsin, 1854) and created in opposition to the Act, aimed to stop the expansion of slavery and soon emerged as the dominant force throughout the North.
An ostensibly democratic idea, popular sovereignty stated that the inhabitants of each territory or state should decide whether it would be a free or slave state; however, this resulted in immigration en masse to Kansas by activists from both sides. At one point, Kansas had two separate governments, each with its own constitution, although only one was federally recognized. On January 29, 1861, Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state, less than three months before the Battle of Fort Sumter officially began the Civil War.
The calm in Kansas was shattered in May 1856 by two events that are often regarded as the opening shots of the Civil War. On May 21, the Free Soil town of Lawrence, Kansas was sacked by an armed pro ‐ slavery force from Missouri. A few days later, the Sacking of Lawrence led abolitionist John Brown and six of his followers to execute five men along the Pottawatomie Creek in Franklin County, Kansas, in retaliation.
The so - called "Border War '' lasted for another four months, from May through October, between armed bands of pro ‐ slavery and Free Soil men. The U.S. Army had two garrisons in Kansas, the First Cavalry Regiment at Fort Leavenworth and the Second Dragoons and Sixth Infantry at Fort Riley. The skirmishes endured until a new governor, John W. Geary, managed to prevail upon the Missourians to return home in late 1856. A fragile peace followed, but violent outbreaks continued intermittently for several more years.
National reaction to the events in Kansas demonstrated how deeply divided the country had become. The Border Ruffians were widely applauded in the South, even though their actions had cost the lives of numerous people. In the North, the murders committed by Brown and his followers were ignored by most and lauded by a few.
The civil conflict in Kansas was a product of the political fight over slavery. Federal troops were not used to decide a political question, but they were used by successive territorial governors to pacify the territory so that the political question of slavery in Kansas could finally be decided by peaceful, legal, and political means.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession by the Southern states. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the Crittenden Compromise, failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction.
The U.S. federal government was supported by 20 mostly - Northern free states in which slavery already had been abolished, and by five slave states that became known as the border states. All of the Midwestern states but one, Missouri, banned slavery. Though most battles were fought in the South, skirmishes between Kansas and Missouri continued until culmination with the Lawrence Massacre on August 21, 1863. Also known as Quantrill 's Raid, the massacre was a rebel guerrilla attack by Quantrill 's Raiders, led by William Clarke Quantrill, on pro-Union Lawrence, Kansas. Quantrill 's band of 448 Missouri guerrillas raided and plundered Lawrence, killing more than 150 and burning all the business buildings and most of the dwellings. Pursued by federal troops, the band escaped to Missouri.
Lawrence was targeted due to the town 's long support of abolition and its reputation as a center for Redlegs and Jayhawkers, which were free - state militia and vigilante groups known for attacking and families in Missouri 's pro-slavery western counties.
By the time of the American Civil War, European immigrants bypassed the East Coast of the United States to settle directly in the interior: German immigrants to Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Illinois, and Missouri; Irish immigrants to port cities on the Great Lakes, especially Chicago; Danes, Czechs, Swedes, and Norwegians to Iowa, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas; and Finns to Upper Michigan and northern / central Minnesota. Poles, Hungarians, and Jews settled in Midwestern cities.
The U.S. was predominantly rural at the time of the Civil War. The Midwest was no exception, dotted with small farms all across the region. The late 19th century saw industrialization, immigration, and urbanization that fed the Industrial Revolution, and the heart of industrial domination and innovation was in the Great Lakes states of the Midwest, which only began its slow decline by the late 20th century.
A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad. Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy.
In addition to manufacturing, printing, publishing, and food processing also play major roles in the Midwest 's largest economy. Chicago was the base of commercial operations for industrialists John Crerar, John Whitfield Bunn, Richard Teller Crane, Marshall Field, John Farwell, Julius Rosenwald and many other commercial visionaries who laid the foundation for Midwestern and global industry.
In the 20th century, African American migration from the Southern United States into the Midwestern states changed Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Cincinnati, Detroit, Omaha, Minneapolis and many other cities in the Midwest, as factories and schools enticed families by the thousands to new opportunities. Chicago alone gained hundreds of thousands of black citizens from the Great Migration and the Second Great Migration.
The Gateway Arch monument in St. Louis, clad in stainless steel and built in the form of a flattened catenary arch, is the tallest man - made monument in the United States, and the world 's tallest arch. Built as a monument to the westward expansion of the United States, it is the centerpiece of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial and has become an internationally famous symbol of St. Louis and the Midwest.
As the Midwest opened up to settlement via waterways and rail in the mid-1800s, Germans began to settle there in large numbers. The largest flow of German immigration to America occurred between 1820 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the United States. From 1840 to 1880, they were the largest group of immigrants.
The Midwestern cities of Milwaukee, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Chicago were favored destinations of German immigrants. By 1900, the populations of the cities of Cleveland, Milwaukee, Hoboken, and Cincinnati were all more than 40 percent German American. Dubuque and Davenport, Iowa, had even larger proportions; in Omaha, Nebraska, the proportion of German Americans was 57 percent in 1910. In many other cities of the Midwest, such as Fort Wayne, Indiana, German Americans were at least 30 percent of the population. Many concentrations acquired distinctive names suggesting their heritage, such as the "Over-the - Rhine '' district in Cincinnati and "German Village '' in Columbus, Ohio.
A favorite destination was Milwaukee, known as "the German Athens ''. Radical Germans trained in politics in the old country dominated the city 's Socialists. Skilled workers dominated many crafts, while entrepreneurs created the brewing industry; the most famous brands included Pabst, Schlitz, Miller, and Blatz.
While half of German immigrants settled in cities, the other half established farms in the Midwest. From Ohio to the Plains states, a heavy presence persists in rural areas into the 21st century.
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, German Americans showed a high interest in becoming farmers, and keeping their children and grandchildren on the land. Western railroads, with large land grants available to attract farmers, set up agencies in Hamburg and other German cities, promising cheap transportation, and sales of farmland on easy terms. For example, the Santa Fe Railroad hired its own commissioner for immigration, and sold over 300,000 acres (1,200 km) to German - speaking farmers.
The term West was applied to the region in the early years of the country. In 1789, the Northwest Ordinance was enacted, creating the Northwest Territory, which was bounded by the Great Lakes and the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Because the Northwest Territory lay between the East Coast and the then - far - West, the states carved out of it were called the Northwest. In the early 19th century, anything west of the Mississippi River was considered the West. The first recorded use of the term Midwestern to refer to a region of the central U.S. occurred in 1886, Midwest appeared in 1894, and Midwesterner in 1916.
Following the settlement of the western prairie, some considered the row of states from North Dakota to Kansas to be part of the Midwest.
The states of the "old Northwest '' are now called the "East North Central States '' by the United States Census Bureau and the "Great Lakes region '' is also a popular term. The states just west of the Mississippi River and the Great Plains states are called the "West North Central States '' by the Census Bureau. Some entities in the Midwest are still referred to as "Northwest '' due to historical reasons (for example, Northwestern University in Illinois).
Agriculture is one of the biggest drivers of local economies in the Midwest, accounting for billions of dollars worth of exports and thousands of jobs. The area consists of some of the richest farming land in the world. The region 's fertile soil combined with the steel plow has made it possible for farmers to produce abundant harvests of grain and cereal crops, including corn, wheat, soybeans, oats, and barley, to become known today as the nation 's "breadbasket. ''
Farms spread from the colonies westward along with the settlers. In cooler regions, wheat was often the crop of choice when lands were newly settled, leading to a "wheat frontier '' that moved westward over the course of years. Also very common in the antebellum Midwest was farming corn while raising hogs, complementing each other especially since it was difficult to get grain to market before the canals and railroads. After the "wheat frontier '' had passed through an area, more diversified farms including dairy and beef cattle generally took its place.
The very dense soil of the Midwest plagued the first settlers who were using wooden plows, which were more suitable for loose forest soil. On the prairie, the plows bounced around and the soil stuck to them. This problem was solved in 1837 by an Illinois blacksmith named John Deere who developed a steel moldboard plow that was stronger and cut the roots, making the fertile soils of the prairie ready for farming.
The tallgrass prairie has been converted into one of the most intensive crop producing areas in North America. Less than one tenth of one percent (< 0.09 %) of the original landcover of the tallgrass prairie biome remains. States formerly with landcover in native tallgrass prairie such as Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and Missouri have become valued for their highly productive soils and are included in the Corn Belt. As an example of this land use intensity, Illinois and Iowa rank 49th and 50th out of 50 states in total uncultivated land remaining.
The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the mid-19th century contributed to economic growth in the United States. This development was facilitated by the Morrill Act and the Hatch Act of 1887 which established in each state a land - grant university (with a mission to teach and study agriculture) and a federally funded system of agricultural experiment stations and cooperative extension networks which place extension agents in each state. Iowa State University became the nation 's first designated land - grant institution when the Iowa Legislature accepted the provisions of the 1862 Morrill Act on September 11, 1862, making Iowa the first state in the nation to do so.
The Corn Belt is a region of the Midwest where corn has, since the 1850s, been the predominant crop, replacing the native tall grasses. The "Corn Belt '' region is defined typically to include Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, southern Michigan, western Ohio, eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, southern Minnesota, and parts of Missouri. As of 2008, the top four corn - producing states were Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, and Minnesota, together accounting for more than half of the corn grown in the United States. The Corn Belt also sometimes is defined to include parts of South Dakota, North Dakota, Wisconsin, and Kentucky. The region is characterized by relatively level land and deep, fertile soils, high in organic matter.
Former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, a pioneer of hybrid seeds, declared in 1956 that the Corn Belt developed the "most productive agricultural civilization the world has ever seen ''. Today, the U.S. produces 40 percent of the world crop.
Iowa produces the largest corn crop of any state. In 2012, Iowa farmers produced 18.3 percent of the nation 's corn, while Illinois produced 15.3 percent. In 2011, there were 13.7 million harvested acres of corn for grain, producing 2.36 billion bushels, which yielded 172.0 bu / acre, with US $14.5 billion of corn value of production.
Soybeans were not widely cultivated in the United States until the early 1930s, and by 1942, it became the world 's largest soybean producer, due in part to World War II and the "need for domestic sources of fats, oils, and meal ''. Between 1930 and 1942, the United States ' share of world soybean production skyrocketed from three percent to 46.5 percent, largely due to the Midwest, and by 1969, it had risen to 76 percent. Iowa and Illinois rank first and second in the nation in soybean production. In 2012, Iowa produced 14.5 percent, and Illinois produced 13.3 percent of the nation 's soybeans.
Wheat is produced throughout the Midwest and is the principal cereal grain in the country. The U.S. is ranked third in production volume of wheat, with almost 58 million tons produced in the 2012 -- 2013 growing season, behind only China and India (the combined production of all European Union nations is larger than China) The U.S. ranks first in crop export volume; almost 50 percent of total wheat produced is exported.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture defines eight official classes of wheat: durum wheat, hard red spring wheat, hard red winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, hard white wheat, soft white wheat, unclassed wheat, and mixed wheat. Winter wheat accounts for 70 to 80 percent of total production in the U.S., with the largest amounts produced in Kansas (10.8 million tons) and North Dakota (9.8 million tons). Of the total wheat produced in the country, 50 percent is exported, valued at US $9 billion.
Midwestern states also lead the nation in other agricultural commodities, including pork (Iowa), beef and veal (Nebraska), dairy (Wisconsin), and chicken eggs (Iowa).
Chicago is the economic and financial heartbeat of the Midwest and has the third largest gross metropolitan product in the United States -- approximately $532 billion according to 2010 estimates, after only the urban agglomerations of New York City and Los Angeles, in the first and second place, respectively. Chicago was named the fourth most important business center in the world in the MasterCard Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index.
The Chicago Board of Trade (established 1848) listed the first ever standardized "exchange traded '' forward contracts, which were called futures contracts. In 1883, the standardized system of North American time zones was adopted by the general time convention of railway managers in Chicago. This gave the continent its uniform system for telling time.
As a major world financial center, the city is home to the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (the Seventh District of the Federal Reserve). The city is also home to major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the "Merc ''), which is owned, along with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) by Chicago 's CME Group. The CME Group, in addition, owns the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), the Commodities Exchange Inc. (COMEX) and the Dow Jones Indexes.
Like the rest of the United States, the Midwest is predominantly Christian.
The majority of Midwesterners are Protestants, with rates from 48 percent in Illinois to 63 percent in Iowa. However, the Roman Catholic Church is the largest single denomination, varying between 18 percent and 34 percent of the state populations. Lutherans are prevalent in the Upper Midwest, especially in Minnesota and the Dakotas with their large Scandinavian and German populations. Southern Baptists compose about 15 percent of Missouri 's population, but much smaller percentages in other Midwestern states.
Judaism is practiced by 2.5 percent and Islam is practiced by 1 percent or less of the population, with higher concentrations in major urban areas. People with no religious affiliation make up 13 -- 16 percent of the Midwest 's population. Surveys show 54 percent of Midwesterners regularly attend church.
Many Midwestern universities, both public and private, are members of the Association of American Universities (AAU), an international organization of leading public and private research universities devoted to maintaining a strong system of academic research and education. Of the 62 members from the U.S. and Canada, 16 are located in the Midwest including private schools Case Western Reserve University, Northwestern University, the University of Chicago, and Washington University in St. Louis. Member public institutions of the AAU include the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign, Indiana University Bloomington, the University of Iowa, Iowa State University, the University of Kansas, the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, the University of Minnesota, the University of Missouri, the Ohio State University, Purdue University, and the University of Wisconsin -- Madison.
Other notable major research - intensive public universities include the University of Cincinnati, Kansas State University, and the University of Nebraska -- Lincoln.
Numerous state university systems have established regional campuses statewide. The numerous state teachers colleges were upgraded into state universities after 1945.
Other notable private institutions include the University of Notre Dame, John Carroll University, Loyola University Chicago, DePaul University, Creighton University, Drake University, Marquette University, and Xavier University. Local boosters, usually with a church affiliation, created numerous colleges in the mid-19th century. In terms of national rankings, the most prominent today include Carleton College, Denison University, DePauw University, Earlham College, Grinnell College, Kalamazoo College, Kenyon College, Knox College, Macalester College, Lawrence University, Oberlin College, Wheaton College, and The College of Wooster.
The heavy German immigration played a major role in establishing musical traditions, especially choral and orchestral music. Czech and German traditions combined to sponsor the polka.
The African American migration from the South brought jazz to the Midwest, along with blues, and rock and roll, with major contributions to jazz, funk, and R&B, and even new subgenres such as the Motown Sound and techno from Detroit or house music from Chicago. In the 1920s, South Side Chicago was the base for Jelly Roll Morton (1890 -- 1941). Kansas City developed its own jazz style.
The electrified Chicago blues sound exemplifies the genre, as popularized by record labels Chess and Alligator and portrayed in such films as The Blues Brothers, Godfathers and Sons, and Adventures in Babysitting.
Rock and roll music was first identified as a new genre in 1951 by Cleveland, Ohio, disc jockey Alan Freed who began playing this music style while popularizing the term "rock and roll '' to describe it. By the mid-1950s, rock and roll emerged as a defined musical style in the United States, deriving most directly from the rhythm and blues music of the 1940s, which itself developed from earlier blues, boogie woogie, jazz, and swing music, and was also influenced by gospel, country and western, and traditional folk music. Freed 's contribution in identifying rock as a new genre helped establish the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, located in Cleveland. Chuck Berry, a Midwesterner from St. Louis, was among the first successful rock and roll artists and influenced many other rock musicians.
Notable soul and R&B musicians associated with Motown that had their origins in the area include Aretha Franklin, The Supremes, Mary Wells, Four Tops, The Jackson 5, Smokey Robinson & the Miracles, Stevie Wonder, The Marvelettes, The Temptations, and Martha and the Vandellas. These artists achieved their greatest success in the 1960s and 1970s. Michael Jackson, from the Jackson 5, went on to have an extremely successful solo career from the 1970s through the 2000s. Known as the "King of Pop '', he went on to become one of the bestselling solo artists of all time and the most - awarded artist of all time. His sister, Janet Jackson, also had an extremely successful solo career in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s.
In the 1970s and 1980s, native Midwestern musicians such as John Mellencamp and Bob Seger found great success with a style of rock music that came to be known as heartland rock, which were characterized by lyrical themes that focused on and appealed to the Midwestern working class. Other successful Midwestern rock artists emerged during this time, including REO Speedwagon, Styx, and Kansas.
In the 1990s, the Chicago - based band The Smashing Pumpkins emerged and went on to become one of the most successful alternative rock artists of the decade. Also in the 1990s, the Midwest was at the center of the emerging Midwest emo movement, with bands like The Get Up Kids (Missouri), Cursive (Nebraska) and Cap'n Jazz (Illinois) blending earlier hardcore punk sounds with a more melodic indie rock sentiment. This hybrid of styles came to be known as Midwest emo. Chicago - based artists Fall Out Boy and Plain White T 's popularized the genre in the early part of the 21st century.
In the late 1990s, Eminem and Kid Rock emerged from the Detroit area. Eminem went on to become one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed rappers of all time. Meanwhile, Kid Rock successfully mixed elements of rap, hard rock, heavy metal, country rock, and pop in forming his own unique sound. Both artists are known for celebrating their Detroit roots.
Numerous classical composers live and have lived in midwestern states, including Easley Blackwood, Kenneth Gaburo, Salvatore Martirano, and Ralph Shapey (Illinois); Glenn Miller and Meredith Willson (Iowa); Leslie Bassett, William Bolcom, Michael Daugherty, and David Gillingham (Michigan); Donald Erb (Ohio); Dominick Argento and Stephen Paulus (Minnesota). Also notable is Peter Schickele, born in Iowa and partially raised in North Dakota, best known for his classical music parodies attributed to his alter ego of P.D.Q. Bach.
Professional sports leagues such as the National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Hockey League (NHL) and Major League Soccer (MLS) have team franchises in several Midwestern cities:
Successful teams include the St. Louis Cardinals (11 World Series titles), Cincinnati Reds (5 World Series titles), Chicago Bulls (6 NBA titles), the Detroit Pistons (3 NBA titles), the Green Bay Packers (4 Super Bowl titles, 13 total NFL championships), the Detroit Red Wings (11 Stanley Cup titles), and the Chicago Blackhawks (6 Stanley Cup titles).
In NCAA college sports, the Big Ten Conference and the Big 12 Conference feature the largest concentration of top Midwestern Division I football and men 's and women 's basketball teams in the region, including the Illinois Fighting Illini, Indiana Hoosiers, Iowa Hawkeyes, Iowa State Cyclones, Kansas Jayhawks, Kansas State Wildcats, Michigan Wolverines, Michigan State Spartans, Minnesota Golden Gophers, Nebraska Cornhuskers, Northwestern Wildcats, Ohio State Buckeyes, Purdue Boilermakers, and the Wisconsin Badgers.
Other notable Midwestern college sports teams include the Butler Bulldogs, Cincinnati Bearcats, Creighton Bluejays, Dayton Flyers, Indiana State Sycamores, Marquette Golden Eagles, Milwaukee Panthers, Missouri Tigers, Missouri State Bears, Northern Illinois Huskies, Notre Dame Fighting Irish, Western Michigan Broncos, Wichita State Shockers, and Xavier Musketeers. Of this second group of schools, Butler, Dayton, Indiana State and Missouri State do not play top - level college football (all playing in the second - tier Division I FCS), and Creighton, Marquette, Milwaukee, Wichita State and Xavier do not sponsor football at all.
The Milwaukee Mile hosted its first motor race in 1903, and is one of the oldest tracks in the world. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway, opened in 1909, is a prestigious auto racing track which annually hosts the Indianapolis 500, the Brickyard 400, and the Indianapolis Motorcycle Grand Prix. The Road America and Mid-Ohio road courses opened in the 1950s and 1960s respectively. Other motorsport venues in the Midwest are Indianapolis Raceway Park, Michigan International Speedway, Chicagoland Speedway, Kansas Speedway, Gateway International Raceway, and the Iowa Speedway. The Kentucky Speedway is just outside the officially defined Midwest, but is linked with the region because the track is located in the Cincinnati metropolitan area.
Notable professional golf tournaments in the Midwest include the WGC - Bridgestone Invitational, Memorial Tournament, BMW Championship and John Deere Classic.
Differences in the definition of the Midwest mainly split between the Great Plains region on one side, and the Great Lakes region on the other. While some point to the small towns and agricultural communities in Kansas, Iowa, the Dakotas, and Nebraska of the Great Plains as representative of traditional Midwestern lifestyles and values, others assert that the industrial cities of the Great Lakes -- with their histories of 19th - and early - 20th - century immigration, manufacturing base, and strong Catholic influence -- are more representative of the Midwestern experience. In South Dakota, for instance, West River (the region west of the Missouri River) shares cultural elements with the western United States, while East River has more in common with the rest of the Midwest.
Two other regions, Appalachia and the Ozark Mountains, overlap geographically with the Midwest -- Appalachia in Southern Ohio and the Ozarks in Southern Missouri. The Ohio River has long been a boundary between North and South and between the Midwest and the Upper South. All of the lower Midwestern states, especially Missouri, have a major Southern component, and Missouri was a slave state before the Civil War.
Western Pennsylvania, which contains the cities of Erie and Pittsburgh, plus the Western New York cities of Buffalo and possibly Rochester, share history with the Midwest, but overlap with Appalachia and the Northeast as well.
Kentucky is rarely considered part of the Midwest, although it can be grouped with it in some contexts. It is categorized as Southern by the Census Bureau and is usually classified as such, especially from a cultural standpoint.
In addition to intra-American regional overlaps, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan has historically had strong cultural ties to Canada, partly as a result of early settlement by French Canadians. Moreover, the Yooper accent shares some traits with Canadian English, further demonstrating transnational cultural connections. Similar but less pronounced mutual Canadian - American cultural influence occurs throughout the Great Lakes region.
The accents of the region are generally distinct from those of the South and of the urban areas of the American Northeast. To a lesser degree, they are also distinct from the accent of the American West.
The accent characteristic of most of the Midwest is considered by many to be that of "standard '' American English or General American. This accent is preferred by many national radio and television broadcasters.
This may have started because many prominent broadcast personalities -- such as Walter Cronkite, Harry Reasoner, Johnny Carson, David Letterman, Rush Limbaugh, Tom Brokaw, John Madden, and Casey Kasem -- came from this region and so created this perception. A November 1998 National Geographic article attributed the high number of telemarketing firms in Omaha to the "neutral accents '' of the area 's inhabitants. Currently, many cities in the Great Lakes region are undergoing the Northern cities vowel shift away from the standard pronunciation of vowels.
The dialect of Minnesota, western Wisconsin, much of North Dakota and Michigan 's Upper Peninsula is referred to as the Upper Midwestern Dialect (or "Minnesotan ''), and has Scandinavian and Canadian influences.
Missouri has elements of three dialects, specifically: Northern Midland, in the extreme northern part of the state, with a distinctive variation in St. Louis and the surrounding area; Southern Midland, in the majority of the state; and Southern, in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the state, with a bulge extending north in the central part, to include approximately the southern one - third.
The rate of potentially preventable hospital discharges in the Midwestern United States fell from 2005 to 2011 for overall conditions, acute conditions, and chronic conditions.
All cities listed have a population of 250,000 or more.
The Midwest has been an important region in national elections, with highly contested elections in closely divided states often deciding the national result. In 1860 -- 1920, both parties often selected either their president or vice president from the region.
One of the two major political parties in the United States, the Republican Party, originated in the Midwest in the 1850s; Ripon, Wisconsin had the first local meeting while Jackson, Michigan had the state county meeting of the new party. Its membership included many Yankees who had settled the upper Midwest. The party opposed the expansion of slavery and stressed the Protestant ideals of thrift, a hard work ethic, self - reliance, democratic decision making, and religious tolerance.
In the early 1890s the wheat - growing regions were strongholds of the short - lived Populist movement in the Plains states.
Starting in the 1890s the middle class urban Progressive movement became influential in the region (as it was in other regions), with Wisconsin a major center. Under the LaFolletes Wisconsin fought against the GOP bosses and for efficiency, modernization, and the use of experts to solve social, economic, and political problems. Theodore Roosevelt 's 1912 Progressive Party had the best showing in this region; carrying the states of Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota. In 1924, La Follette, Sr. 's 1924 Progressive Party did well in the region, but only carried his home base of Wisconsin.
The Midwest -- especially the areas west of Chicago -- has always been a stronghold of isolationism, a belief that America should not involve itself in foreign entanglements. This position was largely based on the many German American and Swedish - American communities. Isolationist leaders included the La Follettes, Ohio 's Robert A. Taft, and Colonel Robert McCormick, publisher of the Chicago Tribune.
As of 2016, the Midwest is home to several critical swing states that do not have a strong allegiance to either the Democratic or Republican party including Iowa and Ohio. Upper Midwestern states of Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin reliably voted Democratic in every presidential election from 1992 to 2012. The Great Plains states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas have voted for the Republican candidate in every presidential election since 1940, except for Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. Indiana is usually considered a Republican stronghold, voting that party 's presidential candidate in every election since 1940 except for Johnson in 1964 and Barack Obama in 2008.
As a result of the 2016 elections, Republicans now control the governors ' office in all Midwestern states except Minnesota. Republicans also control every partisan state legislature in the Midwest except Illinois. The unicameral Nebraska Legislature is officially nonpartisan.
The state government of Illinois is currently divided between Republican Governor Bruce Rauner and Democratic super majorities and in the State House and State Senate. The state currently has two Democratic senators, and an 11 -- 7 Democratic majority US House of Representatives delegation.
Many analysts consider Iowa the most evenly divided state in the country, but it has leaned Democratic for at least the past fifteen years. Iowa had a Democratic governor from 1999 until Terry Branstad was re-elected in the mid-term elections in 2010, and has had both one Democratic and one Republican senator since the early 1980s until the 2014 election when Republican Joni Ernst defeated Democrat Bruce Braley in a tightly contested race. As for Iowa 's House delegation, Republicans currently hold a 3 to 1 seat majority. Between 1992 and 2012, Iowa also voted for the Democratic presidential candidate in all elections except 2004, but in 2016 the state went to the Republicans by 10 percentage points. As a result of the 2016 elections, Republicans hold a majority in the Iowa House of Representatives and the Iowa Senate.
Minnesota voters have not voted for a Republican candidate for president since 1972, longer than any other state. Minnesota was the only U.S. state (along with Washington, D.C.) to vote for its native son Walter Mondale over Ronald Reagan in 1984. However, the recent Democratic victories have often been fairly narrow, such as the 2016 Presidential Election. Minnesota also elected and re-elected a Republican governor (Tim Pawlenty), as well as supported some of the strongest gun concealment laws in the nation. Republicans currently hold control of both houses of the Minnesota state legislature.
Consistently, Ohio is a battleground state in presidential elections. No Republican has won the office without winning Ohio. This trend has contributed to Ohio 's reputation as a quintessential swing state. At the state level, however, Republicans are currently dominant. With the exception of one justice of the Supreme Court of Ohio, all political offices open to statewide election are held by Republicans. Republicans have a majority in the Ohio House of Representatives and a supermajority in the Ohio Senate. At the federal level, Ohio currently has one Democratic and one Republican U.S. Senator. As a result of the 2012 elections, 12 of Ohio 's 16 members of the U.S. House of Representatives are Republicans.
The Great Plains states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas have been strongholds for the Republicans for many decades. These four states have gone for the Republican candidate in every presidential election since 1940, except for Lyndon B. Johnson 's landslide over Barry Goldwater in 1964. Although North Dakota and South Dakota have often elected Democrats to Congress, after the 2012 election both states ' congressional delegations are majority Republican. Nebraska has elected Democrats to the Senate and as Governor in recent years, but the state 's House delegation has been all - Republican since 1995, and both of its Senators are Republican. Kansas has elected a majority of Democrats as governor since 1956, but has not elected a Democratic Senator since 1932. Both of Kansas 's U.S. Senators and all four of its U.S. House members are Republican.
Missouri was historically considered a "bellwether state '', having voted for the winner in every presidential election since 1904, with three exceptions: in 1956 for Democrat Adlai Stevenson II; in 2008 for Republican John McCain; and in 2012 for Republican Mitt Romney. Missouri 's House delegation has generally been evenly divided, with the Democrats holding sway in the large cities at the opposite ends of the state, Kansas City and St. Louis (although the Kansas City suburbs are now trending Republican), and the Republicans controlling the rest of the state, save for a pocket of Democratic strength in Columbia, home to the University of Missouri. However, as a result of the 2012 elections, Republicans now have a 6 -- 2 majority in the state 's House delegation, with African - American Democrats representing the major cities. Missouri 's Senate seats were mostly controlled by Democrats until the latter part of the 20th century, but the Republicans have held one or both Senate seats continuously since 1976.
All Midwestern states use primary election to select delegates for both the Democratic and Republican national conventions, except for Iowa and Minnesota. The Iowa caucuses in early January of leap years are the first votes in the presidential nominating process for both major parties, and attract enormous media attention.
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when did cell phone use while driving became an issue | Mobile phones and driving safety - wikipedia
Mobile phone use while driving is common, but it is widely considered dangerous due to its potential for causing distracted driving and accidents. Due to the number of accidents that are related to conducting calls on a phone while driving, some jurisdictions have made the use of calling on a phone while driving illegal. Many jurisdictions have enacted laws to ban handheld mobile phone use. Nevertheless, many jurisdictions allow use of a hands - free device. Driving while using a hands - free device is not safer than using a handheld phone to conduct calls, as concluded by case - crossover studies, epidemiological, simulation, and meta - analysis. In some cases restrictions are directed only at minors, those who are newly qualified license holders (of any age), or to drivers in school zones. In addition to voice calling, activities such as texting while driving, web browsing, playing video games, or phone use in general can also increase the risk of an accident.
The Société de l'assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ), the provincial automobile insurance association in Quebec, conducted a study on driving and cellphones in 2003. Questionnaires were sent to 175,000 drivers and analysis was done on the 36,078 who responded. The questionnaire asked about driving habits, risk exposure, collisions over the past 24 months, socio - demographic information, and cell phone use. Questionnaires were supported with data from cell phone companies and accident records held by police. The study found that the overall relative risk (RR) of having an accident for cell phone users when compared to non-cell phone users averaged 1.38 across all groups. When adjusted for distance driven per year and other crash risk exposures, RR was 1.11 for men and 1.21 for women. They also found that increased cell phone use correlated with an increase in RR. When the same data were reanalyzed using a Bayesian approach, the calculated RR of 0.78 for those making less than 1 call / day and 2.27 for those with more than 7 calls / day was similar to cohort analysis. When the data were reanalyzed using case - crossover analysis, RR was calculated at a much higher 5.13. The authors expressed concern that misclassification of phone calls due to reporting errors of the exact time of the collisions was a major source of bias with all case - crossover analysis of this issue.
In March 2011 a US insurance company, State Farm Insurance, announced the results of a study which showed 19 % of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smart phone while driving. In September 2010, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) released a report on distracted driving fatalities for 2009. The NHTSA considers distracted driving to include some of the following as distractions: other occupants in the car, eating, drinking, smoking, adjusting radio, adjusting environmental control, reaching for object in car, and cell phone use. In 2009 in the US, there was a reported 5,474 people killed by distracted drivers. Of those 995 were considered to be killed by drivers distracted by cell phones. The report does n't state whether this under or over represents the level of cell phone use amongst drivers, and whether there is a causal relationship.
A 2003 study of US crash data states that driver inattention is estimated to be a factor in 20 % to 50 % of all police - reported crashes. Driver distraction, a sub-category of inattention, has been estimated to be a contributing factor in 8 % to 13 % of all crashes. Of distraction - related accidents, cell phone use may range from 1.5 to 5 % of contributing factors. However, large unknowns in each category may increase the inaccuracy of these estimates. A 2001 study sponsored by the American Automobile Association recorded "Unknown Driver Attention Status '' for 41.5 % of crashes, and "Unknown Distraction '' in 8.6 % of all distraction related accidents. According to NHTSA, "There is clearly inadequate reporting of crashes ''.
Currently, being distracted by an "outside person, object, event '' (commonly known as "rubbernecking '') is the most reported cause of distraction - related accidents, followed by "adjusting radio / cassette / CD ''. "Using / dialing cell phone '' is eighth. A 2003 study by the University of Utah psychology department measured response time, following distance, and driving speed of a control group, subjects at the legal blood alcohol content (BAC) limit of 0.08 %, and subjects involved in cell phone conversations. As the study notes; "... this is the third in a series of studies that we have conducted evaluating the effects of cell phone use on driving using the car following procedure (see also Strayer & Drews, 2004; and Strayer et al., 2003). Across these three studies, 120 participants performed in both baseline and cell phone conditions. Two of the participants in our studies were involved in an accident in baseline conditions, whereas 10 participants were involved in an accident when they were conversing on a cell phone. '' However, no drunk driver had an accident in any test. After controlling for driving difficulty and time on task, the study concluded that cell phone drivers exhibited greater impairment than drunk drivers.
A 2009 review by the Hawaiian legislature entitled "Cell Phone Use and Motor Vehicle Collisions: A Review of the Studies '' contains an analysis of studies on cell phone / motor vehicle accident causality. A key finding was that: "No studies were found that directly address and resolve the issue of whether a causal relation exists between cellular telephone use while operating a motor vehicle and motor vehicle collisions. '' Meta - analysis by the Canadian Automobile Association and the University of Illinois found that response time while using both hands - free and hand - held phones was approximately 0.5 standard deviations higher than normal driving (i.e. an average driver, while talking on a cell phone, has response times of a driver in roughly the 40th percentile).
In the US, the number of cell phone subscribers has increased by 1,262.4 % between the years 1985 - 2008. In approximately the same period the number of crashes has fallen by 0.9 % (1995 -- 2009) and the number of fatal crashes fallen by 6.2 %. It has been argued that these statistics contradict the claims that mobile use impairs driving performance. Similarly, a 2010 study from the Highway Loss Data Institute published in February 2010 reviewed auto claims from three key states along with Washington D.C. prior to cell phone bans while driving and then after. The study found no reduction in crashes, despite a 41 % to 76 % reduction in the use of cell phones while driving after the ban was enacted.
Driving while using a handsfree cellular device is not safer than using a hand held cell phone, as concluded by case - crossover studies, epidemiological, simulation, and meta - analysis. The increased cognitive workload involved in holding a conversation, not the use of hands, causes the increased risk. For example, a Carnegie Mellon University study found that merely listening to somebody speak on a phone caused a 37 % drop in activity in the parietal lobe, where spatial tasks are managed. The consistency of increased crash risk between hands - free and hand held cell phone use is at odds with legislation in many locations that prohibits hand held cell phone use but allows hands - free.
The scientific literature is mixed on the dangers of talking on a cell phone versus those of talking with a passenger. The common conception is that passengers are able to better regulate conversation based on the perceived level of danger, therefore the risk is negligible. A study by a University of South Carolina psychology researcher featured in the journal, Experimental Psychology, found that planning to speak and speaking put far more demands on the brain 's resources than listening. Measurement of attention levels showed that subjects were four times more distracted while preparing to speak or speaking than when they were listening. The Accident Research Unit at the University of Nottingham found that the number of utterances was usually higher for mobile calls when compared to blindfolded and non-blindfolded passengers across various driving conditions. The number of questions asked averaged slightly higher for mobile phone conversations, although results were not constant across road types and largely influenced by a large number of questions on the urban roads.
A 2004 University of Utah simulation study that compared passenger and cell - phone conversations concluded that the driver performs better when conversing with a passenger because the traffic and driving task become part of the conversation. Drivers holding conversations on cell phones were four times more likely to miss the highway exit than those with passengers, and drivers conversing with passengers showed no statistically significant difference from lone drivers in the simulator. A study led by Andrew Parkes at the Transport Research Laboratory, also with a driving simulator, concluded that hands - free phone conversations impair driving performance more than other common in - vehicle distractions such as passenger conversations. However, some have criticized the use of simulation studies to measure the risk of cell - phone use while driving since the studies may be impacted by the Hawthorne effect. This is type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
In contrast, the University of Illinois meta - analysis concluded that passenger conversations were just as costly to driving performance as cell phone ones. AAA ranks passengers as the third most reported cause of distraction - related accidents at 11 %, compared to 1.5 % for cellular telephones. A simulation study funded by the American Transportation Research Board concluded that driving events that require urgent responses may be influenced by in - vehicle conversations, and that there is little practical evidence that passengers adjusted their conversations to changes in the traffic. It concluded that drivers ' training should address the hazards of both mobile phone and passenger conversations.
The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the Monash University Accident Research Centre has provided strong evidence that both retrieving and, in particular, sending text messages has a detrimental effect on a number of critical driving tasks. Specifically, negative effects were seen in detecting and responding correctly to road signs, detecting hazards, time spent with eyes off the road, and (only for sending text messages) lateral position. Surprisingly, mean speed, speed variability, lateral position when receiving text messages, and following distance showed no difference. A separate, yet unreleased simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction - related accidents when texting.
The low number of scientific studies may be indicative of a general assumption that if talking on a mobile phone increases risk, then texting also increases risk, and probably more so. Market research by Pinger, a company selling a voice - based alternative to texting reported that 89 % of US adults think that text messaging while driving is "distracting, dangerous and should be outlawed. '' The AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety has released polling data that show that 87 % of people consider texting and e-mailing while driving a "very serious '' safety threat, almost equivalent to the 90 % of those polled who consider drunk driving a threat. Despite the acknowledgement of the dangers of texting behind the wheel, about half of drivers 16 to 24 say they have texted while driving, compared with 22 % of drivers 35 to 44.
Texting while driving received greater attention in the late 2000s, corresponding to a rise in the number of text messages being sent. Over a year approximately 2,000 teens die from texting while driving. Texting while driving attracted interest in the media after several highly publicized car crashes were caused by texting drivers, including a May 2009 incident involving a Boston trolley car driver who crashed while texting his girlfriend. Texting was blamed in the 2008 Chatsworth train collision which killed 25 passengers. Investigations revealed that the engineer of that train had sent 45 text messages while operating.
In a 2011 study it was reported that over 90 % of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving. On July 27, 2009, the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute released preliminary findings of their study of driver distraction in commercial vehicles. Two studies, comprising about 200 long - haul trucks driving 3 million combined miles, used video cameras to observe the drivers and road; researchers observed "4,452 safety - critical events, which includes crashes, near crashes, crash - relevant conflicts, and unintended lane deviations. '' 81 % of the safety critical events had some type of driver distraction. Text messaging had the greatest relative risk, with drivers being 23 times more likely to experience a safety - critical event when texting. The study also found that drivers typically take their eyes off the forward roadway for an average of four out of six seconds when texting, and an average of 4.6 out of the six seconds surrounding safety - critical events.
In 2013 it was reported that, according to a national survey in the US, the number of drivers who reported using their cellphones to access the internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.
A study conducted by the University of Vienna using the theory of planned behavior identified two key determinants of high - level mobile phone use. Those two factors, subjective norm (i.e., perceived social norms) and self - identity (i.e., the degree to which individuals see mobile phones as a part of their self), might be promising targets for the development of persuasive strategies and other interventions aimed at reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using mobile phones while driving.
Accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the United Kingdom, from 1 March 2017, motorists who are caught using a hand - held mobile phone while driving will have six penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £ 200. This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law. Japan prohibits all mobile phone use while driving, including use of hands - free devices. New Zealand has banned hand held cellphone use since 1 November 2009. Many states in the United States have banned texting on cell phones while driving. Illinois became the 17th American state to enforce this law. As of July 2010, 30 states had banned texting while driving, with Kentucky becoming the most recent addition on July 15.
Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the United States. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile communication devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992, when first law was passed, through December 1, 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands - free versus handheld), targeted populations, and exemptions.
In 2014, various state police forces in Australia have trialled cameras which have the ability to pick up errant drivers from more than 500 metres (1,600 ft) away. Police in Western Australia makes use of undercover motorcycles to keep an eye on other motorists and any offence will be recorded on the officer 's helmet camera. Other countries with high levels of car crashes relating to distracted driving are also considering similar measures.
NSW road rules were changed on 1 December 2016 for P2 drivers. Learner, P1 and P2 drivers must not use mobile phones for any function while driving or riding or while stationary (at traffic lights). You must be parked out of traffic to use your phone. (3)
The Road Transport Legislation Amendment (Mobile Phones -- P2 Licences) Regulation 2016 under the Road Transport Act 2013 enforces this new rule and the objects of this Regulation sought: (a) to amend the Road Rules 2014 to extend the restriction on drivers who are holders of learner or provisional P1 licences from using a mobile phone while driving a vehicle (whether or not the mobile phone is held by the driver) to include drivers who are holders of provisional P2 licences, and (b) to make consequential amendme nts to the Road Transport (Driver Licensing) Regulation 2008.
This Regulation was made under the Road Transport Act 2013.
Prior to the introduction of this new law on 1 December 2016, only learner and P1 provisional licence - holders were barred from using mobile phones in any capacity while driving, as P2 drivers faced the same restrictions as other licence - holders.
Countries where using either a hand - held or hands - free phone while driving is illegal:
Countries where using a hand - held phone while driving is illegal:
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the bride of the water god how many ep | The Bride of Habaek - wikipedia
The Bride of Habaek (Hangul: 하백 의 신부 2017; RR: Habaekui Shinbu 2017; lit. Bride of Habaek 2017) is a South Korean television drama spin - off of the 2006 sunjung manhwa Bride of the Water God by Yoon Mi - kyung. The drama stars Shin Se - kyung, Nam Joo - hyuk, Lim Ju - hwan, Krystal Jung and Gong Myung. It aired on cable channel tvN every Monday and Tuesday at 22: 55 (KST) from July 3, 2017 to August 22, 2017.
When the narcissistic water god Ha - baek (Nam Joo - hyuk) visits earth in order to find a stone powerful enough to help him claim his throne, he seeks out the help of his servant and destined bride, psychiatrist So - ah (Shin Se - kyung), whose family is fated to serve the water god for generations. The problem is that she has no belief in the gods and initially mistakes him for suffering from delusions. Things get even stranger when the wind god Bi-ryeom (Gong Myung), the water goddess Mu - ra (Krystal), and the semi-god Hu - ye (Lim Ju - hwan) show up to complicate things.
First announced in 2015, the live action version of the manhwa is written by Jung Yoon - jung, writer of the dramas Arang and the Magistrate (2012), Monstar (2013) and Misaeng (2014). The series will relocate the characters and story to modern day Seoul. The first script reading took place on March 16, 2017 in Sangam - dong, Seoul, South Korea, with principal photography beginning the same month.
In the table below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest
Ratings
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who is the top selling music artist of all time | List of best - selling Music artists - wikipedia
This list includes music artists with claims of 75 million or more record sales. The artists in the following tables are listed with both their claimed sales figure along with their total of certified units and are ranked in descending order, with the artist with the highest amount of claimed sales at the top. If two or more artists have the same claimed sales, they are then ranked by certified units. The claimed sales figure and the total of certified units (for each country) within the provided sources include sales of albums, singles, compilation - albums, music videos as well as downloads of singles and full - length albums. Sales figures, such as those from Soundscan, which are sometimes published by Billboard magazine, have not been included in the certified units column. As of 2017, based on both sales claims and certified units, The Beatles are considered the highest - selling band. Elvis Presley is considered the highest - selling individual artist based on sales claims and Rihanna is the highest - selling individual artist based on certified units.
All artists included on this list, which have begun charting on official albums or singles charts have their available claimed figures supported by at least 20 % in certified units. That is why Cliff Richard, Diana Ross, Scorpions, Bing Crosby, Gloria Estefan, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Tom Jones, The Jackson 5, Dionne Warwick, the Spice Girls, Dolly Parton, Ozzy Osbourne, Andrea Bocelli and others have not been included on this list. The more recent the artist, the higher the required percentage of certified units, this is because more music markets instituted certification systems after 1980s and 1990s. So artists such as Rihanna, Chris Brown, Taylor Swift, Flo Rida, Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Adele, Lady Gaga, Bruno Mars, Nicki Minaj and Ed Sheeran are expected to have their claimed figures supported by over 75 % in certified units. The certified units are sourced from available online databases of local music industry associations. All certified units are converted from Gold / Platinum / Diamond certification awards based on criteria provided by certifying bodies. The certified units percentage varies according to the first year that an artist appeared in the charts.
The requirements of certified units are designed to avoid inflated sales figures, which are frequently practiced by record companies for promotional purposes. The claimed figures are referenced from online articles created by highly reliable sources. For clarity, the sources used, say the term "records '' (singles, albums, videos) and not "albums ''. However, if all available sources for an artist or band say "albums '', such sources are only used if the certified album units of the said artist meet the required percentage amount. This list uses claimed figures that are closest to artists ' available certified units: inflated claimed figures that meet the required certified units amount but are unrealistically high, are not used.
The claimed figures are upgraded only when there is a significant progress in artists ' certified units. In other words, the available certified units for each artist should get relatively closer to already listed claimed figure in order for higher figures to replace the listed ones.
The certified units of the newer artists may sometimes be higher than their listed claimed figures. This is because Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and almost all other certifying bodies count streaming towards Gold and Platinum thresholds required for Digital Single Award certification. For this reason, some singles and even albums get over certified by hundreds of thousands of units. The over certified figures, however, are often in millions of units for RIAA certifications, one such example is Rihanna 's single "We Found Love '', which is certified at nine times Platinum by the RIAA, yet during the time of the certification, it had sold 5.4 million downloads.
The certified units for some artists / bands who have multi-disc albums can be higher than their listed claimed figures due to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) counting each unit within set as one unit toward certification.
Issued certifications for songs which have been recorded by multiple artists including featured artists are added to each artist 's total amount of certified units, as all the artists would have played a significant part in a song. For example, "This Is What You Came For '' and "Where Them Girls At '' include Rihanna and Flo Rida, Nicki Minaj as featured artists respectively, so the certifications issued for these songs are added to the total amount of certified units for all involved artists. However, the certifications issued for songs that have been recorded by four or more artists are not included as the artists involved would have played minor roles, examples of such songs are Kanye West 's "Monster '' and / or "All Day ''.
The Beatles
Michael Jackson
Elvis Presley
Elton John
Madonna
Led Zeppelin
Pink Floyd
Rihanna
Eminem
Mariah Carey
Queen
Celine Dion
Whitney Houston
AC / DC
Taylor Swift
Garth Brooks
Justin Bieber
Eagles
Ed Sheeran
Bruno Mars
Kanye West
Katy Perry
Adele
Lady Gaga
Lil Wayne
Jay - Z
B'z
Coldplay
Drake
Maroon 5
Chris Brown
Nicki Minaj
Flo Rida
Shania Twain
Pink
Journey
Tim McGraw
The Black Eyed Peas
Christina Aguilera
Usher
R. Kelly
Robbie Williams
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who played fdr in the movie pearl harbor | Pearl Harbor (film) - wikipedia
Pearl Harbor is a 2001 American romantic period war drama film directed by Michael Bay, produced by Bay and Jerry Bruckheimer and written by Randall Wallace. It stars Ben Affleck, Kate Beckinsale, Josh Hartnett, Cuba Gooding Jr., Tom Sizemore, Jon Voight, Colm Feore, and Alec Baldwin. The film is loosely based on the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the Doolittle Raid.
Despite receiving generally negative reviews from critics, the film was a major box office success, earning $59 million in its opening weekend and, in the end, nearly $450 million worldwide. It was nominated for four Academy Awards, winning in the category of Best Sound Editing. However, it was also nominated for six Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture. This marked the first occurrence of a Worst Picture - nominated film winning an Academy Award.
In 1923 Tennessee, two best friends, Rafe McCawley and Danny Walker, play together in the back of an old biplane, pretending to be soldiers fighting the Germans in World War I. After Rafe 's father lands his biplane and leaves, Rafe and Danny climb into the plane. Rafe accidentally starts it, but manages to stop the plane at the end of the runway. Enraged, Danny 's father beats his son. Rafe stands up to him, calling him a "dirty German ''. However, Danny 's father reveals that he fought the Germans in World War I.
Eighteen years later, in January 1941, with World War II raging, Danny and Rafe are both first lieutenants under the command of Major Jimmy Doolittle. Doolittle informs Rafe that he has been accepted into the Eagle Squadron (a RAF outfit for American pilots during the Battle of Britain). A nurse named Evelyn meets Rafe, who passes his medical exam despite his dyslexia. That night, Rafe and Evelyn enjoy an evening of dancing at a nightclub and later a jaunt in the New York harbor in a borrowed police boat. Rafe shocks Evelyn by saying that he has joined the Eagle Squadron and is leaving the next day.
Danny, Evelyn and their fellow pilots and nurses are transferred to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Meanwhile, Rafe becomes a flying ace, but is shot down over the English Channel and presumed to be killed in action. Danny gives Evelyn the news and she is devastated. Three months later, Evelyn and Danny begin a romantic relationship.
On the night of December 6, Evelyn is shocked to discover Rafe standing outside her door, having survived his drowning. He goes to the Hula bar where he is welcomed back by his overjoyed fellow pilots. Danny finds Rafe in the bar with the intention of making things right, but the two get into a fight. They drive away, avoiding being put in the brig when the military police arrive at the bar. The two later fall asleep in Danny 's car.
Next morning, on December 7, 1941, the Japanese navy begins its attack on Pearl Harbor. The USS Arizona is obliterated when an armor - piercing bomb detonates the ship 's forward ammunition magazine, literally lifting the bow out of the water. The USS Oklahoma capsizes after several torpedoes strike her, trapping hundreds of men inside. The USS West Virginia suffers severe damage. One bomb mortally wounds Captain Mervyn S. Bennion. Cook Dorie Miller, mans a. 50 caliber machine gun and shoots down a Japanese plane. The USS Nevada makes a run for the sea, becoming a primary target during the second wave. Danny and Rafe drive away in search of a still standing airfield, while Evelyn and the other nurses struggle to assist hundreds of wounded. Rafe and Danny manage to get in the air in P - 40s, managing to down several Zeroes. Landing, they assist in the rescue of the capsized USS Oklahoma, but are too late to save the crew of the USS Arizona.
The next day, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt delivers his Day of Infamy Speech to the nation and requests the US Congress declare a state of war with the Empire of Japan. The survivors attend a memorial service to honor the numerous dead. Later, Danny and Rafe are both assigned to travel stateside under newly promoted Lt. Colonel Doolittle for a secret mission. Before they leave, Evelyn reveals to Rafe that she is pregnant with Danny 's child, and intends to stay with Danny.
Upon their arrival in California, Danny and Rafe are both promoted to Captain and awarded the Silver Star, and volunteer for a secret mission under Doolittle. During the next three months, Rafe, Danny and other pilots train with specially modified B - 25 Mitchell bombers. In April, the raiders are sent towards Japan on board the USS Hornet. Their mission: bombing Tokyo, landing in China. However, the Japanese discover them early, forcing the raiders to launch from a longer distance than planned. After a successful bombing run, the raiders crash - land in a rice paddy in Japanese - controlled China. The Japanese Army pin down Rafe 's plane, but Danny 's crew manages to destroy a patrol before crashing. Danny is shot during the attack by Japanese patrols while the other pilots, Red and Gooz, kill the remaining Japanese patrolmen. Rafe tells Danny that Evelyn is pregnant and he must live to be the baby 's father. Danny then tells Rafe that he will have to be the father and dies. Back in California, a pregnant Evelyn sees Rafe getting off the aircraft, carrying Danny 's coffin. Afterward, Evelyn and Miller are awarded medals and Rafe is awarded his medal by President Roosevelt. After the war, Rafe and Evelyn, now married, visit Danny 's grave with Danny and Evelyn 's son, also named Danny. Rafe then asks his stepson if he would like to go flying, and they fly off into the sunset in the old biplane that his father once had.
The proposed budget of $208 million that Bay and Bruckheimer wanted was an area of contention with Disney executives, since a great deal of the budget was to be expended on production aspects. Also controversial was the effort to change the film 's rating from R to PG - 13. Bay wanted to graphically portray the horrors of war and was not interested in primarily marketing the final product to a teen and young adult audience. Budget fights continued throughout the planning of the film, with Bay "walking '' on several occasions.
In order to recreate the atmosphere of pre-war Pearl Harbor, the producers staged the film in Hawaii and used current naval facilities. Many active duty military members stationed in Hawaii and members of the local population served as extras during the filming. The set at Rosarito Beach in the Mexican state of Baja California was used for scale model work as required. Formerly the set of Titanic (1997), Rosarito was the ideal location to recreate the death throes of the battleships in the Pearl Harbor attack. A large - scale model of the bow section of USS Oklahoma mounted on a gimbal produced an authentic rolling and submerging of the doomed battleship. Production Engineer Nigel Phelps stated that the sequence of the ship rolling out of the water and slapping down would involve one of the "biggest set elements '' to be staged. Matched with computer generated imagery, the action had to reflect precision and accuracy throughout. In addition, to simulate the ocean, the film crew used a massive stadium - like "bowl '' filled with water. The bowl was built in Honolulu, Hawaii and cost nearly $8 million. Today the bowl is used for scuba training and deep water fishing tournaments.
The vessel most seen in the movie was USS Lexington, representing both USS Hornet and a Japanese carrier. All aircraft take - offs during the movie were filmed on board the Lexington, a museum ship in Corpus Christi, Texas. The aircraft on display were removed for filming and were replaced with film aircraft as well as World War II anti-aircraft turrets. Other ships used in filler scenes included USS Hornet, and USS Constellation during filming for the carrier sequences. Filming was also done on board the museum battleship USS Texas located near Houston, Texas.
The first trailer was released in 2000 and was shown alongside screenings of Cast Away and O Brother, Where Art Thou?, with another trailer released in Spring 2001, shown before Pokémon 3: The Movie.
Pearl Harbor grossed $198,542,554 at the domestic box office and $250,678,391 overseas for a worldwide total of $449,220,945, ahead of Shrek. The film was ranked the sixth highest - earning picture of 2001. It is also the third highest - grossing romantic drama film of all time, as of January 2013, behind Titanic and Ghost.
The film received generally negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, The film holds an approval rating of 25 % based on 190 reviews, with an average rating of 4.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Pearl Harbor tries to be the Titanic of war movies, but it 's just a tedious romance filled with laughably bad dialogue. The 40 - minute action sequence is spectacular, though. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 44 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film one and a half stars, writing: "Pearl Harbor is a two - hour movie squeezed into three hours, about how, on Dec. 7, 1941, the Japanese staged a surprise attack on an American love triangle. Its centerpiece is 40 minutes of redundant special effects, surrounded by a love story of stunning banality. The film has been directed without grace, vision, or originality, and although you may walk out quoting lines of dialogue, it will not be because you admire them ''. Ebert also criticized the liberties the film took with historical facts: "There is no sense of history, strategy or context; according to this movie, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor because America cut off its oil supply, and they were down to an 18 - month reserve. Would going to war restore the fuel sources? Did they perhaps also have imperialist designs? Movie does n't say ''.
A.O. Scott of the New York Times wrote, "Nearly every line of the script drops from the actors ' mouths with the leaden clank of exposition, timed with bad sitcom beats ''. USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and wrote, "Ships, planes and water combust and collide in Pearl Harbor, but nothing else does in one of the wimpiest wartime romances ever filmed. ''
In his review for The Washington Post, Desson Howe wrote, "although this Walt Disney movie is based, inspired and even partially informed by a real event referred to as Pearl Harbor, the movie is actually based on the movies Top Gun, Titanic and Saving Private Ryan. Do n't get confused. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine wrote, "Affleck, Hartnett and Beckinsale -- a British actress without a single worthy line to wrap her credible American accent around -- are attractive actors, but they ca n't animate this moldy romantic triangle ''. Time magazine 's Richard Schickel criticized the love triangle: "It requires a lot of patience for an audience to sit through the dithering. They 're nice kids and all that, but they do n't exactly claw madly at one another. It 's as if they know that someday they 're going to be part of "the Greatest Generation '' and do n't want to offend Tom Brokaw. Besides, megahistory and personal history never integrate here ".
Entertainment Weekly was more positive, giving the film a "B − '' rating, and Owen Gleiberman praised the Pearl Harbor attack sequence: "Bay 's staging is spectacular but also honorable in its scary, hurtling exactitude... There are startling point - of - view shots of torpedoes dropping into the water and speeding toward their targets, and though Bay visualizes it all with a minimum of graphic carnage, he invites us to register the terror of the men standing helplessly on deck, the horrifying split - second deliverance as bodies go flying and explosions reduce entire battleships to liquid walls of collapsing metal ''.
In his review for The New York Observer, Andrew Sarris wrote, "here is the ironic twist in my acceptance of Pearl Harbor -- the parts I liked most are the parts before and after the digital destruction of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese carrier planes '' and felt that "Pearl Harbor is not so much about World War II as it is about movies about World War II. And what 's wrong with that? ''
Like many historical dramas, Pearl Harbor provoked debate about the artistic license taken by its producers and director. National Geographic Channel produced a documentary called Beyond the Movie: Pearl Harbor detailing some of the ways that "the film 's final cut did n't reflect all the attacks ' facts, or represent them all accurately ''.
Many Pearl Harbor survivors dismissed the film as grossly inaccurate and pure Hollywood. In an interview done by Frank Wetta, producer Jerry Bruckheimer was quoted saying: "We tried to be accurate, but it 's certainly not meant to be a history lesson ''. Historian Lawrence Suid 's review is particularly detailed as to the major factual misrepresentations of the film and the negative impact they have even on an entertainment film. Some other historical inaccuracies found in the film include the early childhood scenes depicting a Stearman biplane crop duster in 1923; the aircraft was not accurate for the period, as the first commercial crop - dusting company did not begin operation until 1924, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture did not purchase its first cotton - dusting aircraft until April 16, 1926.
The inclusion of Affleck 's character in the Eagle Squadron is another jarring aspect of the film, since active - duty U.S. airmen were prohibited from joining the squadron, though some American civilians did join the RAF. Yet another flaw: Ben Affleck 's Spitfire has insignia "RF '' -- this is an insignia of No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron. Countless other technical lapses rankled film critics, such as Bay 's decision to paint the Japanese Zero fighters green (most of the aircraft in the attack being painted light gray / white), even though he knew that was historically inaccurate, because he liked the way the aircraft looked and because it would help audiences differentiate the "good guys from the bad guys ''.
One of the film 's scenes show Japanese aircraft targeting medical staff and the base 's hospital. Although it was damaged in the attack, the Japanese did not deliberately target the U.S. naval hospital and only a single member of its medical staff was killed as he crossed the navy yard to report for duty.
Critics decried the use of fictional replacements for real people, declaring that Pearl Harbor was an "abuse of artistic license ''. The roles the two male leads have in the attack sequence are analogous to the real historical deeds of U.S. Army Air Forces Second Lieutenants George Welch and Kenneth M. Taylor, who took to the skies in P - 40 Warhawk aircraft during the Japanese attack and, together, claimed six Japanese aircraft and a few probables. Taylor, who died in November 2006, called the film adaptation "a piece of trash... over-sensationalized and distorted ''.
The harshest criticism was aimed at instances in the film where actual historical events were altered for dramatic purposes. For example, Admiral Kimmel did not receive the report that an enemy midget submarine was being attacked until after the bombs began falling, and did not receive the first official notification of the attack until several hours after the attack ended.
The scene following the attack on Pearl Harbor, where President Roosevelt demands an immediate retaliatory strike on the soil of Japan, did not happen as portrayed in the film. Admiral Chester Nimitz and General George Marshall are seen denying the possibility of an aerial attack on Japan, but in real life they actually advocated such a strike. Another inconsistency in this scene is when President Roosevelt (who was at this time in his life, stricken and bound to a wheelchair due to Polio) is able to stand up to challenge his staff 's distrust in a strike on Japan. This too, never happened in real life. In the film Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto says "I fear all we have done is to awaken a sleeping giant '', a quote which was copied from the 1970 film Tora! Tora! Tora!.
The portrayal of the planning of the Doolittle Raid, the air raid itself, and the raid 's aftermath, is considered one of the most historically inaccurate portions of the film. In the film, Jimmy Doolittle and the rest of the Doolittle raiders had to launch from USS Hornet 624 miles off the Japanese coast and after being spotted by a few Japanese patrol boats. In actuality, the Doolittle raiders had to launch 650 miles off the Japanese coast and after being spotted by only one Japanese patrol boat. The aircraft were launched from USS Constellation, standing in for USS Hornet from which the Doolittle Raid was launched. In the film, all of the raiders are depicted as dropping their bombs on Tokyo, with some of the bomb blasts obliterating entire buildings. In actuality, the Doolittle raiders did bomb Tokyo but also targeted three other industrial cities, and the damage inflicted was minimal. The film shows the Doolittle raider personnel in China overcoming the Japanese soldiers in a short gun battle with help from a strafing B - 25, which never happened in real life. Also, there was no acknowledgement given in the film to the fact that approximately 250,000 Chinese civilians were massacred by the Japanese Army in eastern China in retaliation for Chinese assistance of the attacking American aviators, who participated in the Doolittle Raid.
Actor Kim Coates criticized the film for choosing not to portray historically accurate smoking habits and men 's hairstyles.
An establishing shot of the United States Department of War building is clearly a shot of the exterior of the U.S. Capitol Building. In 1941, the War Department was housed in the War Department Building in Washington 's Foggy Bottom neighborhood (renamed the Harry S Truman Building in 2000) and in the Munitions Building on the National Mall. Neither structure bears any architectural resemblance to the edifice shown in the film.
Numerous other inconsistencies and anachronisms are present in the film. A sailor has a pack of Marlboro Light cigarettes in his pocket, not introduced until 1972. In the beginning of the movie, a newsreel of 1940 is presented with combat footage in Europe, showing a M - 26 Pershing tank fighting in the city of Cologne, which did not happen until March 1945.
The crop duster in the first scene set in 1923 was not commercially available until the late 1930s.
Actor Michael Milhoan is seen as an army major advising Admiral Kimmel about island air defenses on Oahu. On the morning of the attack, he is seen commanding a radar station. While playing chess he is addressed as "lieutenant '' but, in a further inconsistency, is seen wearing the insignia of an army captain.
Three Spruance destroyers tied abreast of each other at their pier are seen being bombed by the Japanese planes, although this class of ship only entered service with the US Navy in the 1970s. The retired Iowa - class battleship USS Missouri was used to represent USS West Virginia for Dorie Miller 's boxing match. The West Virginia did not have the modernized World War II - era bridge and masts found on newer U.S. battleships until her reconstruction was finished in 1943, while the Iowa - class did not enter service until 1943 onwards. In one shot, the USS Arizona memorial is briefly visible in the background during a scene taking place several months before the attack.
One of Doolittle 's trophies in a display case depicts a model of an F - 86 Sabre, which was not flown until 1947. Late production models of the B - 25J were used instead of the early B - 25B. Several shots of the USS Hornet aircraft carrier depicted it as having an angled flight deck, a technology that was not implemented until after the war. While Hornet was portrayed by a World War II era vessel (USS Lexington), Hornet was a Yorktown - class carrier, whereas Lexington was a modernized Essex - class carrier. The takeoff sequences for the Doolittle Raid were filmed on USS Constellation, a Kitty Hawk - class aircraft carrier which did not enter service until 1961. As a supercarrier, the Constellation has a much longer flight deck than the Yorktown or Essex class carriers, giving the B - 25s a substantially longer (and safer) takeoff run. The Japanese carriers are portrayed more correctly by comparison --, the Akagi and Hiryu did have their bridge / conning tower superstructure on the port side rather than the more common starboard configuration. In the movie it was done by maneuvering an Essex class aircraft carrier backwards to act as the Akagi.
The soundtrack for the 2004 film Team America: World Police contains a song entitled "End of an Act ''. The song 's chorus recounts, "Pearl Harbor sucked, and I miss you '' equating the singer 's longing to how much "Michael Bay missed the mark when he made Pearl Harbor '' which is "an awful lot, girl ''. The ballad contains other common criticisms of the film, concluding with the rhetorical question "Why does Michael Bay get to keep on making movies? ''
The soundtrack to Pearl Harbor on Hollywood Records was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score (lost to the score of Moulin Rouge!). The original score was composed by Hans Zimmer. The song "There You 'll Be '' was nominated for the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.
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when did u of l join the acc | Louisville Cardinals - wikipedia
The Louisville Cardinals (also known as the Cards) teams play in the Atlantic Coast Conference, beginning in the 2014 season. While playing in the Big East Conference from 2005 through 2013, the Cardinals captured 17 regular season Big East titles and 33 Big East Tournament titles totaling 50 Big East Championships across all sports. With their 2013 Sugar Bowl appearance against the Florida Gators, the Cardinals football team became the only football team in the Commonwealth of Kentucky to have appeared in and won two Bowl Championship Series bowls, having defeated Wake Forest 24 -- 13 in the 2007 Orange Bowl and Florida 33 -- 23 in the 2013 Sugar Bowl. On November 28, 2012, Louisville received and accepted an invitation to join the Atlantic Coast Conference and became a participating member in all sports in 2014.
Since 2000 Louisville is the only NCAA team to win a BCS bowl game; to appear in the NCAA Division I men 's basketball Final Four, the College World Series, and the NCAA Division I women 's basketball Final Four; and to finish as runner - up in the Men 's soccer College Cup. It is one of only six schools that has appeared more than once in each of the following events -- a BCS bowl game, the men 's and women 's basketball Final Fours, and the College World Series -- and Louisville 's span of seven school years (2006 -- 07 to 2012 -- 13) is the shortest among these schools. Also, it is the first school ever to win a BCS bowl game, appear in the men 's and women 's basketball Final Fours, and appear in the College World Series in the same school year, doing so in 2012 -- 13.
Under the guidance of Director of Athletics Tom Jurich, the Cardinals have seen substantial athletic and institutional growth, spending more than $150 million for sporting facility upgrades while maintaining strong fan support and Title IX compliance. U of L currently fields 13 women 's teams and 10 men 's teams. The total sales of U of L merchandise, tripling since 2001, now rank 32nd nationally.
U of L finished the 2015 -- 16 year ranked 29th in the NACDA Learfield Sports Directors ' Cup. The 2015 -- 16 season began with Louisville ranked 24th through the final fall standings.
The 2006 Baseball Cardinals broke the Big East Conference Tournament record with a. 409 batting average.
In 2007, the Cardinals finished the season with a 47 -- 24 record and ranked as high as 6th in some major polls while advancing to the College World Series for the first time in school history.
2013 *
UofL 's basketball tradition was established by Muhlenberg County native, Coach Bernard "Peck '' Hickman. The Cards never had a losing season in Hickman 's 23 years, prior to his arrival the team had only had 11 winning seasons. In 1956, Hickman 's team won the NIT, then considered a national championship on a par with the NCAA tournament. After retiring, Hickman became the school 's Athletics Director and hired then John Wooden assistant and future Hall of Famer Denny Crum, who led the team to two NCAA Division I basketball championships (1980 and 1986) and six Final Fours. The men 's basketball team currently ranks fifth in all - time NCAA Tournament wins and has been in the top - five in average attendance each year since the 1982 -- 83 season. Perennial rivals include the University of Kentucky, University of Cincinnati, and the University of Memphis.
The team was established in 1975.
The cheerleading squads have won multiple championships with the large co-ed squad winning 15 National Cheerleaders Association Collegiate National championships (1985 -- 86, 1989, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998 -- 99, 2003 -- 05, 2007 -- 09, 2011), the all - female squad winning nine championships (1998 -- 99, 2001 -- 05, 2009, 2011) and the small co-ed cheerleading squad winning seven championships (2005 -- 11). The University of Louisville Spirit Groups hold more national titles than any other sport offered at the university.
The Cardinal Bird Mascot also falls under the jurisdiction of the University of Louisville Spirit Groups. The "Bird '' also competes with the cheerleaders in national competitions and makes regular appearances in the Louisville Metro Area.
Men 's CC
Women 's CC
The UofL women 's field hockey team received the NFHCA Division I National Academic Team Award for their 3.65 GPA, which was the highest in the nation. The team also won two MAC tourney titles in 2003 and 2004 and finished one game back in their first Big East season.
Under the guidance of head coaches John L. Smith (1998 -- 2002) and Bobby Petrino (2003 -- 2007), the Louisville football program went to nine consecutive bowl games, a streak that ended in the 2007 season. After a three year hiatus under Coach Kragthorpe from 2007 - 2009 Louisville has been to eight consecutive bowl games under Coaches Charlie Strong and Bobby Petrino.
Under Coach Smith, the Cardinals spent 11 weeks in the AP Top 25, including a # 17 final finish in 2000.
Under Coach Petrino, the Cardinals were ranked in all but three of the weekly AP polls since the beginning of the 2004 season. This includes a # 6 final finish in both 2004 and 2006, as well as a # 19 final finish in 2005.
In the 2004 season, the Cardinals went 11 -- 1 and won the Conference USA Championship; their only loss was against third - ranked Miami, a game in which the Cardinals led by 17 in the third quarter before falling. The Cardinals went to the Liberty Bowl, where they defeated # 10 - ranked and previously - undefeated Boise State.
In 2005, the Cardinals finished 9 -- 3 after falling to Virginia Tech in the Gator Bowl and completed the season ranked # 19 in the AP Poll and # 20 in the Coaches ' Poll.
In 2006, the Cardinals began the season ranked # 13 in the AP poll and finished the season with a 12 -- 1 record, their first Big East Conference title and completed the season with a 24 -- 13 victory over the Atlantic Coast Conference champion Wake Forest in the Orange Bowl. The Cards finished the 2006 season ranked # 6 in the AP Poll and # 7 in the Coaches Poll, while being ranked # 6 in the Bowl Championship Series Poll.
On January 9, 2007, Steve Kragthorpe was introduced as the new head coach of the Cardinals, within 48 hours after Bobby Petrino announced his departure to take the head coaching position with the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League. The Cardinals went 6 -- 6 in Kragthorpe 's first season and the second season 5 -- 7. He was fired after his third season (2009) ended with a disappointing 4 -- 8 record. Kragthorpe 's replacement is Charlie Strong, formerly the defensive coordinator at Florida, and the second African American to head the Cardinals program.
None of the football program 's recent success would have been possible without the vision and efforts of former Kentucky All - American and national champion coach (at the University of Miami) Howard Schnellenberger, who was the head coach from 1985 to 1994. His greatest achievement at U of L was a 34 -- 7 victory over the Alabama Crimson Tide in the 1991 Fiesta Bowl (Alabama finished 7 -- 5), which culminated in U of L 's first national ranking (11th) and a 10 -- 1 -- 1 record.
The University of Louisville football program 's home is Papa John 's Cardinal Stadium.
The UofL football program annually plays for the Governor 's Cup (awarded to the winner of the Louisville - Kentucky football game) and The Keg of Nails (awarded to the winner of the annual Louisville - Cincinnati football game). Both trophies currently reside in Louisville.
The film "The Replacements '' was rumored to be based on former Cardinal quarterback Ed Rubbert (played by Keanu Reeves), who led the Washington Redskins ' 1987 strike team to a 3 -- 0 record en route to the franchise 's Super Bowl XXI championship.
UofL is one of two universities in the state of Kentucky to have a women 's rowing team, the other being Murray State University.
Louisville Finishes Historic Season as NCAA Runner - Up
The top - ranked Louisville men 's soccer team fell 1 -- 0 to Akron in the 2010 NCAA national championship game in front of 9,672 in Santa Barbara, Calif. The Cardinals, who appeared in the College Cup for the first time in program history, finished the season with a 20 -- 1 -- 3 overall record. Prior to reaching the NCAA Tournament, Louisville won the BIG EAST Red Division regular - season title and captured the BIG EAST Tournament title.
On February 21, 2013, U of L announced that it would build a new soccer - only stadium on campus. The new stadium, with a capacity of 5,300, is set to open for the 2014 season, and will be known as Dr. Mark and Cindy Lynn Stadium, after the married couple who donated $5 million toward the $17.5 million project.
Men 's:
Volleyball has traditionally been one of UofL 's most successful programs, led for 15 years by head coach Leonid Yelin, whose. 772 career winning percentage ranked 9th among active coaches prior to his retirement after the 2010 season. He was replaced by former U of L player Anne Kordes, who had spent the previous seven seasons as head coach at Saint Louis. During the 2005 season, UofL was ranked as high as # 6 en route to a 30 -- 3 record, a regular season tie for the Big East title, and a second straight trip to the Sweet 16. In the most recent 2012 season, the team averaged 2,341 fans while playing mainly at the KFC Yum! Center. Their traditional home of Cardinal Arena, with 840 seats, has become too small for the team 's current popularity, with fans turned away at several games. While U of L has sought state funding to expand Cardinal Arena to better meet fan demands and prevent unsafe "standing room only '' crowds, it has more recently opted to move full - time into the KFC Yum! Center; of its 19 home matches in the 2012 season, 15 were scheduled for that facility. U of L also hosted both the 2005 Big East Volleyball tournament and the first two rounds of NCAA volleyball tournament at the Kentucky International Expo Center in Downtown Louisville, and will host the Women 's Final Four in 2012 at the KFC Yum! Center.
In 2005, two Cardinals, seniors Lena Ustymenko and Jennifer Hoffman, were named second team All - American. Previously only one Big East volleyball player had been named an All - American. Ustymenko was also named the 2005 Big East player of the year and Hoffman led the nation in hitting percentage in the Card 's 6 -- 2 offense. The program has won 15 of its last 16 conference titles (with another in 1983) and has been to the NCAA tourney 17 times since 1982, with 47 players making their all - conference team. The team has a 157 -- 19 all - time record at Cardinal Arena, and is 17 -- 6 at the KFC Yum! Center.
The Cardinal volleyball team has won conference championships 18 times, from C - USA to the Big East, American, and ACC.
Most recently, after the Cardinals joined the ACC in 2014, the Cardinals won the 2015 ACC title, the first ACC crown ever won by any Louisville team. Senior setter Katie George, also notable as that year 's Miss Kentucky USA, was named ACC Player of the Year and Setter of the Year. In addition, Kordes was named Coach of the Year, and libero Molly Sauer was named Defensive Player of the Year and Freshman of the Year.
The Cardinal volleyball team moved back into the newly expanded Cardinal Arena in 2017.
Louisville has won three NCAA team national championships.
* * * Vacated by the NCAA
The University of Louisville Rugby Club was re-founded in 2009, and was promoted to Division II of college rugby in 2011. Louisville Rugby is led by head coach Eric Raney. Louisville Rugby has an active recruiting program, yielding recruits from Kentucky high school rugby all stars. Louisville offers scholarships and grants, funded by the Louisville Rugby Old Boys ' Association, to incoming rugby recruits.
The University of Louisville has risen from 174th in the Director 's Cup standings in 1999 -- 2000 to 28th in 2006 -- 2007. U of L finished the 2010 -- 2011 year ranked 34th in the NACDA Learfield Sports Directors ' Cup.
The 2011 -- 12 season began with Louisville ranked 11th through the final fall standings.
Attendance ranks are based on average per home game.
In 2005, UofL was among only a handful of schools to average better than 97 percent attendance to capacity in volleyball, men 's basketball, and football.
The broadcast team for Louisville men 's basketball is Paul Rogers (play - by - play) and Bob Valvano or Doug Ormay (color analyst). The broadcast team for Louisville football is Paul Rogers (play - by - play); Craig Swabek (color analyst) and Doug Ormay (sideline reporter).
U of L games are broadcast in Lexington KY on WWRW 105.5 FM and WKRD 790 AM & 101.7 - Louisville, KY (Flagship Station)
For Women 's basketball, Women 's Play by play is provided by Jim Kelch, with Adrienne Johnson as the color analyst. All Women 's Basketball games are heard on WKRD 790 AM or on FM 101.7 in Louisville.
SIRIUS Satellite Radio, Nelligan Sports Marketing, the University of Louisville and CSTV: College Sports Television announced an agreement on January 10, 2005, making SIRIUS the Official Satellite Radio Partner of the University of Louisville. SIRIUS will broadcast select play - by - play sports of Louisville 's nationally ranked college basketball and football teams
The Louisville Cardinals rivalry with the Kentucky Wildcats is widely considered one of the most intense college rivalries in the United States. It is also one of the few rivalries to be equally intense in basketball and football, and practically every other sport as well. The men 's basketball game is called the Battle for the Bluegrass; the football game is officially called the Governor 's Cup.
In the early years after the rivalry resumed whoever would win the football game would go on to lose the basketball game. In 2003 Louisville broke that tradition by winning both the football and basketball game. Since then, Kentucky has completed the double twice, in the 2009 -- 2010 and the 2010 -- 2011 seasons. Louisville won both the football and bastketball games again in 2012.
Unlike many in - state rivalries that have been played continuously for many decades, these two schools went through a long period from the 1930s to the 1980s of rarely facing each other. They did play frequently from the 1900s to 1920 's. Since the renewal of the men 's basketball rivalry in 1983 -- 84 UK leads the modern rivalry 25 -- 13 and the all - time series 34 -- 16. Since the two teams resumed playing football in 1994, U of L leads the modern series 15 -- 9 but the all - time series is tied 15 -- 15.
Within the intrastate rivalry with the Kentucky Wildcats, the team that has won the football game has lost the following basketball game every year, except in 2003 and 2012 (when UofL won both) and 2009 -- 2010 and 2010 -- 2011 (when UK won both).
Known more for an intense basketball rivalry and tradition, U of L and UC have a football rivalry that has stretched over the span of four conferences from the Missouri Valley Conference, to the Metro Conference to Conference USA, and more recently in the Big East Conference, which in 2013 was renamed to the American Athletic Conference. It is believed to be the oldest rivalry for the Louisville football team and the second oldest for Cincinnati, only behind the annual game with the Miami RedHawks.
On the gridiron, the two teams compete for the Keg of Nails Trophy, though the series has been on hiatus since 2013. The Bearcats lead the series 30 - 22 - 1.
Since joining the ACC in 2014, the Cardinals have been part of a budding rivalry with Virginia. Both teams have found themselves at or near the top of the conference standings in many sports, including baseball, basketball, and soccer. Given that UL was designated as Maryland 's replacement as UVA 's crossover rival, the teams play annually in football (despite being in different divisions), twice a year in basketball, and once a year in baseball. On the basketball court, both teams have Elite 8 appearances since Louisville joined the ACC and both baseball programs have multiple College World Series appearances (with UVA claiming the title in 2015). The football teams have taken part in some great matchups since realignment as well, with 3 of the 4 games being decided by single digits.
Virginia leads the all - time men 's basketball series 10 - 4 while Louisville leads the football series 4 - 2.
Louisville also has dormant Big East rivalries with University of Memphis Tigers and Marquette University, which have been on hiatus since 2014 and 2013, respectively.
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band of horses the funeral used on tv | The Funeral (band of Horses song) - wikipedia
"The Funeral '' is a song by the American rock band Band of Horses, taken from their debut studio album, Everything All the Time (2006). The alternative rock song was written by the band members. The song was released as the debut single from the band and lead single from the album. A live version of the song appeared earlier on the band 's self - titled EP, under the original name "Billion Day Funeral ''.
In August 2009, Pitchfork Media named "The Funeral '' the 67th - greatest song of the 2000s.
The video for "The Funeral '' was directed by Matt Lenski with additional footage by Willy Lenski. The video tells the story of a man whose dog has drowned in his alcoholic drink. Saddened by his loss, the man drowns his sorrows in alcohol. He then drives under the influence and the end of the video suggests he crashes head - on into a delivery truck.
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when is fifty shades freed coming out in india | Fifty Shades Freed (film) - Wikipedia
Fifty Shades Freed is a 2018 American erotic romantic drama film directed by James Foley and written by Niall Leonard, and based on the novel of the same name by E.L. James. It is the third and final installment in the Fifty Shades film series, following Fifty Shades of Grey (2015) and Fifty Shades Darker (2017). The film stars Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan as Anastasia Steele and Christian Grey, respectively, and follows the couple as they marry, and must deal with Ana 's former boss (Eric Johnson), who begins to stalk them.
Principal photography on Fifty Shades Freed began simultaneously with Darker in February 2016, in Paris and Vancouver. The film was released in the United States on February 9, 2018, including a limited IMAX release. It has grossed $368 million worldwide, making it the 5th highest - grossing film of 2018, and, like its two predecessors, received negative reviews, with criticism aimed at its screenplay and performances.
The newly married, Christian and Anastasia, cut short their exotic honeymoon and return to Seattle after receiving news of a break - in at Christian 's corporate headquarters. Some computer files were stolen and security camera tapes identify the perpetrator as Jack Hyde, Ana 's former boss who was fired for sexual assault. Meanwhile, Ana is introduced to her new personal security team.
Christian surprises Ana with a new house and has hired architect Gia Matteo to rebuild it. Ana is dismayed when Gia, an attractive young woman, openly flirts with Christian in Ana 's presence. Ana, jealous, privately threatens to dismiss Gia if she continues her flirtatious behavior, forcing her to stop.
When Christian is away on a business trip, Ana disregards his wishes that she stay at home, and goes out for a drink with her friend, Kate Kavanagh. Kate, who is dating Christian 's older brother, Elliot, confides to Ana that their relationship may be fizzling; Elliot is working closely with Gia, the architect, and Kate is suspicious about their relationship. When Ana returns home, she encounters Jack Hyde, who attempts to kidnap her. Ana 's security team subdue him as he holds Ana hostage and he is arrested. After an argument with Christian about her having sneaked out to see Kate, Ana berates Christian for being overly controlling and possessive and demands more freedom. Soon after, Christian surprises Ana with a trip to Aspen, bringing along Kate, Elliot, Mia, and José.
Christian and Ana continue with their erotic sexual experimentation, but matters become complicated when Ana announces she is pregnant. Christian is deeply disturbed, saying he had other plans for their early years together. He leaves, going on a night - long drunken bender. The next day, Ana discovers that Christian had recently contacted his ex-lover and former BDSM dominant, Elena Lincoln.
Shortly after, Jack Hyde, released on a $500,000 bond, phones Ana demanding a ransom for Mia, Christian 's abducted sister. Hyde demands $5,000,000 in cash in two hours or Mia will be killed. He warns Ana to tell no one and to bring the money alone. Ana takes some cash and a revolver from the house safe, then goes to the bank to withdraw the full amount. The suspicious bank manager calls Christian. He thinks Ana is leaving him but then notices the coincidence of Hyde 's recent release and Ana 's sudden large cash withdrawal. Hyde instructs Ana to get into a car parked in the alley and to hand over her phone to the driver to discard. Ana tricks Hyde by taking the bank manager 's phone. She exits the back entrance to discover that the driver and Jack 's accomplice is her co-worker, Liz.
Ana arrives at the drop - off site with the money. Hyde, psychotic and vengeful, attacks Ana, kicking her abdomen. Liz tries to stop Jack as Ana pulls out the revolver and shoots Hyde in the leg. Christian and his security team, who electronically tracked Ana 's cell phone, arrive and apprehend Hyde and Liz. Ana blacks out as she hears Christian 's voice.
Ana awakens three days later in the hospital with Christian at her side. Though angry at Ana 's recklessness and still anxious about fatherhood, Christian realizes how important their baby is to her, and they reconcile. Christian 's adoptive mother, Grace, assures Christian that Ana will not leave him. Ana returns home the next day. Christian 's private investigator, Welch, reports that Christian and Hyde shared the same foster family. It is also learned that Hyde blackmailed Liz into being his accomplice. Christian and Ana later locate where Christian 's birth mother is buried; they visit and Christian lays flowers on her grave.
Two years later, Christian and Ana have a son called Theodore, and Ana is pregnant with their second child.
A film adaptation of the first book was produced by Michael De Luca Productions, with Universal Pictures and Focus Features securing the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. At a fan screening in New York City on February 6, director Sam Taylor - Johnson announced that the book sequels Fifty Shades Darker and Fifty Shades Freed would also be adapted, with the first to be released in 2016. Right after the announcement, Taylor - Johnson told Digital Spy that, "It 's not my decision (to return), and I have n't been privy to any of the discussions. '' On November 12, 2015, TheWrap confirmed that James Foley would direct both sequels which would be shot back - to - back in 2016, with Niall Leonard writing the script and Michael De Luca and Dana Brunetti returning to produce along with E.L. James and Marcus Viscidi. Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan would also return for lead roles. On February 8, 2016, Arielle Kebbel was cast in the film to play Gia Matteo, a beautiful architect who is hired by Christian to build his home. On February 12, 2016, Eric Johnson was cast to play Jack Hyde, Ana 's boss at SIP and stalker. On February 20, 2016, Brant Daugherty signed on to play Sawyer, the personal body guard for Anastasia Steele.
In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that Fifty Shades Darker and this film would be shot back - to - back with principal photography scheduled to commence in early 2016. Filming began in Paris and Vancouver from February 9, 2016, to July 12, 2016, under the working title, "Further Adventures of Max and Banks 2 & 3. ''
Fifty Shades Freed was released on February 9, 2018, by Universal Pictures. A teaser trailer was released on September 10, 2017, with a theatrical trailer being released later on November 6.
The lead single from the film 's soundtrack, "For You '', performed by Rita Ora and Liam Payne, was released on January 5, 2018. The soundtrack 's track list was released on January 8, 2018, including artists Julia Michaels, Sia, Jessie J, Black Atlass, Ellie Goulding, Hailee Steinfeld, Dua Lipa, and Miike Snow on the 22 - song album.
Fifty Shades Freed has grossed $100.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $267.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $368.3 million, against a production budget of $55 million.
In the United States and Canada, Fifty Shades Freed was released alongside Peter Rabbit and The 15: 17 to Paris, and was projected to gross $37 -- 40 million from 3,768 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $5.6 million from Thursday night previews, down 2 % from the $5.7 million made by Fifty Shades Darker the previous year. It ended up making $38.6 million over the weekend, the lowest of the trilogy but still enough to take first place at the box office. The film grossed $10.8 million on Valentine 's Day, marking the third - highest amount for when the holiday fell on a weekday, behind The Vow ($11.6 million in 2012) and Darker ($11 million), bringing its five - day gross to $56.1 million. In its second weekend the film made $17.3 million, dropping 55.1 % (a slightly better hold than the previous film) and finishing third behind newcomer Black Panther and Peter Rabbit.
Worldwide, the film was expected to make $80 -- 90 million from 57 countries, including France, Germany, the UK, Australia, Brazil, Mexico and Japan, in its first three days for a worldwide debut of $113 -- 130 million. It ended up grossing $98.1 million from overseas for global debut of $136.9 million; it marked a 7 % decrease from the previous film but still finished first in 54 of the 57 markets. Its leading countries were Germany ($10.7 million), the United Kingdom ($8.8 million) and France ($8.7 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 13 % based on 144 reviews, and an average rating of 3.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Fifty Shades Freed brings its titillating trilogy to a clumsy conclusion, making for a film franchise that adds up to a distinctly dissatisfying ménage à trois. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 32 out of 100 based on 41 critics, meaning "generally unfavorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by Darker, while comScore reported that 56 % of females (who made up 81 % of the opening weekend) gave the film a "definite recommend ''.
Writing for Variety, Guy Lodge was critical of the film, saying "Indeed, a sex - free, PG - 13 version of Freed could be cut without shedding a second of narrative coherence, such as it is; one could ask what the point of that would be, though similar queries might be leveled at the film as it stands. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers gave the film zero out of four, stating "With this last entry, we have officially hit the bottom of the barrel. Whips, chains, butt plugs and nipple clips are nothing compared to the sheer torture of watching this movie. '' Robbie Collin from The Telegraph gave the film one out of five stars, and wrote "This is a film in which one of the more emotionally detailed performances is given by a product - placement Audi. ''
Jeannette Catsoulis, writing for The New York Times, found the film to be significantly inferior to Kim Basinger 's 91⁄2 Weeks, stating: "Layering a damp - squib thriller subplot beneath what appears to be an ad campaign for the one - percent lifestyle, the returning director and screenwriter test the newly married couple with an inconvenient pregnancy and an unconvincing car chase. There 's an out - of - left - field abduction and a marital tiff over email addresses; but these narrative fragments, lazily tossed together alongside a neglected supporting cast, are no more than a flimsy causeway connecting bonking sessions. ''
Conversely, IndieWire reviewer Manuela Lazic gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Finally, the Fifty Shades phenomenon has yielded a disarming comedy that makes this ridiculous material fun to watch. ''
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who sings let him play rock and roll | Jerry Doucette - Wikipedia
Jerry Victor Doucette (born 1952) is a Canadian guitarist and singer - songwriter.
Born in Montreal, Quebec, Jerry Doucette 's family moved to Hamilton, Ontario, when he was four. He received his first guitar when he was six.
Doucette joined numerous bands prior to his solo career, starting with The Reefers, at the age of 11. He migrated to Toronto, Ontario, and played in the final incarnation of Brutus. Doucette moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, in 1972, and worked with Lindsay Mitchell and Rocket Norton, both of whom later joined Prism, and Alexis Radlin. He subsequently signed a solo recording deal with Mushroom Records, and commenced recording under his surname only.
"Mama Let Him Play '', the single from the first Doucette album release of the same name, in the fall of 1977 earned platinum status (sales of 100,000 units) in Canada, plus substantial publicity and tour promotion. The single and record were not successful to the same degree in the United States, though the single charted in the Billboard Top 100 and the album in the Billboard 200. The recording band for the single and album was composed of Duris Maxwell on drums, Brent Shindell on guitar,. Don Cummings on bass and Robbie King on keyboards.
The following year 's release, The Douce is Loose, was less successful, although it earned gold status (50,000 units sold) in Canada, and produced the popular single "Nobody '' co-written with Maxwell.
Mushroom Records eventually succumbed to financial problems, leaving Doucette to find a new label for his third album, Coming up Roses. This, plus the emergence of new wave music, were blamed for Doucette 's lack of follow - up success in the music industry.
Both of Doucette 's Mushroom Records albums, Mama Let Him Play and The Douce Is Loose, were re-released on compact disc and digital formats for the first time in 2013 through Hamilton, Ontario - based independent record label Linus Entertainment.
In the song Mama Let Him Play, Doucette plays a Gibson EDS - 1275 in Alpine White, frequently called an "SG Double Neck ''.
Jerry Doucette currently resides in Tsawwassen, British Columbia.
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who sings lead vocals on i can't tell you why | I Ca n't Tell You Why - wikipedia
"I Ca n't Tell You Why '' is a song by the American rock band Eagles which appeared on their 1979 album The Long Run. The song was written by band members Timothy B. Schmit, Glenn Frey, and Don Henley. Recorded in March 1978, it was the first song finished for the album and the first Eagles song to feature Schmit on lead vocals. The studio version became a Billboard Top 10 hit in April 1980, reaching number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 3 on the Adult Contemporary chart. It is their last Top Ten hit on the Hot 100. The original key of the song is D major.
Timothy B. Schmit came up with the song title and composed the nucleus of "I Ca n't Tell You Why '', which he then presented to Glenn Frey and Don Henley and they completed the song together. Henley described the finished song as "straight Al Green '', and that Frey, an R&B fan as he came from Detroit and grew up with the music, was responsible for the R&B feel of the song. Frey said to Schmit: "You could sing like Smokey Robinson. Let 's not do a Richie Furay, Poco - sounding song. Let 's do an R&B song. ''
Schmit describes the song as "loosely based on my own experiences ''. Schmit said: "I had some writing sessions with Don and Glenn and I threw out a bunch of my ideas and that one (for "I Ca n't Tell You Why '') stuck. I had (composed) a pretty good part of it, not a huge part but enough for them to think ' That could be good ' and go with it. So Don, Glenn and I finished it over a few all night sessions. '' "When it was being developed in the studio... I knew it was a great song. I (thought) ' Yes! This is an amazing debut for me. ' When we finally mixed it, we had a little listening party at the studio. As people were hearing it, Don turned to me and said, ' There 's your first hit. ' ''
Schmit sang the lead vocals on the song, with Frey and Henley singing counterpoint. Schmit also played the bass on the track, which has the distinctive bass riff believed by Schmit to have been devised by Frey. According to Henley, Frey came up with the counterpart on the song, and played the guitar solo on the song.
In 1980 the band promoted the song with a music video which featured Schmit on bass guitar accompanied by Frey on the electric piano, although Frey recorded the guitar solos as it is printed on the LP inside sleeve (Joe Walsh played all the keyboard parts on the actual studio recording), with Henley on the drums, Don Felder on the electric guitar, Walsh on the organ and Walsh 's touring sideman Joe Vitale on synthesizer. Live versions of the song were released in the 1980 album Eagles Live and 1994 's Hell Freezes Over.
Schmit also performed "I Ca n't Tell You Why '' while on tour as a member of Ringo Starr & His All - Starr Band in 1992. Their performance of the song was included on the 1993 live album Ringo Starr and His All Starr Band Volume 2: Live from Montreux.
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contribution of energy sources to the total power generation in india | Electricity sector in India - Wikipedia
The utility electricity sector in India has one National Grid with an installed capacity of 345.5 GW as on 31 July 2018. Renewable power plants constituted 33.60 % of total installed capacity. During the fiscal year 2017 - 18, the gross electricity generated by utilities in India was 1,303.49 TWh and the total electricity generation (utilities and non utilities) in the country was 1,485.5 TWh. The gross electricity consumption was 1,149 kWh per capita in the year 2017 - 18. India is the world 's third largest producer and third largest consumer of electricity. Electric energy consumption in agriculture was recorded highest (17.89 %) in 2015 - 16 among all countries. The per capita electricity consumption is low compared to many countries despite cheaper electricity tariff in India.
India has surplus power generation capacity but lacks adequate infrastructure for supplying electricity to all needy people. In order to address the lack of adequate electricity supply to all the people in the country by March 2019, the Government of India launched a scheme called "Power for All ''. This scheme will ensure continuous and uninterrupted electricity supply to all households, industries and commercial establishments by creating and improving necessary infrastructure. It 's a joint collaboration of the Government of India with states to share funding and create overall economic growth.
India 's electricity sector is dominated by fossil fuels, and in particular coal, which in 2017 - 18 produced about three fourths of all electricity. However, the government is pushing for an increased investment in renewable energy. The National Electricity Plan of 2018 prepared by the Government of India states that the country does not need additional non-renewable power plants in the utility sector until 2027, with the commissioning of 50,025 MW coal - based power plants under construction and achieving 275,000 MW total installed renewable power capacity.
The first demonstration of an electric light in Calcutta (now Kolkata) was conducted on 24 July 1879 by P.W. Fleury & Co. On 7 January 1897, Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta electric lighting license as agents of the Indian Electric Co, which was registered in London on 15 January 1897. A month later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation. The control of the company was transferred from London to Calcutta only in 1970. Enthused by the success of electricity in Calcutta, power was thereafter introduced in Bombay (now Mumbai). Mumbai saw electric lighting demonstration for the first time in 1882 at Crawford Market and the Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company (BEST) set up a generating station in 1905 to provide electricity for the tramway.
The first hydroelectric installation in India was installed near a tea estate at Sidrapong for the Darjeeling Municipality in 1897. The first electric street light in Asia was lit on 5 August 1905 in Bangalore. The first electric train in the country ran on the Harbour Line between Bombay 's Victoria Terminus and Kurla on 3 February 1925. On 18 August 2015, Cochin International Airport became the world 's first fully solar powered airport with the inauguration of a dedicated solar plant.
India began utilizing grid management on a regional basis in the 1960s. Individual State grids were interconnected to form 5 regional grids covering mainland India. The grids were the Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern and Southern Grids. These regional links were established to enable transmission of surplus electricity between States in each region. In the 1990s, the Indian government began planning for a national grid. Regional grids were initially interconnected by asynchronous HVDC back - to - back links facilitating limited exchange of regulated power. The links were subsequently upgraded to high capacity synchronous links.
The first interconnection of regional grids was established in October 1991 when the North Eastern and Eastern grids were interconnected. The Western Grid was interconnected with the aforementioned grids in March 2003. The Northern grid was also interconnected in August 2006, forming a Central Grid synchronously connected operating at one frequency. The sole remaining regional grid, the Southern Grid, was synchronously interconnected to the Central Grid on 31 December 2013 with the commissioning of the 765 kV Raichur - Solapur transmission line, thereby establishing the National Grid.
By the end of calendar year 2015, despite poor hydro electricity generation, India had become a power surplus nation with huge electric power generation capacity idling for want of power demand. The calendar year 2016 started with steep fall in the international price of energy commodities such as coal, diesel oil, naphtha, bunker fuel and LNG which are used in electricity generation in India. Earlier many of the power stations which are using fuels other than coal were unable to operate due to high cost of LNG and petro products. This situation has changed due to glut in petroleum products globally. The prices are falling to such an extent that these fuels have become cheaper to give competition for pit head coal based power generators. Many of the stranded gas and liquid fuel based power stations would be competing with indigenous coal based power stations in an electricity market where demand growth is not encouraging. All the segments of the electricity sector such as fuel suppliers, fuel transporters (railways, harbours, pipelines, etc.), electricity generators, electricity transmission companies and distribution companies would be facing severe competition to cut down the prices and improve their operating efficiency in a final consumer dictated market. Due to tepid growth in electricity consumption, coal stocks are continuously building up at power stations as well as coal mines.
New installations of renewable energy in India surpassed installations of fossil fuel for the first time in 2016 - 17.
On March 29, 2017 the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) stated that for the first time India has become net exporter of electricity. India exported 5,798 GWh to neighbouring countries, against a total import of 5,585 GWh.
The total installed power generation capacity is sum of utility capacity, captive power capacity and other non-utilities
The total installed capacity is after deducting the retired capacity (if any). As of 31 March 2017 (i.e. end of 12th five - year plan), the achieved thermal power generation capacity addition excluding renewable power is 91,730 MW against the target of 161,403 MW during the 12th five - year plan. Nearly 70,000 MW is in various stages of construction as on 31 March 2017.
The total installed utility power generation capacity as on 30 April 2018 with sector wise & type wise break up is as given below.
The installed captive power generation capacity (above 1 MW capacity) in the industries is 54,997 MW as on 31 March 2018 and generated 183,000 GWh during the fiscal year 2017 - 18. Another 75,000 MW capacity diesel power generation sets (excluding sets of size above 1 MW and below 100 kVA) are also installed in the country. In addition, there are innumerable DG sets of capacity less than 100 kVA to cater to emergency power needs during the power outages in all sectors such as industrial, commercial, domestic and agriculture.
The latest break up of state wise installed capacity is given in the table below.
During the fiscal year 2017 - 18, the utility energy availability was 1,205 billion KWh with a short fall of requirement by 8 billion KWh (- 0.7 %) against 1230 billion KWh anticipated. The peak load met was 160,752 MW with a short fall of requirement by 3,314 MW (- 2 %) against 169,130 MW anticipated. In LGBR 2018 report, India 's Central Electricity Authority anticipated for the 2018 -- 19 fiscal year, energy surplus and peaking surplus to be 4.6 % and 2.5 % respectively. Though few states are expected to face energy shortage, power would be made available adequately from the surplus regions with the available excess capacity inter regional transmission links. By the end of calendar year 2015, India has become power surplus country despite lower power tariffs.
Of the 1.4 billion people in the world who have no access to electricity, India accounts for over 160 million, some 32 million homes. The International Energy Agency estimates India will add between 600 GW to 1,200 GW of additional new power generation capacity before 2050. This added new capacity is equivalent to the 740 GW of total power generation capacity of European Union (EU - 27) in 2005. The technologies and fuel sources India adopts, as it adds this electricity generation capacity, may make significant impact to global resource usage and environmental issues.
Some 260 million Indians (20 %) use traditional fuels -- fuelwood, agricultural waste and biomass cakes -- for cooking and general heating needs. These traditional fuels are burnt in cook stoves, known as chulah or chulha in some parts of India. Traditional fuel is inefficient source of energy, its burning releases high levels of smoke, PM10 particulate matter, NOX, SOX, PAHs, polyaromatics, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and other air pollutants. Some reports, including one by the World Health Organisation, claim 300,000 to 400,000 people in India die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning every year because of biomass burning and use of chullahs. Traditional fuel burning in conventional cook stoves releases unnecessarily large amounts of pollutants, between 5 and 15 times higher than industrial combustion of coal, thereby affecting outdoor air quality, haze and smog, chronic health problems, damage to forests, ecosystems and global climate. Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop, these reports claim, unless electricity or clean burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural and urban India. The growth of electricity sector in India may help find a sustainable alternative to traditional fuel burning.
In addition to air pollution problems, a 2007 study finds that discharge of untreated sewage is single most important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in India. There is a large gap between generation and treatment of domestic wastewater in India. The problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also that the sewage treatment plants that exist do not operate and are not maintained. Majority of the government - owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time in part because of the lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the plants. The wastewater generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. The uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas cause unhygienic conditions, release heavy metals and pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater. Almost all rivers, lakes and water bodies are severely polluted in India. Water pollution also adversely impacts river, wetland and ocean life. Reliable generation and supply of electricity is essential for addressing India 's water pollution and associated environmental issues.
Other drivers for India 's electricity sector are its rapidly growing economy, rising exports, improving infrastructure and increasing household incomes.
The per capita annual domestic electricity consumption in India during the year 2009 was 96 kWh in rural areas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to electricity in contrast to the worldwide per capita annual average of 2,600 kWh and 6,200 kWh in the European Union.
As on 28 April 2018, 12 days ahead of the set target, all Indian villages were electrified. India 's Ministry of Power launched Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) as one of its flagship programme in July 2015 with the objective of providing round the clock power to the rural areas. It focuses on reforms in rural power sector by separation of feeder lines (rural households & agricultural) and strengthening of transmission and distribution infrastructure. The earlier scheme for rural electrification viz. Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) has been subsumed in the new scheme as its rural electrification component.
As of 15 August 2018, 195.5 million rural households are provided with electricity, which is 89 % of the 219 million total rural households.
Up to 15 August 2018, 41.63 million urban households are provided with electricity, which is 96 % of the 43.40 million total urban households.
Note: Per Capita Consumption = (Gross Electricity Generation + Net Import) / Mid Year Population.
India 's electricity generation from 1950 to 1985 were very low when compared to developed nations. Since 1990, India has recorded faster growth in electricity generation. India 's electricity generation has increased from 179 TW - hr in 1985 to 1,057 TW - hr in 2012. Power generation by coal fired plants and non conventional renewable energy sources (RES) has mainly contributed to the growth in the total electricity generation, whereas the contribution from natural gas, oil and hydro plants has decreased in the last five years (2012 - 2017). The gross utility electricity generation (excluding imports from Bhutan) is 1,236 billion kWh during the year 2016 - 17 against the corresponding actual generation of 1,168 billion Kwh during the year 2015 - 16 with 5.81 % annual growth.
Notes: Coal includes lignite also; Misc includes emergency DG sets generation, etc.; Hydro includes pumped storage generation; na → data not available
The total generation from all renewable energy sources is nearly 15 % of the total electricity generation (utility and captive) in India.
India 's electricity sector consumes about 72 % of the coal produced in the country.
The high ash content in India 's coal affects the thermal power plant 's potential emissions. Therefore, India 's Ministry of Environment and Forests has mandated the use of beneficiated coals whose ash content has been reduced to 34 % (or lower) in power plants in urban, ecologically sensitive and other critically polluted areas, and ecologically sensitive areas. Coal benefaction industry has rapidly grown in India, with current capacity topping 90 MT.
India has an extensive review process, one that includes environment impact assessment, prior to a thermal power plant being approved for construction and commissioning. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published a technical guidance manual to help project proposers and to prevent environmental pollution in India from thermal power plants. The operating coal fired power stations need to invest nearly INR 12.5 millions per MW capacity for installing pollution control equipment to comply with the latest emission norms notified by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in the year 2016. India has banned import of pet coke for using as fuel.
A large part of Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana coal. It is of low calorific value and high ash content. The carbon content is low in India 's coal, and toxic trace element concentrations are negligible. The natural fuel value of Indian coal is poor. On average, the Indian power plants using India 's coal supply consume about 0.7 kg of coal to generate a kWh, whereas United States thermal power plants consume about 0.45 kg of coal per kWh. This is because of the difference in the quality of the coal, as measured by the Gross Calorific Value (GCV). On average, Indian coal has a GCV of about 4500 Kcal / kg, whereas the quality elsewhere in the world is much better; for example, in Australia, the GCV is 6500 Kcal / kg approximately. India imported nearly 95 Mtoe of steam coal and coking coal which is 29 % of total consumption to meet the demand in electricity, cement and steel production. China has banned import of high ash coal, high sulphur coal and contaminated coal with trace metals which are causing air pollution.
The state and central power generation companies are permitted by Government of India with flexible coal linkage swaps from inefficient plants to efficient plants and from plants situated away from coal mines to pit head to minimize cost of coal transportation thus leading to reduction in cost of power Though the coal imports for consumption in utility sector are declining, the overall steam coal imports are increasing as the local coal production is unable to meet the requirements of coal fired captive power plants.
The installed capacity of natural gas - based power plants (including the plants ready to be commissioned with the commencement of natural gas supply) is nearly 26,765 MW at the end of financial year 2014 - 15. These base load power plants are operating at overall PLF of 25 % only due to severe shortage of Natural gas in the country. Imported LNG was too costly for the power generation. Many of these power stations are shut down throughout the year for lack of natural gas supply. Natural gas shortage for power sector alone is nearly 100 MMSCMD. The break even price for switching from imported coal to LNG in electricity generation is estimated near 6 US $ / mmBtu. Indian government has taken steps to enhance the generation from the stranded gas based power plants for meeting peak load demand by waiving applicable import duties and taxes due to drastic fall in the LNG and crude oil international prices.
Gasification of coal or lignite or pet coke or biomass, produces syngas or coal gas or wood gas which is a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gases. Coal gas can be converted into synthetic natural gas by using Fischer -- Tropsch process at low pressure and high temperature. Coal gas can also be produced by underground coal gasification where the coal deposits are located deep in the ground or uneconomical to mine the coal. Synthetic natural gas production technologies have tremendous scope to meet the SNG requirements of gas - based power stations fully using the locally available coal (or imported coal in short run). Dankuni coal complex is producing syngas which is piped to the industrial users in Calcutta. Many coal based fertiliser plants which are shut down can also be retrofitted economically to produce synthetic natural gas for bridging natural gas shortages. It is estimated that SNG production cost would be below 6 $ per mmBtu. The indigenously produced natural gas by the Exploration & Production (E&P) contractors sold at prevailing international gas prices do not guarantee the natural gas supply whereas the SNG produced from coal / biomass is reliable & dependable fuel supply to the gas based power stations and other natural gas consumers.
India 's coal - fired, oil - fired and natural gas - fired thermal power plants are inefficient and offer significant potential for greenhouse gas (CO) emission reduction through better technologies. India 's thermal power plants emit 50 % to 120 % more CO per kWh produced when compared to the average emissions from their European Union (EU - 27) counterparts. The central government has firmed up plans to shut down 11,000 MW of coal based power generation capacity that are at least 25 years old and contributing more pollution. In captive power sector, there is no retirement policy yet for the thermal power plants which are contributing to excessive pollution due to their vintage technology and aging.
Recently few old diesel generator plants and gas turbine plants (Vatwa 100 MW) were also decommissioned. However their residual life can be used effectively for ancillary services by keeping them in working condition and connected to grid.
India 's renewable energy sector is amongst the world 's most active players in renewable energy utilization, especially solar and wind electricity generation. As of 31 March 2018, India had grid connected installed capacity of about 69.02 GW non-conventional renewable technologies - based electricity capacity exceeding the capacity of major hydroelectric power for the first time in history.
India has 62.85 GW installed capacity Renewable energy, bidding process for further 115 GW will be completed by the end of FY 2019 - 20 to achieve a total of 175 GW total installed capacity by 31 March 2022, and the central govt has set up US $350 million fund to finance the solar projects.
The hydro - electric power plants at Darjeeling and Shivanasamudram were established in 1898 and 1902 respectively and were among the first in Asia.
India is endowed with economically exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed to be about 125,570 MW at 60 % load factor. India ranked fourth globally by underutilized hydro power potential. Viable hydro potential keeps on varying depending on the technological improvements and the prevailing costs of electricity generation from other sources. In addition, 6740 MW from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydro potential have been assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW have been identified. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy. India is blessed with immense amount of hydro - electric potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro - potential on global scenario.
The installed capacity as of 31 March 2018 is approximately 45,293.42 MW which is 13.17 % of total installed utility capacity in India. In addition, 4486 MW capacity from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydro schemes have been installed. The public sector has a predominant share of 97 % in this sector. National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company (NEEPCO), Satluj jal vidyut nigam (SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Development Corporation, NTPC - Hydro are a few public sector companies engaged in development of hydroelectric power in India.
Pumped storage schemes are perfect centralised peaking power stations for the load management in the electricity grid. Pumped storage schemes would be in high demand for meeting peak load demand and storing the surplus electricity as India graduates from electricity deficit to electricity surplus. They also produce secondary / seasonal power at no additional cost when rivers are flooding with excess water. Storing electricity by other alternative systems such as batteries, compressed air storage systems, etc. is more costly than electricity production by standby generator. India has already established nearly 4785 MW pumped storage capacity which is part of its installed hydro power plants.
India is endowed with vast solar energy. The solar radiation of about 5,000 trillion kWh per year is incident over its land mass with average daily solar power potential of 0.25 kWh per m of used land area with the available commercially proven technologies. As of 31 March 2018, the installed capacity was 21.65 GW meeting 2 % of the utility electricity generation.
Installation of solar power plants require nearly 2.4 hectares (0.024 km) land per MW capacity which is similar to coal - fired power plants when life cycle coal mining, consumptive water storage & ash disposal areas are also accounted and hydro power plants when submergence area of water reservoir is also accounted. 1.33 million MW capacity solar plants can be installed in India on its 1 % land (32,000 square km). There are vast tracts of land suitable for solar power in all parts of India exceeding 8 % of its total area which are unproductive barren and devoid of vegetation. Part of waste lands (32,000 square km) when installed with solar power plants can produce 2,000 billion Kwh of electricity (two times the total generation in the year 2013 - 14) with land annual productivity / yield of ₹ 1.0 million (US $15,000) per acre (at 4 Rs / kWh price) which is at par with many industrial areas and many times more than the best productive irrigated agriculture lands. Moreover, these solar power plants are not dependent on supply of any raw material and are self productive. There is unlimited scope for solar electricity to replace all fossil fuel energy requirements (natural gas, coal, lignite, nuclear fuels and crude oil) if all the marginally productive lands are occupied by solar power plants in future. The solar power potential of India can meet perennially to cater per capita energy consumption at par with USA / Japan for the peak population in its demographic transition.
Indian solar PV power tariff has fallen to ₹ 2.44 (3.6 ¢ US) per kWh in May 2017 which is lower than any other type of power generation in India. In the year 2017, the levelized tariff in US $ for solar electricity has fallen to 1.79 cents / kWh which is far cheaper than the fuel cost incurred by coal based power plants in India.
Solar thermal power plants with thermal storage are emerging as cheaper (US 5 ¢ / kWh) and clean load following power plants compared to fossil fuel power plants. They can cater the load / demand round the clock perfectly and work as base load power plants also when the extracted solar energy is found excess in a day. Proper mix of solar thermal and solar PV can fully match the load fluctuations without the support of costly battery storage or costly non solar power plants with dispatchability and reliability.
Land acquisition is a challenge to solar farm projects in India. Some state governments are exploring means to address land availability through innovation; for example, by exploring means to deploy solar capacity above their extensive irrigation canal projects, thereby harvesting solar energy while reducing the loss of irrigation water by solar evaporation. The state of Gujarat was first to implement the Canal Solar Power Project, to use 19,000 km (12,000 mi) long network of Narmada canals across the state for setting up solar panels to generate electricity. It was the first ever such project in India.
Synergy with irrigation water pumping and hydro power stations
The major disadvantage of solar power (PV type only) is that it can not produce electricity during the night time and cloudy daytime also. In India, this disadvantage can be overcome by installing pumped - storage hydroelectricity stations. Ultimate electricity requirement for river water pumping (excluding ground water pumping) is 570 billion kWh to pump one cubic meter of water for each square meter area by 125 m height on average for irrigating 140 million hectares of net sown area (42 % of total land) for three crops in a year. This is achieved by utilising all the usable river waters by interlinking Indian rivers. These river water pumping stations would also be envisaged with pumped - storage hydroelectricity features to generate electricity when necessary to stabilise the grid needs. Also, all existing and future hydro power stations can be expanded with additional pumped - storage hydroelectricity units to cater night time electricity consumption. Most of the ground water pumping power can be met directly by solar power during the day time.
India has the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s in Tamil Nadu and has significantly increased in the last decade. As of 31 March 2018, the installed capacity of wind power was 34.05 GW, spread across many states of India. The largest wind power generating state is Tamil Nadu accounting for nearly 23 % of installed capacity, followed in decreasing order by Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Karnataka.
In the year 2015 - 16, wind power accounted for 8.5 % of India 's total installed power capacity, and 2.5 % of the country 's power output. India targets to install total 60 GW of wind power capacity by 2022 The wind power tariff of around 2.5 INR / kWh is cheapest of all power generation sources in India.
Biomass is organic matter derived from living, or recently living organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. In this system biomass, bagasse, forestry, domestic organic wastes, industrial organic wastes and agro residue & agricultural wastes are used as fuel to produce electricity. Nearly 750 million tons of non edible (by cattle) biomass is available annually in India which can be put to use for higher value addition. Biomass is a renewable energy source as it is generated by extracting the carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere. Its use for electricity generation is carbon - neutral fuel because it would also release global warming green house gasses like methane and carbon dioxide when it is left to decay / degenerate without using as an energy source. The total biomass traditional use in India is nearly 177 Mtoe in the year 2013.
20 % of house holds in India use biomass and charcoal for cooking purpose. As traditional use of biomass is being replaced by LPG in rural areas at faster pace, biomass burning in agriculture fields has become major source for causing higher level air pollution in nearby towns and cities.
Huge quantity of imported coal is being used in pulverised coal - fired power stations. Raw biomass is not suitable for use in the pulverised coal mills as they are difficult to grind into fine powder due to its caking problem. However 100 % biomass can be fired after Torrefaction in the pulverised coal mills for replacing imported coal. Torrefied biomass plants can be integrated with existing pulverised coal - fired power stations using the available hot flue gas as heat source. Cofiring dry biomass up to 20 % heat input with coal is possible directly in pulverised coal - fired power stations without facing caking problem. North west and southern regions can replace imported coal use with biomass where surplus agriculture / crop residue biomass is burnt in the fields causing pollution problems. Many old and smaller capacity coal fired power plants are being shut down permanently due to pollution problems. These units can be retrofitted economically to produce electricity from biomass without appreciable pollution. Biomass power plants can also get extra income by selling the Renewable Purchase Certificates (RPC).
India has been promoting biomass gasifier technologies in its rural areas, to utilise surplus biomass resources such as rice husk, crop stalks, small wood chips, other agro-residues. The goal was to produce electricity for villages with power plants of up to 2 MW capacities. During 2011, India installed 25 rice husk based gasifier systems for distributed power generation in 70 remote villages of Bihar. The largest biomass - based power plant in India is at Sirohi, Rajasthan, having the capacity of 20 MW, i.e., Sambhav Energy Limited. In addition, gasifier systems are being installed at 60 rice mills in India. During the year, biomass gasifier projects of 1.20 MW in Gujarat and 0.5 MW in Tamil Nadu were successfully installed.
This pilot programme aims to install small - scale biogas plants for meeting the cooking energy needs in rural areas of India. During 2011, some 45000 small - scale biogas plants were installed. Cumulatively, India has installed 4.44 million small - scale biogas plants.
In 2011, India started a new initiative with the aim to demonstrate medium size mixed feed biogas - fertiliser pilot plants. This technology aims for generation, purification / enrichment, bottling and piped distribution of biogas. India approved 21 of these projects with aggregate capacity of 37016 cubic metre per day, of which 2 projects have been successfully commissioned by December 2011. India has additionally commissioned 158 projects under its Biogas based Distributed / Grid Power Generation programme, with a total installed capacity of about 2 MW.
Biogas which is mainly methane / natural gas can also be used for generating protein rich feed for cattle, poultry and fish in villages economically by cultivating Methylococcus capsulatus bacteria culture with tiny land and water foot print. The carbon dioxide gas produced as by product from these units can be put to use in cheaper production of algae oil or spirulina from algae cultivation particularly in tropical countries like India which can displace the prime position of crude oil in near future. Union government is implementing many schemes to utilise productively the agro waste or biomass in rural areas to uplift rural economy and job potential. Using biogas for high protein rich feed production is also eligible for carbon credits as they also perform carbon sequestration from the atmosphere.
As of 2010, India burnt over 200 million tonnes of coal replacement worth of traditional biomass fuel every year to meet its energy need for cooking and other domestic use. This traditional biomass fuel -- fuel wood, crop waste and animal dung -- is a potential raw material for the application of biomass technologies for the recovery of cleaner fuel, fertilisers and electricity with significantly lower pollution.
Biomass available in India has been playing an important role as fuel for sugar mills, textiles, paper mills, and small and medium enterprises (SME). In particular there is a significant potential in breweries, textile mills, fertiliser plants, the paper and pulp industry, solvent extraction units, rice mills, petrochemical plants and other industries to harness biomass power.
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. India 's geothermal energy installed capacity is experimental. Commercial use is insignificant.
According to some ambitious estimates, India has 10,600 MW of potential in the geothermal provinces but it still needs to be exploited. India has potential resources to harvest geothermal energy. The resource map for India has been grouped into six geothermal provinces:
India has about 340 hot springs spread over the country. Of this, 62 are distributed along the northwest Himalaya, in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. They are found concentrated along a 30 - 50 - km wide thermal band mostly along the river valleys. Naga - Lusai and West Coast Provinces manifest a series of thermal springs. Andaman and Nicobar arc is the only place in India where volcanic activity, a continuation of the Indonesian geothermal fields, and can be good potential sites for geothermal energy. Cambay graben geothermal belt is 200 km long and 50 km wide with Tertiary sediments. Thermal springs have been reported from the belt although they are not of very high temperature and discharge. During oil and gas drilling in this area, in recent times, high subsurface temperature and thermal fluid have been reported in deep drill wells in depth ranges of 1.7 to 1.9 km. Steam blowout have also been reported in the drill holes in depth range of 1.5 to 3.4 km. The thermal springs in India 's peninsular region are more related to the faults, which allow down circulation of meteoric water to considerable depths. The circulating water acquires heat from the normal thermal gradient in the area, and depending upon local condition, emerges out at suitable localities. The area includes Aravalli range, Son - Narmada - Tapti lineament, Godavari and Mahanadi valleys and South Cratonic Belts.
In a December 2011 report, India identified six most promising geothermal sites for the development of geothermal energy. These are, in decreasing order of potential:
India plans to set up its first geothermal power plant, with 2 -- 5 MW capacity at Puga in Jammu and Kashmir.
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. The potential of tidal wave energy becomes higher in certain regions by local effects such as shelving, funnelling, reflection and resonance.
India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to harness tidal energy is significant. Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In one method, a reservoir is created behind a barrage and then tidal waters pass through turbines in the barrage to generate electricity. This method requires mean tidal differences greater than 4 metres and also favourable topographical conditions to keep installation costs low. One report claims the most attractive locations in India, for the barrage technology, are the Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch on India 's west coast where the maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans, West Bengal is another possibility, although with significantly less recoverable energy; the maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. The report claims, barrage technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy in India, mostly in Gujarat. The barrage approach has several disadvantages, one being the effect of any badly engineered barrage on the migratory fishes, marine ecosystem and aquatic life. Integrated barrage technology plants can be expensive to build.
In December 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India and the Renewable Energy Development Agency of Govt. of West Bengal jointly approved and agreed to implement India 's first 3.75 MW Durgaduani mini tidal power project. Indian government believes that tidal energy may be an attractive solution to meet the local energy demands of this remote delta region.
Another tidal wave technology harvests energy from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations below the sea surface. A report from the Ocean Engineering Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras estimates the annual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is between 5 MW to 15 MW per metre, suggesting a theoretical maximum potential for electricity harvesting from India 's 7500 kilometre coast line may be about 40 GW. However, the realistic economical potential, the report claims, is likely to be considerably less. A significant barrier to surface energy harvesting is the interference of its equipment to fishing and other sea bound vessels, particularly in unsettled weather. India built its first seas surface energy harvesting technology demonstration plant in Vizhinjam, near Thiruruvananthpuram.
The third approach to harvesting tidal energy consists of ocean thermal energy technology. This approach tries to harvest the solar energy trapped in ocean waters into usable energy. Oceans have a thermal gradient, the surface being much warmer than deeper levels of ocean. This thermal gradient may be harvested using modified Rankine cycle. India 's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) attempted this approach over the last 20 years, but without success. In 2003, with Saga University of Japan, NIOT attempted to build and deploy a 1 MW demonstration plant. However, mechanical problems prevented success. After initial tests near Kerala, the unit was scheduled for redeployment and further development in the Lakshadweep Islands in 2005. The demonstration project 's experience have limited follow - on efforts with ocean thermal energy technology in India.
As of 31 March 2018, India had 6.78 GW of installed nuclear power generation capacity or nearly 2 % of total installed utility power generation capacity. Nuclear plants generated 38,247 million kWh at 64.40 % PLF in the year 2017 - 18.
India 's nuclear power plant development began in 1964. India signed an agreement with General Electric of the United States for the construction and commissioning of two boiling water reactors at Tarapur. In 1967, this effort was placed under India 's Department of Atomic Energy. In 1971, India set up its first pressurized heavy water reactors with Canadian collaboration in Rajasthan. In 1987, India created Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited to commercialize nuclear power.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is a public sector enterprise, wholly owned by the Government of India, under the administrative control of its Department of Atomic Energy. Its objective is to implement and operate nuclear power stations for India 's electricity sector. The state - owned company has ambitious plans to establish 63 GW generation capacity by 2032, as a safe, environmentally benign and economically viable source of electrical energy to meet the increasing electricity needs of India.
India 's nuclear power generation effort satisfies many safeguards and oversights, such as getting ISO - 14001 accreditation for environment management system and peer review by World Association of Nuclear Operators including a pre-start up peer review. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited admits, in its annual report for 2011, that its biggest challenge is to address the public and policy maker perceptions about the safety of nuclear power, particularly after the Fukushima incident in Japan.
In 2011, India had 18 pressurized heavy water reactors in operation, with another four projects of 2.8 GW capacity launched. The country plans to implement fast breeder reactors, using plutonium based fuel. Plutonium is obtained by reprocessing spent fuel of first stage reactors. India is in the process of launching its first prototype fast breeder reactor of 500 MW capacity in Tamil Nadu.
India has nuclear power plants operating in the following states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These reactors have an installed electricity generation capacity between 100 MW and 540 MW each. KKNPP Unit - 1 with a capacity of 1,000 MWe was commissioned in July, 2013 while KKNPP Unit - 2, also with a capacity of 1,000 MWe is nearing first approach to criticality in 2016.
In 2011, The Wall Street Journal reported the discovery of uranium in a new mine in India, the country 's largest ever. The estimated reserves of 64,000 tonnes, could be as large as 150,000 tonnes (making the mine one of the world 's largest). The new mine is expected to provide India with a fuel that it now imports. Nuclear fuel supply constraints had limited India 's ability to grow its nuclear power generation capacity. The newly discovered ore, unlike those in Australia, is of slightly lower grade. This mine is expected to be in operation in 2012.
India 's share of nuclear power plant generation capacity is just 1.2 % of worldwide nuclear power production capacity, making it the 15th largest nuclear power producer. India aims to supply 9 % of it electricity needs with nuclear power by 2032. India 's largest nuclear power plant project is planned to be implementedat Jaitapur, Maharashtra in partnership with Areva, France.
India 's government is also developing up to 62, mostly thorium reactors, which it expects to be operational by 2025. It is the "only country in the world with a detailed, funded, government - approved plan '' to focus on thorium - based nuclear power. The country currently gets under 2 % of its electricity from nuclear power, with the rest coming from coal (60 %), hydroelectricity (16 %), other renewable sources (12 %) and natural gas (9 %). It expects to produce around 25 % of its electricity from nuclear power.
As of 2013, India has a single wide area synchronous grid that covers the country.
The spread of high voltage transmission lines is such that it can form a square matrix of area 416 km (i.e. on average, at least one HV line within 10.2 km distance / vicinity) in entire area of the country. The length of high - voltage transmission lines is nearly equal to that of the United States (322,000 km (200,000 mi) of 230 kV and above) but transmits far less electricity. The HV transmission lines (132 kV and above) installed in the country is nearly 700,000 km (430,000 mi) (i.e. on average, at least one ≥ 13 kV transmission line within 4.5 km distance). The length of transmission lines (400 V and above and excluding 220 V lines) is 10,558,177 km (6,560,547 mi) as on 31 March 2015 in the country. The spread of total transmission lines (≥ 400 V) is such that it can form a square matrix of area 36.8 km (i.e. on average, at least one transmission line within 3 km distance) in entire area of the country.
The all - time maximum peak load is not exceeding 163,242 MW in the unified grid whereas the all - time peak load met is 160,812 MW on 17 August 2017. The maximum achieved demand factor of substations is not exceeding 60 % at 200 kV level. The operational performance of the huge capacity substations and the vast network of high voltage transmission lines with low demand factor is not satisfactory in meeting the peak electricity load. Detailed forensic engineering studies are to be undertaken and system inadequacies rectified to evolve into smart grid for maximising utility of the existing transmission infrastructure with optimum future capital investments.
The July 2012 blackout, affecting the north of the country, was the largest power grid failure in history by number of people affected. The introduction of Availability Based Tariff (ABT) has brought about stability to a great extent in the Indian transmission grids. However, presently it is becoming outdated in a power surplus grid.
India 's Aggregate Transmission and Commercial (ATC) losses is nearly 21.35 % in 2017 - 18. Whereas the total ATC loss was only 9.43 % out of the 4,113 billion kWh electricity supplied in USA during the year 2013. The Government has pegged the national ATC losses at around 24 % for the year 2011 & has set a target of reducing them to 17.1 % by 2017 and to 14.1 % by 2022. A high proportion of non-technical losses are caused by illegal tapping of lines, faulty electric meters and fictitious power generation that underestimate actual consumption and also contribute to reduced payment collection. A case study in Kerala estimated that replacing faulty meters could reduce distribution losses from 34 % to 29 %.
The Ministry of Power is India 's apex central government body regulating the electrical energy sector in India. This ministry was created on 2 July 1992. It is responsible for planning, policy formulation, processing of projects for investment decisions, monitoring project implementation, training and manpower development, and the administration and enactment of legislation in regard to thermal, hydro power generation, transmission and distribution. It is also responsible for the administration of India 's Electricity Act (2003), the Energy Conservation Act (2001) and to undertake such amendments to these Acts, as and when necessary, in conformity with the Indian government 's policy objectives.
Electricity is a concurrent list subject at Entry 38 in List III of the seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. In India 's federal governance structure, this means that both the central government and India 's state governments are involved in establishing policy and laws for its electricity sector. This principle motivates central government of India and individual state governments to enter into memorandum of understanding to help expedite projects and reform electricity sector in respective state. To bring transferency and dissemination of information to the public in power purchases by the DisComs, Government of India recently stated posting data on daily basis in its website.
Bulk power purchasers can buy electricity on daily basis for short, medium and long term duration from reverse e-auction facility. The electricity prices transacted under reverse e-auction facility are far less than the prices agreed under bilateral agreements. Multi Commodity Exchange has sought permission to offer electricity future markets in India.
India 's Ministry of Power administers central government owned companies involved in the generation of electricity in India. These include National Thermal Power Corporation, Damodar Valley Corporation, National Hydroelectric Power Corporation and Nuclear Power Corporation of India. The Power Grid Corporation of India is also administered by the Ministry; it is responsible for the inter-state transmission of electricity and the development of national grid.
The Ministry works with various state governments in matters related to state government owned corporations in India 's electricity sector. Examples of state corporations include Telangana Power Generation Corporation, Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited, Assam Power Generation Corporation Limited, Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, Maharashtra State Electricity Board, Kerala State Electricity Board, and Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam Limited.
India 's Ministry of Power administers Rural Electrification Corporation Limited and Power Finance Corporation Limited. These central government owned public sector enterprises provide loans and guarantees for public and private electricity sector infrastructure projects in India. Without the realistic assessment of required capacity addition, every major bank, whether in public or private sector, has encouraged the businessmen to install thermal power plants by offering substantial loans at 75 % of over estimated costs on overrated plant capacities (literally loan more than 100 % of actual project cost) which has led to stranded assets of US $ 40 to 60 billion. However, central and state owned power generators have escaped the crisis as they had entered PPAs with the state owned monopolistic Discoms on cost plus basis at higher than prevailing market power tariffs without undergoing competitive bidding process.
These losses have resulted in state discoms relying more on short - term loans to fund their operations. Borrowings by state discoms rose from Rs 1, 58,003 crore (1.58 trillion) in 2007 - 08 to Rs 5, 45,922 crore (5.46 trillion) in 2013 - 14 (CAGR 23 %).
After the enactment of Electricity Act 2003 budgetary support to power sector is negligible. State Electricity Boards get initial financial help from Central Government in the event of their un-bundling and transparency.
Rapid growth of electricity sector in India demands that talent and trained personnel become available as India 's new installed capacity adds new jobs. India has initiated the process to rapidly expand energy education in the country, to enable the existing educational institutions to introduce courses related to energy capacity addition, production, operations and maintenance, in their regular curriculum. This initiative includes conventional and renewable energy.
A Ministry of Renewable and New Energy announcement claims State Renewable Energy Agencies are being supported to organise short - term training programmes for installation, operation and maintenance and repair of renewable energy systems in such places where intensive RE programme are being implemented. Renewable Energy Chairs have been established in IIT Roorkee and IIT Kharagpur. Central Training Institute Jabalpur is a primer Power Distribution Engineering and Management training Institute.
Education and availability of skilled workers is expected to be a key challenge in India 's effort to rapidly expand its electricity sector.
India 's electricity sector faces many issues. Some are:
India 's National Grid is synchronously interconnected to Bhutan, and asynchronously linked with Bangladesh and Nepal. An interconnection with Myanmar, and an undersea interconnection to Sri Lanka (India -- Sri Lanka HVDC Interconnection) has also been proposed.
India has been exporting electricity to Bangladesh and Nepal and importing excess electricity from Bhutan. In 2015, Nepal imported 224.21 MW of electric power from India, and Bangladesh imported 500 MW. Bangladesh wants to import 10,000 MW power from India where substantial power capacity is unable to generate electricity for lack of power demand.
Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan are producing substantial natural gas and using for electricity generation purpose. Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan produce 55 million cubic metres per day (mcmd), 9 mcmd and 118 mcmd out of which 20 mcmd, 1.4 mcmd and 34 mcmd are consumed for electricity generation respectively. Whereas the natural gas production in India is not even adequate to meet its non-electricity requirements.
Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan have proven reserves of 184 billion cubic metres (bcm), 283 bcm and 754 bcm respectively. There is ample opportunity for mutually beneficial trading in energy resources with these countries. India can supply its surplus electricity to Pakistan and Bangladesh in return for the natural gas imports by gas pipe lines. Similarly India can develop on BOOT basis hydro power projects in Bhutan, Nepal and Myanmar. India can also enter into long term power purchase agreements with China for developing the hydro power potential in Brahmaputra river basin of Tibet region. India can also supply its surplus electricity to Sri Lanka by undersea cable link. There is ample trading synergy for India with its neighbouring countries in securing its energy requirements.
The net import of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is 6.093 million tons and the domestic consumption is 13.568 million tons with Rs. 41,546 crores subsidy to the domestic consumers in the year 2012 - 13. The LPG import content is nearly 40 % of total consumption in India. The affordable electricity retail tariff (860 Kcal / Kwh at 90 % heating efficiency) to replace LPG (lower heating value 11,000 Kcal / Kg at 75 % heating efficiency) in domestic cooking is 6.47 Rs / Kwh when the retail price of LPG cylinder is Rs 1000 (without subsidy) with 14.2 kg LPG content. Replacing LPG consumption with electricity reduces its imports substantially.
The domestic consumption of kerosene is 7.349 million tons with Rs. 30,151 crores subsidy to the domestic consumers in the year 2012 - 13. The subsidised retail price of kerosene is 13.69 Rs / litre whereas the export / import price is 48.00 Rs / litre. The affordable electricity retail tariff (860 Kcal / Kwh at 90 % heating efficiency) to replace kerosene (lower heating value 8240 Kcal / litre at 75 % heating efficiency) in domestic cooking is 6.00 Rs / Kwh when Kerosene retail price is 48 Rs / litre (without subsidy).
In the year 2014 - 15, the plant load factor (PLF) of coal - fired thermal power stations is only 64.46 % whereas these stations can run above 85 % PLF comfortably provided there is adequate electricity demand in the country. The additional electricity generation at 85 % PLF is nearly 240 billion units which is adequate to replace all the LPG and kerosene consumption in domestic sector. The incremental cost of generating additional electricity is only their coal fuel cost which is less than 3 Rs / Kwh. Enhancing the PLF of coal - fired stations and encouraging domestic electricity consumers to substitute electricity in place of LPG and kerosene in household cooking, would reduce the government subsidies and idle capacity of thermal power stations can be put to use economically. The domestic consumers who are willing to surrender the subsidised LPG / kerosene permits or eligible for subsidized LPG / kerosene permits, may be given free electricity connection and subsidised electricity tariff.
Since 2017, IPPs are offering to sell solar and wind power below 3.00 Rs / Kwh to feed into the high voltage grid. After considering distribution costs and losses, this electricity price is quite profitable for the solar power to replace LPG and Kerosene use in domestic sector.
The retail prices of petrol and diesel are high in India to make electricity driven vehicles more economical as more and more electricity is generated from solar energy in near future without appreciable environmental effects. The retail price of diesel is 65.00 Rs / litre in the year 2017 - 18. The affordable electricity retail price (860 Kcal / Kwh at 75 % input electricity to shaft power efficiency) to replace diesel (lower heating value 8572 Kcal / litre at 40 % fuel energy to crank shaft power efficiency) is 12.21 Rs / Kwh. The retail price of petrol is 70.00 Rs / litre in the year 2017 - 18. The affordable electricity retail price (860 Kcal / Kwh at 75 % input electricity to shaft power efficiency) to replace petrol (lower heating value 7693 Kcal / litre at 33 % fuel energy to crank shaft power efficiency) is 17.79 Rs / Kwh. In the year 2012 - 13, India consumed 15.744 million tons petrol and 69.179 millon tons diesel which are mainly produced from imported crude oil at huge foreign exchange out go.
Electricity driven vehicles would become popular in future when its energy storage / battery technology becomes more long lasting and maintenance free. V2G is also feasible with electricity driven vehicles to contribute for catering the peak load in the electricity grid. Electricity driven vehicles can also be continuously charged with Wireless Electricity Transmission (WET) technology which transmits electricity over 5 km distance without wires to charge devices (mobile and stationary) between the range of 3 - 12 volts under any weather conditions.
India being located mostly in Tropics, its abundant solar power potential along with its wind, hydro and biomass power potential can meet all its energy needs perennially without depending on fossil fuels. The renewable solar and wind power potential of India is also capable to achieve food security in addition to energy security as high protein rich feed for fish / poultry / cattle can be produced from water with electricity which is known as power to food
According to Oil and Gas Journal, India had approximately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves as of January 2011, world 's 26th largest. United States Energy Information Administration estimates that India produced approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in 2010, while consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of natural gas. The electrical power and fertiliser sectors account for nearly three - quarters of natural gas consumption in India. Natural gas is expected to be an increasingly important component of energy consumption as the country pursues energy resource diversification and overall energy security.
The country already produces some coalbed methane and has major potential to expand this source of cleaner fuel. According to a 2011 Oil and Gas Journal report, India is estimated to have between 600 and 2000 Tcf of shale gas resources (one of the world 's largest). Despite its natural resource potential, and an opportunity to create energy industry jobs, India has yet to hold a licensing round for its shale gas blocks. The traditional natural gas reserves too have been very slow to develop in India because regulatory burdens and bureaucratic red tape severely limit the country 's ability to harness its natural gas resources.
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who is playing in the all ireland football final 2018 | 2018 All - Ireland Senior Football Championship - Wikipedia
The 2018 All - Ireland Senior Football Championship is the 131st edition of the GAA 's premier inter-county Gaelic football competition since its establishment in 1887.
Thirty - three teams entered the competition -- thirty - one of the thirty - two counties of Ireland (Kilkenny, as in previous years, did not enter), London and New York.
Provincial Championships format
Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster each organise a provincial championship. All provincial matches are knock - out but the teams who lose a match (with the exception of New York) enter the All - Ireland qualifiers.
Qualifiers format
Twenty - eight of the twenty - nine teams who were beaten in the provincial championships enter the All - Ireland qualifiers, which have a single - game knockout format. Sixteen of the seventeen teams (New York do not enter the qualifiers) who lost in provincial first round or quarter - final games play eight matches in round 1. The winners play the eight losing provincial semi-finalists in round 2. The eight winning teams from round 2 play - off against each other in round 3, with the four winning teams facing the four losing provincial finalists in round 4 to complete the double - elimination format. Further details of the format are included with each qualifier round listed below.
All - Ireland format
Significant changes to the format of the All - Ireland championship were passed at the GAA 's Annual Congress in February 2017 and implemented in the 2018 championship. The major change was the creation of the All - Ireland Super 8 's (officially referred to as the All - Ireland Quarter - Final Group Stage), which replaced the knockout quarter - finals. The eight remaining teams in the Championship are split into two groups of four teams. One group features the Connacht champions, Munster champions, Leinster runners - up (or the team that defeats them in the qualifiers) and Ulster runners - up (or the team that defeats them in the qualifiers). The reverse is employed for the other group, which features the Leinster champions, Ulster champions, Connacht runners - up (or the team that defeats them in the qualifiers) and Munster runners - up (or team that defeats them in the qualifiers).
The top two teams in each of the two Super 8 groups advance to the semi-finals, with the winners of those matches meeting in the All - Ireland Senior Football Championship Final. The All - Ireland final was initially scheduled for 26 August 2018 but was moved to 2 September 2018 to avoid clashing with Pope Francis 's visit to Ireland.
A number of former players have publicly criticised the new format as they believe it will result in the same top county teams regularly playing at least three high - profile matches in July and August while the remaining teams are without competitive football until the end of December, thereby enabling the top teams to become even more elite. Prominent sportswriter and RTÉ Sport analyst Joe Brolly referred to the new system as the "Super 8 / Crap 25 ''. The changes will be trialled for three years before being reviewed by the GAA in late 2020.
The county teams from Connacht play London and New York on a rotational basis. The match involving New York became a quarter - final in 2018, having been a preliminary game in the previous three years.
The winners receive the J.J. Nestor Cup.
The four winning teams in the previous year 's quarter - finals were given byes to this year 's quarter - finals. Six of the seven remaining teams played off in the first round with the seventh team receiving a bye to the quarter - finals.
The two winning teams in the previous year 's semi-finals were given byes to this year 's semi-finals.
All nine teams were drawn randomly without conditions to determine the fixtures.
The A and B split system for the qualifier draws introduced in 2014 was discontinued after 2017. In qualifier rounds one to three, teams from divisions three and four of the 2018 National Football League have home advantage if drawn against teams from divisions one or two. All qualifier matches are knockout.
Qualifiers Round 1: 9 June 2018 Qualifiers Round 2: 23 June 2018 Qualifiers Round 3: 30 June 2018 Qualifiers Round 4: 7 & 8 July 2018
In the first round, sixteen of the seventeen teams who were beaten in the preliminary rounds or quarter - finals of the provincial championships compete. New York does not enter the qualifiers. The round 1 draw is unrestricted − if two teams have previously met in a provincial match they can be drawn to meet again. The eight winners of these matches play the eight losing provincial semi-finalists in round 2 of the qualifiers. The draw was conducted on 28 May 2018.
The following teams take part in round 1:
In the second round, the eight losing provincial semi-finalists play the eight winning teams from round 1 of the qualifiers. The round 2 draw is unrestricted − if two teams have previously met in a provincial match they can be drawn to meet again. The eight winners of these matches play each other in round 3. The draw was conducted on 11 June 2018.
The following teams take part in round 2 --
In the third round, the eight winning teams from round 2 play off in four matches. Round 3 draw rules do not allow two teams that have played each other in a provincial match to meet again if such a pairing can be avoided. The four winners of these matches play the four losing provincial finalists in round 4. The draw was conducted on 25 June 2018.
The following teams take part in round 3 --
In the fourth round, the four losing provincial finalists play the four winning teams from round 3 of the qualifiers. Round 4 draw rules do not allow teams that have met in a provincial match to meet again if such a pairing can be avoided, which meant Fermanagh were kept apart from Armagh and Monaghan, who they had met in the quarter - finals and semi-finals of the Ulster Championship respectively. The matches are normally held in neutral venues. The four winners of these matches qualify for the All - Ireland Quarter - Final Group Stage. The draw was conducted on 2 July 2018.
The following teams take part in round 4 --
Most Irish sports media refer to this stage as the Super 8s.
Format
The four provincial champions and the four winning teams from round four of the All - Ireland qualifiers play three games each in two groups of four teams during the months of July and August. Each group consists of two provincial champions and the two losing finalists of the other two provinces or the team that beats them in round four of the qualifiers.
In the first round (officially phase one) the two provincial champions play each other and the two round four qualifiers play each other in Croke Park. In rounds two and three (phases two and three) the provincial champions play the two qualifiers. In phase two the qualifiers have home advantage and the provincial winners are at home in phase three. Dublin, if they qualify, will also play their home game at Croke Park.
Two points are awarded for a win and one point for a draw. The top two teams in each group advance to the All - Ireland semi-finals.
Tie - breaker
If only two teams are level on group points -
If three or more teams are level on group points, score difference is used to rank the teams.
The winners of Group 1 play the runners - up of Group 2 and the winners of Group 2 play the runners - up of Group 1.
The final was initially planned for 26 August 2018. It was rescheduled to 2 September 2018 to avoid a clash with the visit of Pope Francis to Ireland.
Each team has a nominal home stadium, though not all teams are guaranteed a home game over the course of the Championship. In addition, games may be played at neutral or alternate venues. For example, Dublin have not played a Championship game in Parnell Park, their nominal home, since the 2004 Championship.
RTÉ, the national broadcaster in Ireland, provide the majority of the live television coverage of the football championship in the second year of a five - year deal running from 2017 until 2021. In the UK, Premier Sports have exclusive coverage of 26 games including Sunday provincial games from all 4 regions, 1st / 2nd choice of qualifiers from rounds 1 and 2 and 4 of the 12 quarter - fiinal group matches. Sky Sports broadcast a number of matches and have exclusive rights to a number of games including some All - Ireland super 8 matches. BBC Northern Ireland showed at least two live games from the Ulster Championship and other games were shown in their entirety at a later time. BBC NI are also showing the All - Ireland final due to the presence of Tyrone, a Northern Ireland county.
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who won second place on america's got talent | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Mel B and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
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it's gotta be the morning after lyrics | The Morning After (Maureen McGovern song) - wikipedia
"The Morning After '' (also known as "The Song from The Poseidon Adventure '') is a song written by Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn for the 1972 film The Poseidon Adventure. It won the 1972 Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 45th Academy Awards in March 1973. After the film 's release, it was recorded by Maureen McGovern and became a hit single for her following its release in May 1973. It was a number - one hit in the US for two weeks during August 1973, and became a Gold record.
The song was written in March 1972 by 20th Century Fox songwriters Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn, who were asked to write the love theme for The Poseidon Adventure in one night. The finished product was called "Why Must There Be a Morning After? '' but changes by the record label resulted in the song 's more optimistic lyric of "there 's got to be a morning after ''. In the end titles of the film, it is called "The Song from The Poseidon Adventure '', though it would become best known by the title of the single, "The Morning After ''.
The song is performed in the film by the character of Nonnie, played by Carol Lynley, but is actually sung by a vocal double, Renee Armand. It appears twice, during a warm - up rehearsal and then later during the New Year 's Eve party early in the film. The lyrics relate to the themes of the film, as a band of passengers survive the capsizing of the ship SS Poseidon and have to escape the sinking wreck.
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what all is found inside the pyramids of egypt | Great Pyramid of Giza - wikipedia
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The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.
Based on a mark in an interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference to the fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10 - to 20 - year period concluding around 2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 metres (481 feet), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man - made structure in the world for more than 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by limestone casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories about the Great Pyramid 's construction techniques. Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so - called Queen 's Chamber and King 's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The main part of the Giza complex is a set of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu 's wives, an even smaller "satellite '' pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.
Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as "Cheops '') and was constructed over a 20 - year period. Khufu 's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon) is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).
Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880 -- 82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing - stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north - eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1 / 50 of an inch).
The pyramid remained the tallest man - made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, unsurpassed until the 160 - metre - tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid 's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length. The base is horizontal and flat to within ± 15 mm (0.6 in). The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc) based on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.
The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie 's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 Egyptian Royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760 / 280 Egyptian Royal cubits equates to 2 π to an accuracy of better than 0.05 % (corresponding to the well - known approximation of π as 22 / 7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it ''. Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder 's design ''. Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building. In 2013, rolls of papyrus called the Diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered limestone and other construction materials from Tora to Giza.
The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King 's '' chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid. It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones '' -- slant - faced, but flat - topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 51⁄2 palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An - Nasir Nasir - ad - Din al - Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo, not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.
Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians ' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres '' and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible ''. It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie 's "cement '') that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.
Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid 's construction techniques. Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers ' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.
One mystery of the pyramid 's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1 - to - 1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means ''. He also argues for a 14 - year time - span for its construction. A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.
The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26 ° 31'23 '' through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.
28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers ' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen 's Chamber ''. The passage is 1.1 m (3'8 ") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.
The "Queen 's Chamber '' is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.
In the north and south walls of the Queen 's Chamber there are shafts, which, unlike those in the King 's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King 's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen 's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.
The shafts in the Queen 's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft), he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors '' with two eroded copper "handles ''. Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it. The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.
Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society 's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fibre - optic "micro snake camera '' that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles '' embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door '' to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.
The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery, rather than resting on the block beneath it, in order to prevent cumulative pressure.
At the upper end of the Gallery on the right - hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837 -- 1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J.S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.
The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage. This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.
At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now - vanished doors.
In 2017, scientists from the Scan Pyramids Project discovered a large cavity above the Grand Gallery, using muon radiography that can detect cosmic rays. Its length is at least 30 metres (98 ft) and its cross-section is similar to that of the Grand Gallery. It was detected using three different technologies: nuclear emulsion films, scintillator hodoscopes, and gas detectors. The purpose of the cavity is not known and it is not accessible but according to Zahi Hawass it may have been a gap used in the construction of the Grand Gallery. The Japanese research team disputes this, however, saying that the huge void is completely different from the construction spaces previously identified.
The "King 's Chamber '' is 20 Egyptian Royal cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog - leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts '' for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king 's spirit to the heavens.
The King 's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King 's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison 's Chamber '', "Wellington 's Chamber '', "Nelson 's Chamber '', "Lady Arbuthnot 's Chamber '', and "Campbell 's Chamber ''. It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King 's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons ' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell 's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.
The only object in the King 's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw - marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.
Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers ' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al - Ma'mun 's workmen using a battering ram. The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el - Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated. The basalt blocks show "clear evidence '' of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw '' may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as the Queens ' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister - wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.
The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker 's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City '', dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520 -- 2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490 -- 2472 BC). Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries '' may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived, Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.
In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans ' settlement. Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu 's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death. A worker 's cemetery used at least between Khufu 's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.
There are three boat - shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el - Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.
The result is a cedar - wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat - shaped, air - conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.
Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid - building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Brier and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed '' by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began. Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom '', before the Arab caliph Abdullah al - Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.
I.E.S. Edwards discusses Strabo 's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations ''. Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo 's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones '', in order to explain why al - Ma'mun could not find the entrance.
He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus '' and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty - sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.
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what are dimensions for a full size bed | Bed size - wikipedia
Standard bed sizes are based on standard mattress sizes, which vary from country to country. Bed sizes also vary according to the size and degree of ornamentation of the bed frame. Dimensions and names vary considerably around the world, with most countries having their own standards and terminology. In addition, two mattresses with the same nominal size may still have slightly different dimensions, due to manufacturing tolerances, amount of padding, and support type.
Modern manufacturing conventions have produced many standard mattress and box spring sizes. Beds vary by country of origin as per the table below. These dimensions are for the mattress -- actual bed frames are a little larger to accommodate the mattress. Mattress thickness varies considerably.
71 in × 79 in
Standard bed sizes in the US and Canada are:
Most modern beds / mattresses sold in the UK and Ireland are constructed using metric dimensions.
It is worth noting that "bed size '' in the UK generally refers to mattress size. This is because mattresses have a standard size grading, whereas bed frames do not. While many companies in the UK do offer bespoke bed making services, most mass - produced bed linens, bed frames and mattresses fit only the standard bed sizes above. It should be noted that a Queen size mattress in the UK is often misunderstood to be one of the larger sizes as is the case in many other parts of the world. However, at 120cm in width, it is smaller than a UK double. Another common mistake is to use a mattress size as the required space for the full dimensions of the bed and mattress.
Single size beds are usually 90 cm wide by 190 cm long.
Most common sizes for double beds are: 140 cm wide by 190 cm long 160 cm wide by 200 cm long 180 cm wide by 200 cm long (less common, but increasing popularity).
Due to the popularity of imported beds (especially from IKEA), the 200 cm length is becoming more common.
In Italy, beds are classified by name and use the term Piazza as in "one place '' Standard sizes are:
Less common:
Due to the popularity of imported beds (especially from IKEA), the 200 cm length is becoming more common.
These sizes are for Germany, Poland, Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. There are some variations between the Nordic countries and the Baltic nations, but these are the most common sizes:
Single:
Double:
Most beds are 200 cm (79 in) cm long. Extra long beds are usually 220 cm (87 in), but they are rare.
In Portugal the most common sizes for beds are:
Solteiro (single) 80 cm (31.5 inches) wide by 190 cm long (can go up to 105 cm wide by 200 cm long)
Casal (double) 140 cm (55 in) wide by 190, 195 or 200 cm long
Queen Size 160 cm (63 inches) or 180 cm (71 inches) wide by 190, 195 or 200 cm long
King Size 180 cm (71 inches) wide by 190, 195 or 200 cm long
Super King Size 200 cm (78.74 inches) wide by 200 cm long
In Spain the most common sizes are:
180 / 190 / 200 cm long
80 / 90 / 105 / 120 / 135 / 150 cm wide, the most common:
"Individual '' (single) = 90 cm wide
"Matrimonio '' (marital) = 135 / 150 cm wide
Single:
Double:
The following bed sizes are available in Australia
The following bed sizes are available in New Zealand
The following bed sizes are available in South Africa:
Beds are also available in extra length, which is 200 cm.
The following bed sizes are available in Singapore and Malaysia:
In China, the regulation standard has following sizes available:
In practice, bed sizes are usually categorized by the width. The length is typically two meters, but may vary. The most common sizes are:
There are also extra size beds available, but they are less common.
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how does scoring work in golf match play | Match play - wikipedia
Match play is a scoring system for golf in which a player, or team, earns a point for each hole in which they have bested their opponents; as opposed to stroke play, in which the total number of strokes is counted over one or more rounds of 18 holes. In professional golf, a small number of notable tournaments use the match play scoring system.
Unlike stroke play, in which the unit of scoring is the total number of strokes taken over one or more rounds of golf, match play scoring consists of individual holes won, halved or lost. On each hole, the most that can be gained is one point. Golfers play as normal, counting the strokes taken on a given hole. The golfer with the lowest score on a given hole receives one point. If the golfers tie, then the hole is halved. For example, in an 18 - hole match, the first hole is a par - 4 and Player A scores a 3 (birdie) and Player B scores a 4 (par); Player A is now 1 - up with 17 to play. In the same match on the second hole, a par - 5, Player A takes 8 strokes and Player B takes 5 (par); Player B wins the hole and the match is now "all square '' with 16 to play. On the third hole, a par - 3, both players take 3 strokes and the match is all square with 15 holes to play. Once a player is "up '' more holes than there are holes remaining to play the match is over. For example, if after 12 holes Player A is 7 - up with six left to play, Player A is said to have won the match "7 and 6 ''.
A team that is leading by x holes with x holes remaining is said to be "dormie - x '' or simply "dormie '', meaning that they need one more halved hole to win the match (or that the other team must win all the remaining holes in order to halve the match). For example, if Player A is 2 - up with 2 to play, he is dormie; the worst outcome for Player A at that point is a tie, unless the format calls for extra holes to determine a winner.
In a tournament event where the score is all square after the last hole (usually 18 or 36), the players will play on until a player wins a hole (sudden death). In the Ryder Cup and other similar team events, the match is not finished this way, and the teams each receive a half point. In such events there are points accumulated over several days, playing different formats, and the total determines the winning team.
Scoring match play using handicaps is not done exactly the same way it is done in a stroke play event. In 18 - hole stroke play where Player A is a - 10 handicap and Player B is a - 19 handicap, Player A gets one stroke off his score on the ten hardest holes (by handicap rating on scorecard); Player B gets two strokes off his score on the hardest hole and one stroke off on the other 17.
In match play, Player A would play as "scratch '' (zero handicap) and Player B would get one stroke off his score on the nine hardest holes. In other words, the 10 handicap becomes zero and the 19 handicap becomes nine.
In team match play competition, where Team A consists of Player A1 (a - 10 handicap), and Player A2 (a - 15 handicap) and where Team B consists of Player B1 (a - 19 handicap) and Player B2 (a - 30 handicap), Player A1 plays as "scratch ''; A2 gets one stroke off his score on the five hardest holes; Player B1 gets one stroke off his score on the nine hardest holes; and B2 will take 2 strokes off the two hardest holes and 1 stroke off the other 16. However, the USGA does not restrict the handicap of the low partner but some local clubs and organized tournaments do. That is, in team play, if no player can have a handicap more than 8 strokes higher than his partner, B2 would play as if his or her handicap were - 27 (high partner 's handicap of 19 + 8 = 27).
Currently, there are few professional tournaments that use match play. They include the biennial Ryder Cup played by two teams, one representing the USA and the other representing Europe; the biennial Presidents Cup for teams representing the USA and International (non-European) players; WGC Match Play; and the older Volvo World Match Play Championship, an invitational event which is now part of the European Tour. Formerly, the PGA Championship, one of the majors, used match play, but it changed to a stroke play event in 1958.
Women 's professional golf had no event directly comparable to the Accenture Championship until the HSBC Women 's World Match Play Championship was introduced in 2005. After it was canceled in 2007, the LPGA was without a match play event until the Sybase Match Play Championship was played from 2010 to 2012. Women 's golf also has the biennial Solheim Cup staged between two teams, one including USA - born players and one including players born in Europe. In 2014, a new women 's match play tournament began, the International Crown -- a biennial match play competition featuring teams from eight countries. From 2005 to 2008, women 's golf held the Lexus Cup, an event pitting an International team against an Asian team.
The USGA championships -- Amateur, Junior Amateur, Mid-Amateur, Senior Amateur, and team (four - ball) for both men and women -- are conducted with two rounds of stroke play to cut the field to 64 (individual) or 32 (teams), and then proceed to a single - elimination match play tournament. All elimination matches are 18 holes except for the final in individual competitions, which is 36 holes.
The European Tour and PGA Tour Australasia co-sanction a Perth (Australia) tournament that in 2017 adopts a match play format. It is conducted with three rounds of stroke play, with two cuts -- one to 65 at the end of the second round, and one to 24 at the end of the third round, then proceeds on the final day to a single - elimination match play tournament with the top eight exempt from the first round. All elimination matches are six holes, with a tie - breaker hole played twice. The first hole will be a standard par - 3, and the second time around closest to pin will end the round.
The European Tour also has the GolfSixes, which uses 16 pairs of players, by country, and uses a round robin grouping of four groups of four, with each group playing three matches with a similar format to the elimination matches in Perth, and the results determine second - day matches. Each group will play a maximum of 36 holes (six matches).
Golfers can employ a slightly different strategy during a match play event since the scoring is different. The situation in the match and the outcome of each shot already played on a hole will both be taken into account. On the whole, match play encourages more aggressive play, especially at the professional level, where a par is not usually good enough to win a hole. Since a very poor result for a hole is no worse than a slightly - below - average result when playing against an opponent with an average score, it often makes sense to accept the higher risk connected with aggressive tactics. However, in some circumstances players will be especially cautious in match play. For instance, a player may choose to play more conservatively if the opponent has hit a poor tee shot or is otherwise under pressure to compensate a poor start on a particular hole, reasoning that there is a good chance to win the hole with an average result.
There is a format of match play called "Irish match play '' in which 3 or 4 individuals may compete against each other. A points system is assigned where as an outright win on a hole for a single player constitutes 2 points, a half of the hole for 2 or more players is equal to a single point. This format allows golfers to enjoy the format of hole - by - hole match play in groups larger than 2 people.
Another alternative version of singles matchplay for more than 3 people is popularly known as Rowan Matchplay. Rowan Matchplay begins with all participants playing against one another until one player wins a hole outright posting the better score than all other playing partners on a hole. That player is then 1 up versus all of their combined playing partners who now form a team against the player leading and try to get the match back to all - square. The player leading at the end of 18 holes is the winner. For example, in a 3 player game, after someone goes 1 - up, the match then takes the form of the leading player versus the scores of the other two players.
Another form is "medal match play '', which combines the head - to - head match play style with medal or stroke play scores. Each match between two players or teams of players is determined by the 18 - hole medal score instead of on a hole - by - hole basis. The advantage is that ties in group or pool play can be broken by overall medal scores. This format was used in the Piccadilly Medal, the Liggett & Myers Open Match Play Championship, the 1986 Seiko - Tucson Match Play Championship, the Dunhill Cup, World Golf Final, and starting in 2018, albeit with a nine - hole medal score, the Belgian Knockout.
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who is the football player in blind side based on | Michael Oher - wikipedia
Michael Jerome Oher (/ ɔː r /; né Williams Jr.; born May 28, 1986) is an American football offensive tackle who is currently a free agent. He played college football for the University of Mississippi, and was drafted by the Baltimore Ravens in the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft. He has also played for the Tennessee Titans and Carolina Panthers.
Oher earned unanimous All - American honors at Mississippi, and was drafted by the Baltimore Ravens in the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft. His life through his final year of high school and first year of college is one of the subjects of Michael Lewis ' 2006 book, The Blind Side: Evolution of a Game, and was featured in the Academy Award - winning 2009 film The Blind Side.
Born Michael Jerome Williams, Jr., in Memphis, Tennessee, he was one of twelve children born to Denise Oher. His mother was an alcoholic and crack cocaine addict, and his father, Michael Jerome Williams, was frequently in prison. He received little attention and discipline during his childhood. He repeated both first and second grades, and attended eleven different schools during his first nine years as a student. He was placed in foster care at age seven, and alternated between living in various foster homes and periods of homelessness. Oher 's biological father was a former cell mate of Denise Oher 's brother and was murdered in prison when Oher was a senior in high school.
Oher played football during his freshman year at a public high school in Memphis and applied for admission to Briarcrest Christian School at the instigation of acquaintance Tony Henderson, an auto mechanic, with whom he was living temporarily. Henderson was enrolling his son at the school in order to fulfill the dying wish of the boy 's grandmother and thought Oher might enroll as well. The school 's football coach, Hugh Freeze, submitted Oher 's school application to the headmaster, who agreed to accept him if Oher could complete a home study program first. Despite not finishing the program, he was admitted when the headmaster realized that his requirement had removed Oher from the public education system.
Coached by Freeze and Tim Long, Briarcrest 's offensive line coach, Oher was named Division II (2A) Lineman of the Year in 2003, and First Team Tennessee All - State. Scout.com rated Oher a five - star recruit and the No. 5 offensive lineman prospect in the country. Before that season and for his prior 20 months at Briarcrest, Oher had been living with several foster families. In 2004, Leigh Anne and Sean Tuohy, a couple with a daughter and son attending Briarcrest, allowed Oher to live with them and eventually adopted him. The family began tending to his needs after becoming familiar with his difficult childhood. They also hired a tutor for him, who worked with him for 20 hours per week.
Oher also earned two letters each in track and basketball. He averaged 22 points and 10 rebounds a game, earning All - State honors by helping lead the basketball team to a 27 -- 6 record, winning the district championship as a senior. Oher was also a state runner - up in the discus as a senior.
Oher 's low grades were initially a barrier to his acceptance to an NCAA program. He eventually increased his 0.76 grade point average (GPA) to a 2.52 GPA by the end of his senior year so he could attend a Division I school by enrolling in some 10 - day - long Internet - based courses from Brigham Young University. Taking and passing the internet courses allowed him to replace Ds and Fs earned in earlier school classes, such as English, with As earned via the Internet. This finally raised his graduating GPA over the required minimum.
At the conclusion of his senior season, Oher participated in the 2005 U.S. Army All - American Bowl.
Though he received scholarship offers from Tennessee, Louisiana State, Alabama, Auburn, and South Carolina, Oher ultimately decided to play for Ed Orgeron at the University of Mississippi, the alma mater of his guardians, Leigh Anne and Sean Tuohy. His decision to play for the Ole Miss Rebels football team sparked an investigation by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The first issue was that Oher 's grade - point average (GPA) was still too low to meet the requirements for a Division I scholarship at the time of the offer from Ole Miss. That difficulty was corrected by graduation, when Oher completed online classes through Brigham Young University. The second issue was the Tuohys ' preexisting relationship with the school and the fact that Ole Miss hired Freeze twenty days after Oher signed his letter of intent. Freeze asserted that his position with Ole Miss was not an example of quid pro quo for encouraging Oher to attend the school, but rather the result of his preexisting relationship with Ole Miss offensive coordinator Noel Mazzone. The NCAA did not close its case on its suspicions of collusion. However, it ruled that Ole Miss had committed no NCAA violations in its recruitment of Oher. Freeze was found guilty of secondary violations for contacting other Memphis - area recruits before joining the Ole Miss staff.
Oher started in ten games as a guard during his first season with the Ole Miss Rebels, becoming a first - team freshman All - American. After shifting to the position of left tackle for the 2006 season, he was named to various preseason All - Conference and All - American teams. Oher was named a second - team Southeastern Conference (SEC) offensive lineman after his sophomore season and a first - team SEC offensive lineman after his junior season. Oher was also successful academically at Ole Miss, and his tested IQ score increased 20 to 30 points between when he was measured in the public - school systems growing up and when he was measured in college.
On January 14, 2008, Oher declared that he would be entering the 2008 NFL Draft. However, two days later, he announced his withdrawal from the draft to return to Ole Miss for his senior season. After the 2008 season, Oher was recognized as a unanimous first - team All - American, made the honor roll for the second time (the first time being his sophomore year), and graduated with a degree in criminal justice in the spring of 2009.
Already in 2008, Oher was projected as one of the top prospects for the 2009 NFL Draft. The Baltimore Ravens drafted Oher with the 23rd pick in the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft. The Ravens had acquired the pick from the New England Patriots in exchange for their first - and fifth - round draft picks. The Tuohy family was there to witness his draft day selection.
On July 30, 2009, Oher signed a five - year, $13.8 million contract with the Baltimore Ravens. He started the 2009 season as right tackle, but was moved to left tackle after an injury to lineman Jared Gaither. In week eight, he returned to right tackle.
Oher started every game in 2009, eleven at right tackle and five at left tackle. He played right tackle in his first post-season game, January 10, 2010, against the New England Patriots, and did not allow a single sack as the Ravens won 33 -- 14.
Oher was second in the voting for Associated Press ' NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award, with six votes.
Prior to the 2010 NFL season, Oher was moved to the left tackle position. During the 2011 pre-season, the Ravens announced that Oher would be moving back to the right side. On February 3, 2013, Oher won his first Super Bowl ring after the Ravens defeated the San Francisco 49ers 34 -- 31 in Super Bowl XLVII.
On March 14, 2014, Oher signed a four - year, $20 million contract with the Tennessee Titans. Oher started eleven games for the Titans, and was placed on injured reserve on December 13 after missing the previous two games due to a toe injury. Pro Football Focus graded Oher as the 74th best tackle out of 78 for the 2014 season. The Titans released Oher on February 5, 2015.
On March 6, 2015, Oher signed a two - year, $7 million contract with the Carolina Panthers. Dave Gettleman, the Panthers GM, said that Oher would be the Panthers ' starting left tackle going into the season despite his struggles in Tennessee, saying "We did our homework on Michael, and we feel very strongly that he can be an answer for us. He 'll be inserted at left tackle, and we 'll go from there. '' Oher cited Cam Newton as an influential factor in his decision to sign with Carolina and Oher responded with one of his best seasons as a professional, protecting Newton 's blind side. Oher played in 98.4 % of the team 's snaps, allowed a career - low four sacks -- tied for eighth - fewest in the league -- and was penalized only three times for 25 yards.
On February 7, 2016, Oher was part of the Panthers team that played in Super Bowl 50. In the game, the Panthers fell to the Denver Broncos by a score of 24 -- 10.
On June 17, 2016, Oher signed a three - year contract extension with the Panthers worth $21.6 million with $9.5 guaranteed. Oher was placed on injured reserve on November 25, 2016 with a concussion -- having played in only three games during the 2016 season.
On July 20, 2017, Oher was released by the Panthers after a failed physical.
On April 14, 2017, Oher was cited for misdemeanor assault because of an altercation with an Uber driver in Nashville, Tennessee. The alleged incident involved the driver shoving his hands in Oher 's face as they were arguing, to which Oher responded by shoving the driver to the ground and kicking him in the leg. Oher was listed in the citation as suspected of using alcohol near the time of the incident.
Oher is one of the subjects of Michael Lewis 's 2006 book, The Blind Side: Evolution of a Game. Before the book was published, excerpts appeared in The New York Times Magazine as "The Ballad of Big Mike ''. His portion of the book was adapted for film and was directed by John Lee Hancock. The Blind Side was released in the United States on November 20, 2009. The movie stars Quinton Aaron as Michael Oher, alongside Sandra Bullock and Tim McGraw. The movie was nominated for Academy Awards for both Best Picture and Best Actress for Bullock. Bullock won an Oscar for her portrayal of Leigh Anne Tuohy.
Oher wrote his autobiography, I Beat The Odds: From Homelessness to The Blind Side and Beyond, in 2011.
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sword art online progressive volume 5 light novel english | List of Sword Art Online light novels - wikipedia
Sword Art Online is a Japanese light novel series written by Reki Kawahara with accompanying illustrations drawn by abec. The series takes place in the near - future and focuses on various virtual reality MMORPG worlds. Originally self - published online under the pseudonym Fumio Kunori, ASCII Media Works began publishing the novels on April 10, 2009 under their Dengeki Bunko imprint. The series has since grown to 18 volumes as of August 10, 2016 and the 20th volume was released on September 8, 2017. Yen Press began publishing the novels in English in North America and United Kingdom with the first volume on April 22, 2014. The novels are also published in China, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand, France, and Poland. With more than 16 million copies in print worldwide, there are future plans for publications in Germany, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Vietnam and others.
Kawahara also began writing a parallel series of light novels titled Sword Art Online: Progressive, a retelling of the original series ' Aincrad arc. However, instead of covering the arc in one light novel, Kawahara plans to take a floor by floor approach of the Aincrad arc. The first volume was released on October 10, 2012 and four volumes have been published as of December 2015.
In addition to the original storyline of Sword Art Online and Sword Art Online: Progressive, Kawahara has also written and published Sword Art Online side stories. These side stories have been posted on his website, in a collection of side stories in Accel World, have been sold at Comitia, Dengeki Bunko 's Fair and have come along with the limited edition Blu - Ray / DVD Sword Art Online compilation volumes. Before Sword Art Online was published, Kawahara had posted Sword Art Online novels on his website and there are still a few side stories on Sword Art Online, although the original novels have been removed. In addition, Kawahara has published a side story of Sword Art Online in one of his other works, Accel World. In the tenth volume of Accel World, there is a chapter where it depicts a cross over between Sword Art Online and Accel World. Several of the side stories that he has released are in a collection called the Sword Art Online Material Edition, which range from novels to manga. However, all of the art in the Material Editions is drawn by Kawahara himself.
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who said the greatest good for the greatest number | Utilitarianism - wikipedia
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility. "Utility '' is defined in various ways, usually in terms of the well - being of sentient entities. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, described utility as the sum of all pleasure that results from an action, minus the suffering of anyone involved in the action. Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism and altruism, utilitarianism considers the interests of all beings equally.
Proponents of utilitarianism have disagreed on a number of points, such as whether actions should be chosen based on their likely results (act utilitarianism) or whether agents should conform to rules that maximize utility (rule utilitarianism). There is also disagreement as to whether total (total utilitarianism) or average (average utilitarianism) utility should be maximized.
Though the seeds of the theory can be found in the hedonists Aristippus and Epicurus, who viewed happiness as the only good, the tradition of utilitarianism properly began with Bentham, and has included John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick, R.M. Hare, David Braybrooke, and Peter Singer. It has been applied to social welfare economics, the crisis of global poverty, the ethics of raising animals for food and the importance of avoiding existential risks to humanity.
Benthamism, the utilitarian philosophy founded by Jeremy Bentham, was substantially modified by his successor John Stuart Mill, who popularized the word ' Utilitarianism '. In 1861, Mill acknowledged in a footnote that, though "believing himself to be the first person who brought the word ' utilitarian ' into use, he did not invent it. Rather, he adopted it from a passing expression in '' John Galt 's 1821 novel Annals of the Parish. Mill seems to have been unaware that Bentham had used the term ' utilitarian ' in his 1781 letter to George Wilson and his 1802 letter to Étienne Dumont.
In Chinese philosophy, the Mohists and their successors the "Chinese Legalists '' might be considered utilitarians, or at least the "earliest form of consequentialism ''. The fourth century witnessed the emergence of particular concerns for them, including discussions polarizing the concepts of self and private, commonly used in conjunction with profit and associated with fragmentation, division, partiality, and one - sidelines, with that of the state and "public '', represented by the duke and referring to what is official or royal, that is, the ruler himself, associated with unity, wholeness, objectivity, and universality. The later denotes the "universal Way ''.
However, the Mohists did not focus on emotional happiness, but promoted objective public goods: material wealth, a large population or family, and social order. On the other hand, the "Legalist '' Han Fei "is motivated almost totally from the ruler 's point of view. ''
The importance of happiness as an end for humans has long been recognized. Forms of hedonism were put forward by Aristippus and Epicurus; Aristotle argued that eudaimonia is the highest human good and Augustine wrote that "all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness. '' Happiness was also explored in depth by Aquinas. Different varieties of consequentialism also existed in the ancient and medieval world, like the state consequentialism of Mohism or the political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli. Mohist consequentialism advocated communitarian moral goods including political stability, population growth, and wealth, but did not support the utilitarian notion of maximizing individual happiness. Machiavelli was also an exponent of consequentialism. He believed that the actions of a state, however cruel or ruthless they may be, must contribute towards the common good of a society. Utilitarianism as a distinct ethical position only emerged in the eighteenth century.
Although utilitarianism is usually thought to start with Jeremy Bentham, there were earlier writers who presented theories that were strikingly similar. In An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, David Hume writes:
In all determinations of morality, this circumstance of public utility is ever principally in view; and wherever disputes arise, either in philosophy or common life, concerning the bounds of duty, the question can not, by any means, be decided with greater certainty, than by ascertaining, on any side, the true interests of mankind. If any false opinion, embraced from appearances, has been found to prevail; as soon as farther experience and sounder reasoning have given us juster notions of human affairs, we retract our first sentiment, and adjust anew the boundaries of moral good and evil.
Hume studied the works of, and corresponded with, Francis Hutcheson, and it was he who first introduced a key utilitarian phrase. In An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725), Hutcheson says when choosing the most moral action, virtue is in proportion to the number of people a particular action brings happiness to. In the same way, moral evil, or vice, is proportionate to the number of people made to suffer. The best action is the one that procures the greatest happiness of the greatest numbers -- and the worst is the one that causes the most misery.
In the first three editions of the book, Hutcheson included various mathematical algorithms "... to compute the Morality of any Actions. '' In this, he pre-figured the hedonic calculus of Bentham.
Some claim that John Gay developed the first systematic theory of utilitarian ethics. In Concerning the Fundamental Principle of Virtue or Morality (1731), Gay argues that:
happiness, private happiness, is the proper or ultimate end of all our actions... each particular action may be said to have its proper and peculiar end... (but).... they still tend or ought to tend to something farther; as is evident from hence, viz. that a man may ask and expect a reason why either of them are pursued: now to ask the reason of any action or pursuit, is only to enquire into the end of it: but to expect a reason, i.e. an end, to be assigned for an ultimate end, is absurd. To ask why I pursue happiness, will admit of no other answer than an explanation of the terms.
This pursuit of happiness is given a theological basis:
Now it is evident from the nature of God, viz. his being infinitely happy in himself from all eternity, and from his goodness manifested in his works, that he could have no other design in creating mankind than their happiness; and therefore he wills their happiness; therefore the means of their happiness: therefore that my behaviour, as far as it may be a means of the happiness of mankind, should be such... thus the will of God is the immediate criterion of Virtue, and the happiness of mankind the criterion of the wilt of God; and therefore the happiness of mankind may be said to be the criterion of virtue, but once removed... (and)... I am to do whatever lies in my power towards promoting the happiness of mankind.
Gay 's theological utilitarianism was developed and popularized by William Paley. It has been claimed that Paley was not a very original thinker and that the philosophical part of his treatise on ethics is "an assemblage of ideas developed by others and is presented to be learned by students rather than debated by colleagues. '' Nevertheless, his book The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy (1785) was a required text at Cambridge and Smith says that Paley 's writings were "once as well known in American colleges as were the readers and spellers of William McGuffey and Noah Webster in the elementary schools. '' Although now largely missing from the philosophical canon, Schneewind writes that "utilitarianism first became widely known in England through the work of William Paley. '' The now forgotten significance of Paley can be judged from the title of Thomas Rawson Birks 's 1874 work Modern Utilitarianism or the Systems of Paley, Bentham and Mill Examined and Compared.
Apart from restating that happiness as an end is grounded in the nature of God, Paley also discusses the place of rules. He writes:
... actions are to be estimated by their tendency. Whatever is expedient, is right. It is the utility of any moral rule alone, which constitutes the obligation of it.
But to all this there seems a plain objection, viz. that many actions are useful, which no man in his senses will allow to be right. There are occasions, in which the hand of the assassin would be very useful... The true answer is this; that these actions, after all, are not useful, and for that reason, and that alone, are not right.
To see this point perfectly, it must be observed that the bad consequences of actions are twofold, particular and general. The particular bad consequence of an action, is the mischief which that single action directly and immediately occasions. The general bad consequence is, the violation of some necessary or useful general rule...
You can not permit one action and forbid another, without showing a difference between them. Consequently, the same sort of actions must be generally permitted or generally forbidden. Where, therefore, the general permission of them would be pernicious, it becomes necessary to lay down and support the rule which generally forbids them.
Bentham 's book An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation was printed in 1780 but not published until 1789. It is possible that Bentham was spurred on to publish after he saw the success of Paley 's The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy. Bentham 's book was not an immediate success but his ideas were spread further when Pierre Étienne Louis Dumont translated edited selections from a variety of Bentham 's manuscripts into French. Traité de legislation civile et pénale was published in 1802 and then later retranslated back into English by Hildreth as The Theory of Legislation, although by this time significant portions of Dumont 's work had already been retranslated and incorporated into Sir John Bowring 's edition of Bentham 's works, which was issued in parts between 1838 and 1843.
Bentham 's work opens with a statement of the principle of utility:
Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do... By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever according to the tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness. I say of every action whatsoever, and therefore not only of every action of a private individual, but of every measure of government.
In Chapter IV, Bentham introduces a method of calculating the value of pleasures and pains, which has come to be known as the hedonic calculus. Bentham says that the value of a pleasure or pain, considered by itself, can be measured according to its intensity, duration, certainty / uncertainty and propinquity / remoteness. In addition, it is necessary to consider "the tendency of any act by which it is produced '' and, therefore, to take account of the act 's fecundity, or the chance it has of being followed by sensations of the same kind and its purity, or the chance it has of not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind. Finally, it is necessary to consider the extent, or the number of people affected by the action.
Perhaps aware that Hutcheson eventually removed his algorithms for calculating the greatest happiness because they "appear 'd useless, and were disagreeable to some readers '', Bentham contends that there is nothing novel or unwarranted about his method, for "in all this there is nothing but what the practice of mankind, wheresoever they have a clear view of their own interest, is perfectly conformable to. ''
Rosen warns that descriptions of utilitarianism can bear "little resemblance historically to utilitarians like Bentham and J.S. Mill '' and can be more "a crude version of act utilitarianism conceived in the twentieth century as a straw man to be attacked and rejected. '' It is a mistake to think that Bentham is not concerned with rules. His seminal work is concerned with the principles of legislation and the hedonic calculus is introduced with the words "Pleasures then, and the avoidance of pains, are the ends that the legislator has in view. '' In Chapter VII, Bentham says: "The business of government is to promote the happiness of the society, by punishing and rewarding... In proportion as an act tends to disturb that happiness, in proportion as the tendency of it is pernicious, will be the demand it creates for punishment. ''
The question then arises as to when, if at all, it might be legitimate to break the law. This is considered in The Theory of Legislation, where Bentham distinguishes between evils of the first and second orders. Those of the first order are the more immediate consequences; those of the second are when the consequences spread through the community causing "alarm '' and "danger ''.
It is true there are cases in which, if we confine ourselves to the effects of the first order, the good will have an incontestable preponderance over the evil. Were the offence considered only under this point of view, it would not be easy to assign any good reasons to justify the rigour of the laws. Every thing depends upon the evil of the second order; it is this which gives to such actions the character of crime, and which makes punishment necessary. Let us take, for example, the physical desire of satisfying hunger. Let a beggar, pressed by hunger, steal from a rich man 's house a loaf, which perhaps saves him from starving, can it be possible to compare the good which the thief acquires for himself, with the evil which the rich man suffers?... It is not on account of the evil of the first order that it is necessary to erect these actions into offences, but on account of the evil of the second order.
Mill was brought up as a Benthamite with the explicit intention that he would carry on the cause of utilitarianism. Mill 's book Utilitarianism first appeared as a series of three articles published in Fraser 's Magazine in 1861 and was reprinted as a single book in 1863.
Mill rejects a purely quantitative measurement of utility and says:
It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognize the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone.
The word utility is used to mean general well - being or happiness, and Mill 's view is that utility is the consequence of a good action. Utility, within the context of utilitarianism, refers to people performing actions for social utility. With social utility, he means the well - being of many people. Mill 's explanation of the concept of utility in his work, Utilitarianism, is that people really do desire happiness, and since each individual desires their own happiness, it must follow that all of us desire the happiness of everyone, contributing to a larger social utility. Thus, an action that results in the greatest pleasure for the utility of society is the best action, or as Jeremy Bentham, the founder of early Utilitarianism put it, as the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
Mill not only viewed actions as a core part of utility, but as the directive rule of moral human conduct. The rule being that we should only be committing actions that provide pleasure to society. This view of pleasure was hedonistic, as it pursued the thought that pleasure is the highest good in life. This concept was adopted by Jeremy Bentham, the founder of Utilitarianism, and can be seen in his works. According to Mill, good actions result in pleasure, and that there is no higher end than pleasure. Mill says that good actions lead to pleasure and define good character. Better put, the justification of character, and whether an action is good or not, is based on how the person contributes to the concept of social utility. In the long run the best proof of a good character is good actions; and resolutely refuse to consider any mental disposition as good, of which the predominant tendency is to produce bad conduct. In the last chapter of Utilitarianism, Mill concludes that justice, as a classifying factor of our actions (being just or unjust) is one of the certain moral requirements, and when the requirements are all regarded collectively, they are viewed as greater according to this scale of "social utility '' as Mill puts it.
He also notes that, contrary to what its critics might say, there is "no known Epicurean theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect... a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation. '' However, he accepts that this is usually because the intellectual pleasures are thought to have circumstantial advantages, i.e. "greater permanency, safety, uncostliness, &c. '' Instead, Mill will argue that some pleasures are intrinsically better than others.
The accusation that hedonism is "doctrine worthy only of swine '' has a long history. In Nicomachean Ethics (Book 1 Chapter 5), Aristotle says that identifying the good with pleasure is to prefer a life suitable for beasts. The theological utilitarians had the option of grounding their pursuit of happiness in the will of God; the hedonistic utilitarians needed a different defence. Mill 's approach is to argue that the pleasures of the intellect are intrinsically superior to physical pleasures.
Few human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals, for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast 's pleasures; no intelligent human being would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an ignoramus, no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base, even though they should be persuaded that the fool, the dunce, or the rascal is better satisfied with his lot than they are with theirs... A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy, is capable probably of more acute suffering, and certainly accessible to it at more points, than one of an inferior type; but in spite of these liabilities, he can never really wish to sink into what he feels to be a lower grade of existence... It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question...
Mill argues that if people who are "competently acquainted '' with two pleasures show a decided preference for one even if it be accompanied by more discontent and "would not resign it for any quantity of the other '', then it is legitimate to regard that pleasure as being superior in quality. Mill recognizes that these "competent judges '' will not always agree, and states that, in cases of disagreement, the judgment of the majority is to be accepted as final. Mill also acknowledges that "many who are capable of the higher pleasures, occasionally, under the influence of temptation, postpone them to the lower. But this is quite compatible with a full appreciation of the intrinsic superiority of the higher. '' Mill says that this appeal to those who have experienced the relevant pleasures is no different from what must happen when assessing the quantity of pleasure, for there is no other way of measuring "the acutest of two pains, or the intensest of two pleasurable sensations. '' "It is indisputable that the being whose capacities of enjoyment are low, has the greatest chance of having them fully satisfied; and a highly - endowed being will always feel that any happiness which he can look for, as the world is constitute, is imperfect. ''
Mill also thinks that "intellectual pursuits have value out of proportion to the amount of contentment or pleasure (the mental state) that they produce ''. Mill also says that people should pursue these grand ideals, because if they choose to have gratification from petty pleasures, "some displeasure will eventually creep in. We will become bored and depressed. '' Mill claims that gratification from petty pleasures only gives short - term happiness and, subsequently, worsens the individual who may feel that his life lacks happiness, since the happiness is transient. Whereas, intellectual pursuits give long term happiness because provide the individual with constant opportunities throughout the years to improve his life, by benefiting from accruing knowledge. It should be noted that Mill 's views intellectual pursuits as "capable of incorporating the ' finer things ' in life '' while petty pursuits do not achieve this goal. Mill is saying that intellectual pursuits gives the individual the opportunity to escape the constant depression cycle since these pursuits allow them to achieve their ideals, while petty pleasures do not offer this. Although debate persists about the nature of Mill 's view of gratification, this suggests that his was a bifurcated position.
In Chapter Four of Utilitarianism, Mill considers what proof can be given for the principle of utility. He says:
The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible, is that people hear it... In like manner, I apprehend, the sole evidence it is possible to produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it... No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires his own happiness... we have not only all the proof which the case admits of, but all which it is possible to require, that happiness is a good: that each person 's happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons.
It is usual to say that Mill is committing a number of fallacies. He is accused of committing the naturalistic fallacy, because he is trying to deduce what people ought to do from what they in fact do; the fallacy of equivocation, because he moves from the fact that (1) something is desirable, i.e. is capable of being desired, to the claim that (2) it is desirable, i.e. that it ought to be desired; and the fallacy of composition, because the fact that people desire their own happiness does not imply that the aggregate of all persons will desire the general happiness.
Such allegations began to emerge in Mill 's lifetime, shortly after the publication of Utilitarianism, and persisted for well over a century, though the tide has been turning in recent discussions.
A defence of Mill against all three charges, with a chapter devoted to each, can be found in Necip Fikri Alican 's Mill 's Principle of Utility: A Defense of John Stuart Mill 's Notorious Proof (1994). This is the first, and remains the only, book - length treatment of the subject matter. Yet the alleged fallacies in the proof continue to attract scholarly attention in journal articles and book chapters.
Hall and Popkin defend Mill against this accusation pointing out that he begins Chapter Four by asserting that "questions of ultimate ends do not admit of proof, in the ordinary acceptation of the term '' and that this is "common to all first principles. '' According to Hall and Popkin, therefore, Mill does not attempt to "establish that what people do desire is desirable but merely attempts to make the principles acceptable. '' The type of "proof '' Mill is offering "consists only of some considerations which, Mill thought, might induce an honest and reasonable man to accept utilitarianism. ''
Having claimed that people do, in fact, desire happiness, Mill now has to show that it is the only thing they desire. Mill anticipates the objection that people desire other things such as virtue. He argues that whilst people might start desiring virtue as a means to happiness, eventually, it becomes part of someone 's happiness and is then desired as an end in itself.
The principle of utility does not mean that any given pleasure, as music, for instance, or any given exemption from pain, as for example health, are to be looked upon as means to a collective something termed happiness, and to be desired on that account. They are desired and desirable in and for themselves; besides being means, they are a part of the end. Virtue, according to the utilitarian doctrine, is not naturally and originally part of the end, but it is capable of becoming so; and in those who love it disinterestedly it has become so, and is desired and cherished, not as a means to happiness, but as a part of their happiness.
We may give what explanation we please of this unwillingness; we may attribute it to pride, a name which is given indiscriminately to some of the most and to some of the least estimable feelings of which is mankind are capable; we may refer it to the love of liberty and personal independence, an appeal to which was with the Stoics one of the most effective means for the inculcation of it; to the love of power, or the love of excitement, both of which do really enter into and contribute to it: but its most appropriate appellation is a sense of dignity, which all humans beings possess in one form or other, and in some, though by no means in exact, proportion to their higher faculties, and which is so essential a part of the happiness of those in whom it is strong, that nothing which conflicts with it could be, otherwise than momentarily, an object of desire to them.
The description of ideal utilitarianism was first used by Hastings Rashdall in The Theory of Good and Evil (1907), but it is more often associated with G.E. Moore. In Ethics (1912), Moore rejected a purely hedonistic utilitarianism and argued that there is a range of values that might be maximized. Moore 's strategy was to show that it is intuitively implausible that pleasure is the sole measure of what is good. He says that such an assumption:
involves our saying, for instance, that a world in which absolutely nothing except pleasure existed -- no knowledge, no love, no enjoyment of beauty, no moral qualities -- must yet be intrinsically better -- better worth creating -- provided only the total quantity of pleasure in it were the least bit greater, than one in which all these things existed as well as pleasure.
It involves our saying that, even if the total quantity of pleasure in each was exactly equal, yet the fact that all the beings in the one possessed in addition knowledge of many different kinds and a full appreciation of all that was beautiful or worthy of love in their world, whereas none of the beings in the other possessed any of these things, would give us no reason whatever for preferring the former to the latter.
Moore admits that it is impossible to prove the case either way, but he believed that it was intuitively obvious that even if the amount of pleasure stayed the same a world that contained such things as beauty and love would be a better world. He adds that, if a person was to take the contrary view, then "I think it is self - evident that he would be wrong. ''
In the mid-twentieth century a number of philosophers focused on the place of rules in utilitarian thinking. It was already accepted that it is necessary to use rules to help you choose the right action because the problems of calculating the consequences on each and every occasion would almost certainly result in you frequently choosing something less than the best course of action. Paley had justified the use of rules and Mill says:
It is truly a whimsical supposition that, if mankind were agreed in considering utility to be the test of morality, they would remain without any agreement as to what is useful, and would take no measures for having their notions on the subject taught to the young, and enforced by law and opinion... to consider the rules of morality as improvable, is one thing; to pass over the intermediate generalisations entirely, and endeavour to test each individual action directly by the first principle, is another... The proposition that happiness is the end and aim of morality, does not mean that no road ought to be laid down to that goal... Nobody argues that the art of navigation is not founded on astronomy, because sailors can not wait to calculate the Nautical Almanack. Being rational creatures, they go to sea with it ready calculated; and all rational creatures go out upon the sea of life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong.
However, rule utilitarianism proposes a more central role for rules that was thought to rescue the theory from some of its more devastating criticisms, particularly problems to do with justice and promise keeping. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, articles were published both for and against the new form of utilitarianism, and through this debate the theory we now call rule utilitarianism was created. In an introduction to an anthology of these articles, the editor was able to say: "The development of this theory was a dialectical process of formulation, criticism, reply and reformulation; the record of this process well illustrates the co-operative development of a philosophical theory. ''
Smart and McCloskey initially used the terms ' extreme ' and ' restricted ' utilitarianism but eventually everyone settled on the terms ' act ' and ' rule ' utilitarianism.
The essential difference is in what determines whether or not an action is the right action. Act utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it maximizes utility; rule utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it conforms to a rule that maximizes utility.
In 1956, Urmson published an influential article arguing that Mill justified rules on utilitarian principles. From then on, articles have debated this interpretation of Mill. In all probability, it was not a distinction that Mill was particularly trying to make and so the evidence in his writing is inevitably mixed. A collection of Mill 's writing published in 1977 includes a letter in which he says:
I agree with you that the right way of testing actions by their consequences, is to test them by the natural consequences of the particular action, and not by those which would follow if everyone did the same. But, for the most part, the consideration of what would happen if everyone did the same, is the only means we have of discovering the tendency of the act in the particular case.
This seems to tip the balance in favour of saying that Mill is best classified as an act utilitarian.
Some school level textbooks and at least one UK examination board make a further distinction between strong and weak rule utilitarianism. However, it is not clear that this distinction is made in the academic literature.
It has been argued that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case where breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule can be refined by the addition of a sub-rule that handles cases like the exception. This process holds for all cases of exceptions, and so the "rules '' have as many "sub-rules '' as there are exceptional cases, which, in the end, makes an agent seek out whatever outcome produces the maximum utility.
In Principles (1973), R.M. Hare accepts that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism but claims that this is a result of allowing the rules to be "as specific and un-general as we please. '' He argues that one of the main reasons for introducing rule utilitarianism was to do justice to the general rules that people need for moral education and character development and he proposes that "a difference between act - utilitarianism and rule - utilitarianism can be introduced by limiting the specificity of the rules, i.e., by increasing their generality. '' This distinction between a "specific rule utilitarianism '' (which collapses into act utilitarianism) and "general rule utilitarianism '' forms the basis of Hare 's two - level utilitarianism.
When we are "playing God or the ideal observer '', we use the specific form, and we will need to do this when we are deciding what general principles to teach and follow. When we are "inculcating '' or in situations where the biases of our human nature are likely to prevent us doing the calculations properly, then we should use the more general rule utilitarianism.
Hare argues that in practice, most of the time, we should be following the general principles:
One ought to abide by the general principles whose general inculcation is for the best; harm is more likely to come, in actual moral situations, from questioning these rules than from sticking to them, unless the situations are very extra-ordinary; the results of sophisticated felicific calculations are not likely, human nature and human ignorance being what they are, to lead to the greatest utility.
In Moral Thinking (1981), Hare illustrated the two extremes. The "archangel '' is the hypothetical person who has perfect knowledge of the situation and no personal biases or weaknesses and always uses critical moral thinking to decide the right thing to do; the "prole '' is the hypothetical person who is completely incapable of critical thinking and uses nothing but intuitive moral thinking and, of necessity, has to follow the general moral rules they have been taught or learned through imitation. It is not that some people are archangels and others proles, but rather that "we all share the characteristics of both to limited and varying degrees and at different times. ''
Hare does not specify when we should think more like an "archangel '' and more like a "prole '' as this will, in any case, vary from person to person. However, the critical moral thinking underpins and informs the more intuitive moral thinking. It is responsible for formulating and, if necessary, reformulating the general moral rules. We also switch to critical thinking when trying to deal with unusual situations or in cases where the intuitive moral rules give conflicting advice.
The concept of preference utilitarianism was first proposed in 1977 by John Harsanyi in Morality and the theory of rational behaviour, but preference utilitarianism is more commonly associated with R.M. Hare, Peter Singer and Richard Brandt.
Harsanyi claimed that his theory is indebted to Adam Smith, who equated the moral point of view with that of an impartial but sympathetic observer; to Kant, who insisted on the criterion of universality, which may also be described as a criterion of reciprocity; to the classical utilitarians who made maximizing social utility the basic criterion of morality; and to "the modern theory of rational behaviour under risk and uncertainty, usually described as Bayesian decision theory ''.
Harsanyi rejects hedonistic utilitarianism as being dependent on an outdated psychology saying that it is far from obvious that everything we do is motivated by a desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. He also rejects ideal utilitarianism because "it is certainly not true as an empirical observation that people 's only purpose in life is to have ' mental states of intrinsic worth '. ''
According to Harsanyi, "preference utilitarianism is the only form of utilitarianism consistent with the important philosophical principle of preference autonomy. By this I mean the principle that, in deciding what is good and what is bad for a given individual, the ultimate criterion can only be his own wants and his own preferences. ''
Harsanyi adds two caveats. People sometimes have irrational preferences. To deal with this, Harsanyi distinguishes between "manifest '' preferences and "true '' preferences. The former are those "manifested by his observed behaviour, including preferences possibly based on erroneous factual beliefs, or on careless logical analysis, or on strong emotions that at the moment greatly hinder rational choice '' whereas the latter are "the preferences he would have if he had all the relevant factual information, always reasoned with the greatest possible care, and were in a state of mind most conducive to rational choice. '' It is the latter that preference utilitarianism tries to satisfy.
The second caveat is that antisocial preferences, such as sadism, envy and resentment, have to be excluded. Harsanyi achieves this by claiming that such preferences partially exclude those people from the moral community:
Utilitarian ethics makes all of us members of the same moral community. A person displaying ill will toward others does remain a member of this community, but not with his whole personality. That part of his personality that harbours these hostile antisocial feelings must be excluded from membership, and has no claim for a hearing when it comes to defining our concept of social utility.
In The Open Society and its Enemies (1945), Karl Popper argued that the principle "maximize pleasure '' should be replaced by "minimize pain ''. He thought "it is not only impossible but very dangerous to attempt to maximize the pleasure or the happiness of the people, since such an attempt must lead to totalitarianism. '' He claimed that:
there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure... In my opinion human suffering makes a direct moral appeal, namely, the appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway. A further criticism of the Utilitarian formula "Maximize pleasure '' is that it assumes a continuous pleasure - pain scale that lets us treat degrees of pain as negative degrees of pleasure. But, from the moral point of view, pain can not be outweighed by pleasure, and especially not one man 's pain by another man 's pleasure. Instead of the greatest happiness for the greatest number, one should demand, more modestly, the least amount of avoidable suffering for all...
The actual term negative utilitarianism was introduced by R.N. Smart as the title to his 1958 reply to Popper in which he argued that the principle would entail seeking the quickest and least painful method of killing the entirety of humanity.
Negative total utilitarianism, in contrast, tolerates suffering that can be compensated within the same person.
Negative preference utilitarianism avoids the problem of moral killing with reference to existing preferences that such killing would violate, while it still demands a justification for the creation of new lives. A possible justification is the reduction of the average level of preference - frustration.
Others see negative utilitarianism as a branch within modern hedonistic utilitarianism, which assigns a higher weight to the avoidance of suffering than to the promotion of happiness. The moral weight of suffering can be increased by using a "compassionate '' utilitarian metric, so that the result is the same as in prioritarianism.
Pessimistic representatives of negative utilitarianism can be found in the environment of Buddhism.
Motive utilitarianism was first proposed by Robert Merrihew Adams in 1976. Whereas act utilitarianism requires us to choose our actions by calculating which action will maximize utility and rule utilitarianism requires us to implement rules that will, on the whole, maximize utility, motive utilitarianism "has the utility calculus being used to select motives and dispositions according to their general felicific effects, and those motives and dispositions then dictate our choices of actions. ''
The arguments for moving to some form of motive utilitarianism at the personal level can be seen as mirroring the arguments for moving to some form of rule utilitarianism at the social level. Adams refers to Sidgwick 's observation that "Happiness (general as well as individual) is likely to be better attained if the extent to which we set ourselves consciously to aim at it be carefully restricted. '' Trying to apply the utility calculation on each and every occasion is likely to lead to a sub-optimal outcome. Applying carefully selected rules at the social level and encouraging appropriate motives at the personal level is, so it is argued, likely to lead to a better overall outcome even if on some individual occasions it leads to the wrong action when assessed according to act utilitarian standards.
Adams concludes that "right action, by act - utilitarian standards, and right motivation, by motive - utilitarian standards, are incompatible in some cases. '' The necessity of this conclusion is rejected by Fred Feldman who argues that "the conflict in question results from an inadequate formulation of the utilitarian doctrines; motives play no essential role in it... (and that)... Precisely the same sort of conflict arises even when MU is left out of consideration and AU is applied by itself. '' Instead, Feldman proposes a variant of act utilitarianism that results in there being no conflict between it and motive utilitarianism.
Because utilitarianism is not a single theory but a cluster of related theories that have been developed over two hundred years, criticisms can be made for different reasons and have different targets.
A common objection to utilitarianism is the inability to quantify, compare, or measure happiness or well - being. Ray Briggs writes in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
One objection to this interpretation of utility is that there may not be a single good (or indeed any good) which rationality requires us to seek. But if we understand "utility '' broadly enough to include all potentially desirable ends -- pleasure, knowledge, friendship, health and so on -- it 's not clear that there is a unique correct way to make the tradeoffs between different goods so that each outcome receives a utility. There may be no good answer to the question of whether the life of an ascetic monk contains more or less good than the life of a happy libertine -- but assigning utilities to these options forces us to compare them.
Utility understood this way is a personal preference, in the absence of any objective measurement.
As Rosen has pointed out, claiming that act utilitarians are not concerned about having rules is to set up a "straw man ''. Similarly, Hare refers to "the crude caricature of act utilitarianism which is the only version of it that many philosophers seem to be acquainted with. '' Given what Bentham says about second order evils it would be a serious misrepresentation to say that he and similar act utilitarians would be prepared to punish an innocent person for the greater good. Nevertheless, whether they would agree or not, this is what critics of utilitarianism claim is entailed by the theory. A classic version of this criticism was given by H.J. McCloskey:
Suppose that a sheriff were faced with the choice either of framing a Negro for a rape that had aroused hostility to the Negroes (a particular Negro generally being believed to be guilty but whom the sheriff knows not to be guilty) -- and thus preventing serious anti-Negro riots which would probably lead to some loss of life and increased hatred of each other by whites and Negroes -- or of hunting for the guilty person and thereby allowing the anti-Negro riots to occur, while doing the best he can to combat them. In such a case the sheriff, if he were an extreme utilitarian, would appear to be committed to framing the Negro.
By "extreme '' utilitarian, McCloskey is referring to what later came to be called "act '' utilitarianism. He suggests one response might be that the sheriff would not frame the innocent negro because of another rule: "do not punish an innocent person ''. Another response might be that the riots the sheriff is trying to avoid might have positive utility in the long run by drawing attention to questions of race and resources to help address tensions between the communities.
In a later article, McCloskey says:
Surely the utilitarian must admit that whatever the facts of the matter may be, it is logically possible that an ' unjust ' system of punishment -- e.g. a system involving collective punishments, retroactive laws and punishments, or punishments of parents and relations of the offender -- may be more useful than a ' just ' system of punishment?
Some argue that it is impossible to do the calculation that utilitarianism requires because consequences are inherently unknowable. Daniel Dennett describes this as the Three Mile Island effect. Dennett points out that not only is it impossible to assign a precise utility value to the incident, it is impossible to know whether, ultimately, the near - meltdown that occurred was a good or bad thing. He suggests that it would have been a good thing if plant operators learned lessons that prevented future serious incidents.
Russell Hardin rejects such arguments. He argues that it is possible to distinguish the moral impulse of utilitarianism (which is "to define the right as good consequences and to motivate people to achieve these '') from our ability to correctly apply rational principles that, among other things, "depend on the perceived facts of the case and on the particular moral actor 's mental equipment. '' The fact that the latter is limited and can change does n't mean that the former has to be rejected. "If we develop a better system for determining relevant causal relations so that we are able to choose actions that better produce our intended ends, it does not follow that we then must change our ethics. The moral impulse of utilitarianism is constant, but our decisions under it are contingent on our knowledge and scientific understanding. ''
From the beginning, utilitarianism has recognized that certainty in such matters is unobtainable and both Bentham and Mill said that it was necessary to rely on the tendencies of actions to bring about consequences. G.E. Moore, writing in 1903, said:
We certainly can not hope directly to compare their effects except within a limited future; and all the arguments, which have ever been used in Ethics, and upon which we commonly act in common life, directed to shewing that one course is superior to another, are (apart from theological dogmas) confined to pointing out such probable immediate advantages...
An ethical law has the nature not of a scientific law but of a scientific prediction: and the latter is always merely probable, although the probability may be very great.
Act utilitarianism not only requires everyone to do what they can to maximize utility, but to do so without any favouritism. Mill said, "As between his own happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator. '' Critics say that this combination of requirements leads to utilitarianism making unreasonable demands. The well - being of strangers counts just as much as that of friends, family or self. "What makes this requirement so demanding is the gargantuan number of strangers in great need of help and the indefinitely many opportunities to make sacrifices to help them. '' As Shelly Kagan says, "Given the parameters of the actual world, there is no question that... (maximally)... promoting the good would require a life of hardship, self - denial, and austerity... a life spent promoting the good would be a severe one indeed. ''
Hooker describes two aspects to the problem: act utilitarianism requires huge sacrifices from those who are relatively better off and also requires sacrifice of your own good even when the aggregate good will be only slightly increased. Another way of highlighting the complaint is to say that in utilitarianism, "there is no such thing as morally permissible self - sacrifice that goes above and beyond the call of duty. '' Mill was quite clear about this, "A sacrifice which does not increase, or tend to increase, the sum total of happiness, it considers as wasted. ''
One response to the problem is to accept its demands. This is the view taken by Peter Singer, who says: "No doubt we do instinctively prefer to help those who are close to us. Few could stand by and watch a child drown; many can ignore the avoidable deaths of children in Africa or India. The question, however, is not what we usually do, but what we ought to do, and it is difficult to see any sound moral justification for the view that distance, or community membership, makes a crucial difference to our obligations. ''
Others argue that a moral theory that is so contrary to our deeply held moral convictions must either be rejected or modified. There have been various attempts to modify utilitarianism to escape its seemingly over-demanding requirements. One approach is to drop the demand that utility be maximized. In Satisficing Consequentialism, Michael Slote argues for a form of utilitarianism where "an act might qualify as morally right through having good enough consequences, even though better consequences could have been produced. '' One advantage of such a system is that it would be able to accommodate the notion of supererogatory actions.
Samuel Scheffler takes a different approach and amends the requirement that everyone be treated the same. In particular, Scheffler suggests that there is an "agent - centered prerogative '' such that when the overall utility is being calculated it is permitted to count our own interests more heavily than the interests of others. Kagan suggests that such a procedure might be justified on the grounds that "a general requirement to promote the good would lack the motivational underpinning necessary for genuine moral requirements '' and, secondly, that personal independence is necessary for the existence of commitments and close personal relations and that "the value of such commitments yields a positive reason for preserving within moral theory at least some moral independence for the personal point of view. ''
Robert Goodin takes yet another approach and argues that the demandingness objection can be "blunted '' by treating utilitarianism as a guide to public policy rather than one of individual morality. He suggests that many of the problems arise under the traditional formulation because the conscientious utilitarian ends up having to make up for the failings of others and so contributing more than their fair share.
Harsanyi argues that the objection overlooks the fact that "people attach considerable utility to freedom from unduly burdensome moral obligations... most people will prefer a society with a more relaxed moral code, and will feel that such a society will achieve a higher level of average utility -- even if adoption of such a moral code should lead to some losses in economic and cultural accomplishments (so long as these losses remain within tolerable limits). This means that utilitarianism, if correctly interpreted, will yield a moral code with a standard of acceptable conduct very much below the level of highest moral perfection, leaving plenty of scope for supererogatory actions exceeding this minimum standard. ''
The objection that "utilitarianism does not take seriously the distinction between persons '' came to prominence in 1971 with the publication of John Rawls ' A Theory of Justice. The concept is also important in animal rights advocate Richard Ryder 's rejection of utilitarianism, in which he talks of the "boundary of the individual '', through which neither pain nor pleasure may pass. However, a similar objection was noted in 1970 by Thomas Nagel (who claimed that consequentialism "treats the desires, needs, satisfactions, and dissatisfactions of distinct persons as if they were the desires, etc., of a mass person ''), and even earlier by David Gauthier, who wrote that utilitarianism supposes "that mankind is a super-person, whose greatest satisfaction is the objective of moral action... But this is absurd. Individuals have wants, not mankind; individuals seek satisfaction, not mankind. A person 's satisfaction is not part of any greater satisfaction. '' Thus, the aggregation of utility becomes futile as both pain and happiness are intrinsic to and inseparable from the consciousness in which they are felt, rendering impossible the task of adding up the various pleasures of multiple individuals.
A response to this criticism is to point out that whilst seeming to resolve some problems it introduces others. Intuitively, there are many cases where people do want to take the numbers involved into account. As Alastair Norcross has said, "suppose that Homer is faced with the painful choice between saving Barney from a burning building or saving both Moe and Apu from the building... it is clearly better for Homer to save the larger number, precisely because it is a larger number... Can anyone who really considers the matter seriously honestly claim to believe that it is worse that one person die than that the entire sentient population of the universe be severely mutilated? Clearly not. ''
It may be possible to uphold the distinction between persons whilst still aggregating utility, if it accepted that people can be influenced by empathy. This position is advocated by Iain King, who has suggested the evolutionary basis of empathy means humans can take into account the interests of other individuals, but only on a one - to - one basis, "since we can only imagine ourselves in the mind of one other person at a time. '' King uses this insight to adapt utilitarianism, and it may help reconcile Bentham 's philosophy with deontology and virtue ethics.
The philosopher John Taurek also argued that the idea of adding happiness or pleasures across persons is quite unintelligible and that the numbers of persons involved in a situation are morally irrelevant. Taurek 's basic concern comes down to this: we can not explain what it means to say that things would be five times worse if five people die than if one person dies. "I can not give a satisfactory account of the meaning of judgments of this kind, '' he wrote (p. 304). He argues that each person can only lose one person 's happiness or pleasures. There is n't five times more loss of happiness or pleasure when five die: who would be feeling this happiness or pleasure? "Each person 's potential loss has the same significance to me, only as a loss to that person alone. because, by hypothesis, I have an equal concern for each person involved, I am moved to give each of them an equal chance to be spared his loss '' (p. 307). Parfit and others have criticized Taurek 's line, and it continues to be discussed.
An early criticism, which was addressed by Mill, is that if time is taken to calculate the best course of action it is likely that the opportunity to take the best course of action will already have passed. Mill responded that there had been ample time to calculate the likely effects:
... namely, the whole past duration of the human species. During all that time, mankind have been learning by experience the tendencies of actions; on which experience all the prudence, as well as all the morality of life, are dependent... It is a strange notion that the acknowledgment of a first principle is inconsistent with the admission of secondary ones. To inform a traveller respecting the place of his ultimate destination, is not to forbid the use of landmarks and direction - posts on the way. The proposition that happiness is the end and aim of morality, does not mean that no road ought to be laid down to that goal, or that persons going thither should not be advised to take one direction rather than another. Men really ought to leave off talking a kind of nonsense on this subject, which they would neither talk nor listen to on other matters of practical concernment.
More recently, Hardin has made the same point. "It should embarrass philosophers that they have ever taken this objection seriously. Parallel considerations in other realms are dismissed with eminently good sense. Lord Devlin notes, ' if the reasonable man "worked to rule '' by perusing to the point of comprehension every form he was handed, the commercial and administrative life of the country would creep to a standstill. ' ''
It is such considerations that lead even act utilitarians to rely on "rules of thumb '', as Smart has called them.
Utilitarianism 's assertion that well - being is the only thing with intrinsic moral value has been attacked by various critics.
Karl Marx, in Das Kapital, criticises Bentham 's utilitarianism on the grounds that it does not appear to recognise that people have different joys in different socioeconomic contexts:
With the driest naivete he takes the modern shopkeeper, especially the English shopkeeper, as the normal man. Whatever is useful to this queer normal man, and to his world, is absolutely useful. This yard - measure, then, he applies to past, present, and future. The Christian religion, e.g., is "useful, '' "because it forbids in the name of religion the same faults that the penal code condemns in the name of the law. '' Artistic criticism is "harmful, '' because it disturbs worthy people in their enjoyment of Martin Tupper, etc. With such rubbish has the brave fellow, with his motto, "nulla dies sine linea (no day without a line) '', piled up mountains of books.
Pope John Paul II, following his personalist philosophy, argued that a danger of utilitarianism is that it tends to make persons, just as much as things, the object of use. "Utilitarianism, '' he wrote, "is a civilization of production and of use, a civilization of things and not of persons, a civilization in which persons are used in the same way as things are used. ''
In The Methods of Ethics, Henry Sidgwick asked, "Is it total or average happiness that we seek to make a maximum? '' He noted that aspects of the question had been overlooked and answered the question himself by saying that what had to be maximized was the average multiplied by the number of people living. He also argued that, if the "average happiness enjoyed remains undiminished, Utilitarianism directs us to make the number enjoying it as great as possible. '' This was also the view taken earlier by Paley. He notes that, although he speaks of the happiness of communities, "the happiness of a people is made up of the happiness of single persons; and the quantity of happiness can only be augmented by increasing the number of the percipients, or the pleasure of their perceptions '' and that if extreme cases, such as people held as slaves, are excluded the amount of happiness will usually be in proportion to the number of people. Consequently, "the decay of population is the greatest evil that a state can suffer; and the improvement of it the object which ought, in all countries, to be aimed at in preference to every other political purpose whatsoever. '' A similar view was expressed by Smart, who argued that all other things being equal a universe with two million happy people is better than a universe with only one million happy people.
Since Sidgwick raised the question it has been studied in detail and philosophers have argued that using either total or average happiness can lead to objectionable results.
According to Derek Parfit, using total happiness falls victim to the repugnant conclusion, whereby large numbers of people with very low but non-negative utility values can be seen as a better goal than a population of a less extreme size living in comfort. In other words, according to the theory, it is a moral good to breed more people on the world for as long as total happiness rises.
On the other hand, measuring the utility of a population based on the average utility of that population avoids Parfit 's repugnant conclusion but causes other problems. For example, bringing a moderately happy person into a very happy world would be seen as an immoral act; aside from this, the theory implies that it would be a moral good to eliminate all people whose happiness is below average, as this would raise the average happiness.
William Shaw suggests that the problem can be avoided if a distinction is made between potential people, who need not concern us, and actual future people, who should concern us. He says, "utilitarianism values the happiness of people, not the production of units of happiness. Accordingly, one has no positive obligation to have children. However, if you have decided to have a child, then you have an obligation to give birth to the happiest child you can. ''
Utilitarianism is typically taken to assess the rightness or wrongness of an action by considering just the consequences of that action. Bentham very carefully distinguishes motive from intention and says that motives are not in themselves good or bad but can be referred to as such on account of their tendency to produce pleasure or pain. He adds that, "from every kind of motive, may proceed actions that are good, others that are bad, and others that are indifferent. '' Mill makes a similar point and explicitly says that "motive has nothing to do with the morality of the action, though much with the worth of the agent. He who saves a fellow creature from drowning does what is morally right, whether his motive be duty, or the hope of being paid for his trouble. ''
However, with intention the situation is more complex. In a footnote printed in the second edition of Utilitarianism, Mill says: "the morality of the action depends entirely upon the intention -- that is, upon what the agent wills to do. '' Elsewhere, he says, "Intention, and motive, are two very different things. But it is the intention, that is, the foresight of consequences, which constitutes the moral rightness or wrongness of the act. ''
The correct interpretation of Mill 's footnote is a matter of some debate. The difficulty in interpretation centres around trying to explain why, since it is consequences that matter, intentions should play a role in the assessment of the morality of an action but motives should not. One possibility "involves supposing that the ' morality ' of the act is one thing, probably to do with the praiseworthiness or blameworthiness of the agent, and its rightness or wrongness another. '' Jonathan Dancy rejects this interpretation on the grounds that Mill is explicitly making intention relevant to an assessment of the act not to an assessment of the agent.
An interpretation given by Roger Crisp draws on a definition given by Mill in A System of Logic, where he says that an "intention to produce the effect, is one thing; the effect produced in consequence of the intention, is another thing; the two together constitute the action. '' Accordingly, whilst two actions may outwardly appear to be the same they will be different actions if there is a different intention. Dancy notes that this does not explain why intentions count but motives do not.
A third interpretation is that an action might be considered a complex action consisting of several stages and it is the intention that determines which of these stages are to be considered part of the action. Although this is the interpretation favoured by Dancy, he recognizes that this might not have been Mill 's own view, for Mill "would not even allow that ' p & q ' expresses a complex proposition. He wrote in his System of Logic I iv. 3, of ' Caesar is dead and Brutus is alive ', that ' we might as well call a street a complex house, as these two propositions a complex proposition '. ''
Finally, whilst motives may not play a role in determining the morality of an action, this does not preclude utilitarians from fostering particular motives if doing so will increase overall happiness.
In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation Bentham wrote "the question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? '' Mill 's distinction between higher and lower pleasures might suggest that he gave more status to humans but in The Methods of Ethics, philosopher Henry Sidgwick says "We have next to consider who the ' all ' are, whose happiness is to be taken into account. Are we to extend our concern to all the beings capable of pleasure and pain whose feelings are affected by our conduct? or are we to confine our view to human happiness? The former view is the one adopted by Bentham and Mill, and (I believe) by the Utilitarian school generally: and is obviously most in accordance with the universality that is characteristic of their principle... it seems arbitrary and unreasonable to exclude from the end, as so conceived, any pleasure of any sentient being. ''
Moreover, John Stuart Mill himself, in Whewell on Moral Philosophy, defends Bentham 's advocacy for animal rights, calling it a ' noble anticipation ', and writing: "Granted that any practice causes more pain to animals than it gives pleasure to man; is that practice moral or immoral? And if, exactly in proportion as human beings raise their heads out of the slough of selfishness, they do not with one voice answer ' immoral ', let the morality of the principle of utility be for ever condemned. ''
The utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer and many other animal rights activists have continued to argue that the well - being of all sentient beings ought to be seriously considered. Singer suggests that rights are conferred according to the level of a creature 's self - awareness, regardless of their species. He adds that humans tend to be speciesist (discriminatory against non-humans) in ethical matters, and argues that, on utilitarianism, speciesism can not be justified as there is no rational distinction that can be made between the suffering of humans and the suffering of nonhuman animals; all suffering ought to be reduced. Singer writes: "The racist violates the principle of equality by giving greater weight to the interests of members of his own race, when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of another race. Similarly the speciesist allows the interests of his own species to override the greater interests of members of other species. The pattern is the same in each case... Most human beings are speciesists. ''
In his 1990 edition of Animal Liberation, Peter Singer said that he no longer ate oysters and mussels, because although the creatures might not suffer, they might, it 's not really known, and it 's easy enough to avoid eating them in any case (and this aspect of seeking better alternatives is a prominent part of utilitarianism).
This view still might be contrasted with deep ecology, which holds that an intrinsic value is attached to all forms of life and nature, whether currently assumed to be sentient or not. According to utilitarianism, the forms of life that are unable to experience anything akin to either enjoyment or discomfort are denied moral status, because it is impossible to increase the happiness or reduce the suffering of something that can not feel happiness or suffer. Singer writes:
The capacity for suffering and enjoying things is a prerequisite for having interests at all, a condition that must be satisfied before we can speak of interests in any meaningful way. It would be nonsense to say that it was not in the interests of a stone to be kicked along the road by a schoolboy. A stone does not have interests because it can not suffer. Nothing that we can do to it could possibly make any difference to its welfare. A mouse, on the other hand, does have an interest in not being tormented, because it will suffer if it is. If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. No matter what the nature of the being, the principle of equality requires that its suffering be counted equally with the like suffering -- in so far as rough comparisons can be made -- of any other being. If a being is not capable of suffering, or of experiencing enjoyment or happiness, there is nothing to be taken into account.
Thus, the moral value of one - celled organisms, as well as some multi-cellular organisms, and natural entities like a river, is only in the benefit they provide to sentient beings. Similarly, utilitarianism places no direct intrinsic value on biodiversity, although the benefits that biodiversity bring to sentient beings may mean that, on utilitarianism, biodiversity ought to be maintained in general.
In John Stuart Mill 's essay "On Nature '' he argues that the welfare of wild animals is to be considered when making utilitarian judgments. Tyler Cowen argues that, if individual animals are carriers of utility, then we should consider limiting the predatory activity of carnivores relative to their victims: "At the very least, we should limit current subsidies to nature 's carnivores. ''
An article in the American journal for Economics has addressed the issue of Utilitarian ethics within redistribution of wealth. The journal stated that taxation of the wealthy is the best way to make use of the disposable income they receive. This says that the money creates utility for the most people by funding government services. Many utilitarian philosophers, including Peter Singer and Toby Ord, argue that inhabitants of developed countries in particular have an obligation to help to end extreme poverty across the world, for example by regularly donating some of their income to charity. Peter Singer, for example, argues that donating some of one 's income to charity could help to save a life or cure somebody from a poverty - related illness, which is a much better use of the money as it brings someone in extreme poverty far more happiness than it would bring to oneself if one lived in relative comfort. However, Singer not only argues that one ought to donate a significant proportion of one 's income to charity, but also that this money should be directed to the most cost - effective charities, in order to bring about the greatest good for the greatest number, consistent with utilitarian thinking. Singer 's ideas have formed the basis of the modern effective altruist movement.
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in which state of india is gold found in abundance | Natural resources of India - Wikipedia
Resources are classified as either biotic or abiotic on the basis of their origin. The Indian landmass contains a multitude of both types of resource and its economy, especially in rural areas, is heavily dependent on their consumption or export. Due to over consumption, they are rapidly being depleted.
The total cultivable area in India is 19, 45,355 km2 (56.78 % of it total land area), which is shrinking due to population pressures and rapid urbanisation. India has a total water surface area of 360,400 km2
India produces 4 fuels, 11 metallic, 52 non-metallic and 22 minor minerals. India 's major mineral resources include Coal (4th largest reserves in the world), Iron ore, Manganese ore (7th largest reserve in the world as in 2013), Mica, Bauxite (5th largest reserve in the world as in 2013), Chromite, Natural gas, Diamonds, Limestone and Thorium (world 's largest along coast of Kerala shores). India 's oil reserves, found in Bombay High off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and in eastern Assam meet 25 % of the country 's demand.
A national level agency National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) was established in 1983 for integrated natural resources management in the country. It is supported by Planning Commission (India) and Department of Space.
Biotic resources are obtained from the living and organic material. These include forest products, wildlife, crops and other living organisms. Most of these resources are renewable because they can regenerate themselves. Fossil fuels are considered as biotic because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Fossil fuels are non-renewable.
India 's land area includes regions with high rainfall to dry deserts, coastline to mountainous regions. Around 24.02 percent of the total geographical area consists of forests. Due to variations in climatic conditions and differences in altitude, different types of forest are present in India including tropical, swamp, mangrove and alpine. Forests are the main source of firewood, paper, spices, drugs, herbs, gums and more. Forests contribute a significant amount to the nation 's GDP.
India has a long history in fishing and aquaculture. It has rich marine and inland water resources, and a 7516.6 km long coastline. Inland fishery is carried out in Rivers, Resources and Lakes. In Indian rivers more than 400 species of fish are found, many of which are economically important. Shrimp, sardines, mackerels, carangid, croakers and other varieties are available. Major Fish species available are carp, catfish, murrel and Weed fish. India is one of the major marine fish producer. In 2012 - 2013, 9 lakh tonnes of marine products was exported.
Coal mining in India started in 1774 through the East India Company in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of Damodar River in the Indian state of West Bengal. Growth of the Indian coal mining started when steam locomotives were introduced in 1853. Production increased to Million tonnes. Production reached 30 million tonnes in 1946. After Independence, the National Coal Development Corporation was set up and colleries were owned by the railways. India consumes coal mainly for the power sector. Other industries like cement, fertilizer, chemical and paper rely on coal for energy.
India had about 750 million metric tonne of proven oil reserves as of April 2014, or 5.62 billion barrels as per EIA estimate for 2009, which is the second - largest amount in the Asia - Pacific region behind China. Most of India 's crude oil reserves are located on the western coast (Mumbai High) and in the northeastern parts of the country, although considerable undeveloped reserves are also located in the offshore Bay of Bengal and in the state of Rajasthan. The combination of rising oil consumption and fairly unwavering production levels leaves India highly dependent on imports to meet its consumption needs. In 2010, India produced an average of about 33.69 million metric tonne of crude oil as of April 2010 or 877 thousand barrels per day as per EIA estimate of 2009. During 2006, India consumed an estimated 2.63 Mbbl / d (418,000 m / d) of oil. The EIA estimates that India registered oil demand growth of 100,000 bbl / d (16,000 m / d) during 2006. As of 2013 India Produces 30 % of India 's resources mostly in Rajasthan.
India 's oil sector is dominated by state - owned enterprises, although the government has taken steps in past recent years to deregulate the hydrocarbons industry and support greater foreign involvement. India 's state - owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation is the largest oil company. ONGC is the leading player in India 's upstream sector, accounting for roughly 75 % of the country 's oil output during 2006, as per Indian government estimates. As a net importer of all oil, the Indian Government has introduced policies aimed at growing domestic oil production and oil exploration activities. As part of the effort, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas crafted the New Exploration License Policy (NELP) in 2000, which permits foreign companies to hold 100 % equity possession in oil and natural gas projects. However, to date, only a handful of oil fields are controlled by foreign firms. India 's downstream sector is also dominated by state - owned entities, though private companies have enlarged their market share in past recent years.
As per the Ministry of Petroleum, Government of India, India has 1,437 billion cubic metres (50.7 × 10 ^ cu ft) of confirmed natural gas reserves as of April 2010. A huge mass of India 's natural gas production comes from the western offshore regions, particularly the Mumbai High complex. The onshore fields in Assam, tripura, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Gujarat states are also major producers of natural gas. As per EIA data, India produced 996 billion cubic feet (2.82 × 10 m) of natural gas in 2004. India imports small amounts of natural gas. In 2004, India consumed about 1,089 × 10 ^ cu ft (3.08 × 10 m) of natural gas, the first year in which the country showed net natural gas imports. During 2004, India imported 93 × 10 ^ cu ft (2.6 × 10 m) of liquefied natural gas (LNG) from Qatar.
As in the oil sector, India 's state - owned companies account for the bulk of natural gas production. ONGC and Oil India Ltd. (OIL) are the leading companies with respect to production volume, while some foreign companies take part in upstream developments in joint - ventures and production sharing contracts. Reliance Industries, a privately owned Indian company, will also have a bigger role in the natural gas sector as a result of a large natural gas find in 2002 in the Krishna Godavari basin.
The Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL) holds an effective control on natural gas transmission and allocation activities. In December 2006, the Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas issued a new policy that allows foreign investors, private domestic companies, and Government oil companies to hold up to 100 % equity stakes in pipeline projects. While GAIL 's domination in natural gas transmission and allocation is not ensured by statute, it will continue to be the leading player in the sector because of its existing natural gas infrastructure.
Abiotic resources are obtained from the non-living and non-organic material. Some of the resources, like water and air, are renewable. Other resources like minerals are non-renewable and exhaustible because they can not be regenerated. Minerals have many categories like metallic, non-metallic and minor minerals.
Metallic minerals are the minerals which contain one or more metallic elements. They occur in rare, naturally formed concentrations known as mineral deposits. Metallic minerals available from India are zinc, iron ore, manganese ore, gold, bauxite, silver, lead, tin, copper and chromite.
Copper has been used since ancient times. Details of copper mining and metallurgy are available in ancient works like Arthashastra. Copper is mainly used in industrial applications, electrical / electronic equipment and Consumer products such as utensils. Major resources of copper are available at Rajasthan, Madhya pradesh and Jharkhand. As of 2010, India had 1.56 billion tonnes of copper ore. India is one of the 20 major copper producers. In 2008, India produced 7, 10,000 tonnes of copper. Hindustan Copper Limited, a public sector company, is the only producer of primary refined copper. Post-pillar method and blast hole stoping method are used for mining. Some of the domestic demand is met through scrap recycling. In India, copper scrap is recycled through direct melting, which is a hazardous process.
Zinc is a bluish - white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal. It is also a fair conductor of electricity. References to medicinal uses of zinc are present in the Charaka Samhita. Ancient zinc smelting technique was found at a zinc production site in Zawar, Rajasthan. Zinc is recovered from a number of different zinc ores. The types of zinc ores include sulfide, carbonate, silicate and oxide. It is used in corrosive resistant coatings for iron and steel, and in the automotive, electrical and machinery industries. India is the World 's fourth largest zinc reserve as in 2013. Hindustan Zinc Limited is the main producer of zinc in India. Most of the resources are available in Rajasthan. A minor amount of resources are available in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra states.
India is the world 's third biggest exporter of iron ore as of 2013. As of 2010, India had 27 billion tonnes or resource (including hematite and magnetite). The major amount of hematite is found in Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa. Minor amounts of hematite are found in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Most magnetite is found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Minor amounts of magnetite are found in Assam, Bihar, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Nagaland. Mining is done by the opencast method. Iron ore is mainly used for manufacturing of pig iron, sponge iron and steel. It is also used in coal washeries, cement and glass industries. Public sector companies like National Mineral Development Corporation and Steel Authority of India contribute to 25 % of the total production. Private companies including Tata Steel provide major contribution.
Chromite is an oxide of chromium and iron. It is the only commercial source of chromium. As of 2010, India had 200 million tonnes of resource. Major amount of resources are available from Orissa (Cuttack and Jajpur districts). Minor amount of resources are available from Manipur, Nagaland, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In 2009 - 2010, India produced 3.41 million tonnes and ranked second in world production. It is mostly mined by opencast method. Chromium provides additional strength to the alloys and it is resistant to corrosion, so it is mainly used in metallurgical applications. It can withstand sudden temperature changes, so it is used in refractories. It is also used in chemical applications.
Non-metallic minerals are those which do not yield new products on melting. They are generally associated with sedimentary rocks. Non-Metallic minerals available from India are phosphorite, dolomite, gypsum, garnet, wollastonite, vermiculite, ochre, perlite, bentonite, asbestos, cadmium, felspar, soapstone, kaolin, sillimanite, limestone, diatomite, pyrophyllite, fluorite, vanadium, dunite, ilmenite, gallium and Zircon
It is a group of complex silicate minerals and has similar chemical compositions. There are three groups of garnet - aluminum - garnet group, chromium - garnet group, and iron - garnet group. The minerals in aluminium - garnet group are almandine, grossularite, pyrope, and spessartine. The mineral in Iron - garnet group is andradite. The mineral in chromium - garnet group is uvarovite. Garnet group minerals occur in different rock types. It is a hard substance. It is resistant to chemical exposure. It is used as a semi-precious stone and also in abrasives, sand blasting, water filtration materials and water jet cutting. Garnets are available in Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. It is also found in beach sands of Kerala, Orissa and Tamil Nadu states. In 2007 - 08, India produced 8, 73,000 tonnes.
It is a meta - silicate of calcium. It is mostly white in color and occurs as bladed or needle like crystals. As of 2010, India had 16 million tonnes of resource. Most of the deposits are available in Rajasthan (Dungarpur, Pali, Sirohi and Udaipur districts). Minor amount of deposits are found in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. It is mainly used in ceramic industries and metallurgical applications. It is also used as a filler in wall tiles, paint, rubber and plastic. India is one of the largest reserves. In 2011, India produced 150,000 tons. It is mined by opencast method. It is also used as a substitute for short - fibre asbestos in brake - linings. Central Building Research Institute has found that wollastonite can be used as substitute for chrysotile asbestos in cement products.
It is a group of metamorphic minerals - sillimanite, kyanite and andalusite. These are polymorphs of alumino - silicate. These are formed under high - pressure and high - temperature conditions. The three minerals are calcined to form mullite. Mainly used as refractory materials. As of 2010, India had 66 million tonnes of sillimanite, 100 million tonnes of Kyanite and 18 million tonnes of Andalusite as resource. Most of the resources are found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Assam. Minor amount of resources are found in Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and West Bengal. Granular sillimanite is available in beach sands of South India. Sillimanite refractory bricks are used in steel, glass and petrochemical industries. In 2004, India produced 14,500 tonnes of sillimanite and 6200 tonnes of kyanite.
It is a compound of iron and titanium. It will be iron - black or steel - gray in color. It is a non-toxic material used in biomedical substances. Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology has developed an environmentally friendly technology for processing ilmenite. It is also used in production of titanium dioxide pigment. It is available in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. Mining is done at Chavara, Chatrapur, Aluva and Manavalakurichi by Indian Rare Earths limited. As of 2013, India has 21 % of the world 's reserves and constitutes 6 % of the world 's production.
It is a hydrous alumino - silicate. It is chemically inert, has high melting point and low electrical conductivity. It is used in refractories, foundry dressings, pesticides, ceramics and rubber. It is available as hydrothermal deposits. The physical and optical properties are pyrophyllite are similar to talc. It is also used in electrical insulators, sanitary - ware and in the glass industry. As of 2010, India had 56 million tonnes of this resource. Most of the resources are found in Madhya Pradesh (Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh and Shivpuri districts). The remaining resources are found in Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. In 2010, India produced 1.5 million tonnes.
Minor minerals available are building stone, brick earth, quartzite, marble, granite, gravel, clay and sand. These are mainly used in building constructions. Environmental impact of mining these minerals was significant over a period of time even the area was small. Impacts were increasing water scarcity, damage to river beds and adverse effects on biodiversity. So from 2012 onwards, mining of these minerals are to be done after clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Marble is a metamorphosed limestone formed by re-crystallization. It is available in different colours and textures. Marble deposits are available in many states of India. It has been used in India for a long time. It was used in construction of Temples, Tombs and Palaces. Now it is also used for flooring in homes and offices. It is preferred for flooring because of its durability and water resistance. Marbles which are economically important are available in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. As of 2010, there was 1931 million tonnes of resource, including all grades of marble. Based on the chemical composition, types of Marble available are Calcite, Dolomitic, Siliceous Limestone, Serpentine and Travertine marbles. Other than construction, it is used in Paint and Agricultural lime.
India 's proven nuclear reserves include uranium and thorium.
In Nalgonda District, the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve (the only tiger project in Telangana) has been forced to surrender over 3,000 sq. kilometres to uranium mining, following a directive from the Central Ministry of Environment and Forests.
In 2007, India was able to extract 229 tonnes of U O from its soil. On 19 July 2011, Indian officials announced that the Tumalapalli mine in Andhra Pradesh state of India could provide more than 170,000 tonnes of uranium, making it as the world 's largest uranium mine. Production of the ore is slated to begin in 2012.
The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) recently discovered that the upcoming mine in Tumalapalli has close to 49,000 tonne of uranium reserves. This could help India 's nuclear power aspirations as it is three times the original estimate of the area 's deposits.
The IAEA 's 2005 report estimates India 's reasonably assured reserves of thorium at 319,000 tonnes, but mentions recent reports of India 's reserves at 650,000 tonnes. A government of India estimate, shared in the country 's Parliament in August 2011, puts the recoverable reserve at 846,477 tonnes. The Indian Minister of State V. Narayanasamy stated that as of May 2013, the country 's thorium reserves were 11.93 million tonnes (monazite, having 9 - 10 % ThO), with a significant majority (8.59 Mt; 72 %) found in the three eastern coastal states of Andhra Pradesh (3.72 Mt; 31 %), Tamil Nadu (2.46 Mt; 21 %) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20 %). Both the IAEA and OECD appear to conclude that India may possess the largest share of world 's thorium deposits.
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is panera bread the same as st louis bread company | Panera Bread - Wikipedia
Panera Bread Company is an American chain of bakery - café fast casual restaurants in the United States and Canada. Its headquarters are in Sunset Hills, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis, and operates as Saint Louis Bread Company in the St. Louis metropolitan area. Offerings include soups, salads, pasta, sandwiches, specialty drinks, and bakery items.
St. Louis Bread was founded by Ken Rosenthal in 1987 when he opened the first location in Kirkwood, Missouri. In 1993, Au Bon Pain Co. purchased the St. Louis Bread Company. In 1997, Au Bon Pain changed the company name to Panera, a word that has roots meaning "bread basket '' in Latin. At the same time, the St. Louis Bread Company was renovating its 20 bakery - cafés in the St. Louis area.
In May 1999, to expand Panera Bread into a national restaurant, Au Bon Pain Co. sold its other chains, including Au Bon Pain, which is now owned by Compass Group North America. Panera Bread moved into its new headquarters in Richmond Heights, Missouri in 2000. The company operates or franchises more than 1900 Panera Bread bakery - cafés in 46 states and 20 facilities that deliver fresh dough to the bakery - cafés every day. Panera Bread 's CEO is Ron Shaich.
In the St. Louis area where it was founded, Panera Bread still operates under the name St. Louis Bread Company. The St. Louis metropolitan area has over 101 locations.
In 2005, Panera ranked 37th on BusinessWeek 's list of "Hot Growth Companies '', earning $38.6 million with a 42.9 % increase in profits. In 2007, Panera Bread purchased a majority stake in Paradise Bakery & Café, a Phoenix - based concept with over 70 locations in 10 states (predominantly in the west and southwest). The company purchased the balance of Paradise in June 2009. On January 25, 2008, a class action lawsuit was filed against Panera Bread alleging Panera failed to disclose material adverse facts about the company 's financial well - being, business relationships, and prospects. Panera settled the lawsuit and agreed to pay $5.75 million to shareholders while admitting no wrongdoing. In 2008 Panera Bread expanded into Canada, beginning with Richmond Hill, Thornhill, Oakville, and Mississauga in the Toronto area. In 2009 and 2012, the restaurant review service Zagat named Panera one of the most popular restaurants for eating on the go. Panera was also rated No. 1 for Best Healthy Option, Best Salad, and Best Facilities, among restaurants with fewer than 5,000 locations.
In November 2010, Panera Bread relocated its headquarters to Sunset Hills while vacating its Richmond Heights headquarters and Brentwood offices. In 2011, revenue was US $2.7 billion, operating income was US $259 million, net income was US $160 million, assets were US $1.5 billion, and equity was US $497.3 million. In mid-2014, Panera unveiled "Panera 2.0, '' a series of integrated technologies to enhance the guest experience. In 2015, annual revenues were $2,681,580,000 up from $2,529,195,000 the year prior. Net income came to $149,325,000 down from $179,293,000 the year prior. Total assets equaled $1,475,318,000.
In January 2017, many Paradise Bakery & Café locations were rebranded as Panera Bread. In 2017, Panera finished a "decadelong overhaul '' of its menu and completed reformulating its food to be free of artificial ingredients. In April 2017, Panera announced that it was being acquired by Luxembourg - based JAB Holding Company for $315 per share, or over $7 billion. The companies expected the deal to close in the third quarter of 2017. In July 2017, JAB Holding Co. acquired Panera for $7.16 billion. On November 8, 2017, Panera announced that founder Ron Shaich was stepping down as CEO, with company president Blaine Hurst to take over. Shaich remained chairman. The company also announced it would be acquiring Au Bon Pain, a cafe division which had split off from Panera in 1999 after being created in 1981.
On April 2, 2018, the security website KrebsOnSecurity reported that the Panera Bread website had leaked between 7 million and 37 million customer records -- including names, email and physical addresses, customer loyalty account numbers, birthdays and the last four digits of the customer 's credit card number -- for at least eight months before the site was taken offline. Panera was notified privately about the vulnerability in August 2017, but failed to fix it until after it was disclosed publicly eight months later.
In 2015, there were 1,972 Panera outlets and stores, up from 1,880 the year before. 901 of those stores were company owned, while 1,071 were franchised. Panera opened its 2000th location in Elyria, Ohio on March 23, 2016.
In 2006 and 2007, Panera was the largest provider of free Wi - Fi in the United States. Many locations restrict the duration of free Wi - Fi to 30 or 60 minutes during peak hours.
In mid-2014, Panera unveiled "Panera 2.0, '' a series of integrated technologies to enhance the guest experience for all consumers no matter how they choose to use Panera. Panera 2.0 brings together new capabilities for digital ordering, payment, operations and, ultimately, consumption to create an enhanced guest experience for "to go '' and "eat in '' customers. A notable feature of Panera 2.0 involves interactive tablet kiosks, which the company calls Fast Lane, where customers may place an order and pay without approaching the counter. The kiosks consist of iPads. In addition to the kiosks, customers could also place orders and pay via an app on their own smartphone or tablet.
In a 2008 Health magazine study, Panera Bread was judged North America 's healthiest fast casual restaurant.
In June 2014, Panera unveiled its official Food Policy which detailed commitments to clean ingredients, transparency and a positive impact on the food system. This policy outlines the company 's values and sets a course for continuous improvement. Panera also made a commitment to remove artificial additives (colors, flavors, sweeteners, and preservatives) on its ' No No List ' from the food in its US bakery - cafes by the end of 2016. In January 2017, it announced its US food menu was free of artificial colors, flavors, sweeteners, and preservatives.
Panera stylizes themselves as a peaceful "Bakery - Cafe '' and offers a wide array of pastries and baked goods, such as croissants, bagels, cookies, scones, muffins and brownies. These, along with Panera 's artisan breads, are typically baked before dawn by an on - staff baker. Some locations also participate in a program that donates their unsold baked goods to local charities after closing hours. Aside from the bakery section, Panera has a regular menu for dine - in or takeout that is broken down into the following categories:
Panera also has a selection of seasonal offerings, such as the Strawberry Poppy Seed Chicken salad offered during the summer season and the Roasted Turkey Cranberry Flatbread in the winter.
Panera announced the addition of more plant - based proteins, such as edamame and organic quinoa, to its menu on November 5, 2015. Being one of the first fast - casual restaurants to discuss plant - based proteins caused Fortune reporter Beth Kowitt to speculate that "other restaurants will likely follow the soup - and - sandwich chain 's lead. ''
In 2016, a lawsuit was filed after an employee at a Natick, Massachusetts store knowingly put peanut butter on a sandwich, despite being informed that the person receiving the sandwich was allergic to peanuts. It was alleged that the restaurant chain acted negligently, and charged those involved with intentional or reckless infliction of emotional distress as well as assault and battery, which resulted in the recipient of the sandwich being hospitalized briefly. Less than one month after the incident involved in this case, another restaurant reportedly had a nearly identical incident with another person who had a severe allergy to peanuts.
In 2009, the company 's nonprofit foundation created Panera Cares, a "Pay what you can '' restaurant in its home market of St. Louis. CEO Ron Shaich based the idea on an NBC profile of the SAME Cafe in Denver, Colorado. It has since expanded the concept to Dearborn, Michigan; Portland, Oregon; Chicago; and Boston. Each site serves approximately 3,500 people every week. The Panera Cares in Chicago shut down at the end of January 2015. The Panera Cares in Portland, Oregon shut down at the end of June 2016, leaving just three locations.
On November 5, 2015, Panera announced that it will use cage - free eggs in all of its stores by 2020. At the time of the announcement, the company said it was 21 % cage - free in the roughly 70 million eggs it used in 2015. In December 2016, it published its third animal welfare progress report, announcing new efforts to improve broiler chicken welfare.
The Day - End Dough - Nation program provides unsold bread and baked goods to local area hunger relief agencies and charities. In 2014, Panera Bread bakery - cafes donated a retail value around $100 million worth of unsold bread and baked goods to local organizations in need. Panera also supports events held by nonprofit organizations serving those in need by donating a certificate or fresh bakery products.
In 2003, a lawsuit was filed by a former employee who claimed he was fired after allegedly refusing to carry out discriminatory policies set forth by his superiors. In 2009 and 2011, class action lawsuits were filed by former workers alleging that the company violated the California Labor Code, failed to pay overtime, failed to provide meal and rest periods, failed to pay employees upon termination, and violated California 's Unfair Competition Law. Panera set aside $5 million for the payment of claims and denied any wrongdoing.
In 2011, a former employee filed a racial discrimination lawsuit alleging that he was eventually fired after repeatedly having a black man work the cash register instead of putting him in a less visible location and having "pretty young girls '' be the cashiers, as requested by supervisors. The plaintiff also said he was fired after requesting another month off after returning from three months of medical leave. Panera said it "does not discriminate based on national origin, race or sex, '' and that the plaintiff "was terminated because he had used all of his medical leave and was unable to return to work. '' The plaintiff worked in a store owned by franchisee Sam Covelli, who also owns the stores that were involved in the 2003 racial discrimination lawsuit. Covelli Enterprises is the single largest franchisee of Panera Bread with nearly 200 stores in northeast Ohio, western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Florida.
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who played tom lightfoot on the big valley | The Big Valley - wikipedia
The Big Valley is an American Western television series which ran on ABC from September 15, 1965 to May 19, 1969, starring Barbara Stanwyck as the widow of a wealthy 19th - century California rancher and Richard Long, Lee Majors, Peter Breck and Linda Evans as her family. The series was created by A.I. Bezzerides and Louis F. Edelman and produced by Levy - Gardner - Laven for Four Star Television.
The TV series was based loosely on the Hill Ranch, which was located at the western edge of Calaveras County, not far from Stockton. The Hill Ranch existed from 1855 until 1931, included almost 30,000 acres; and the Mokelumne River ran through it. The source is from an episode in which Heath is on trial in a ghost town with another man (played by Leslie Nielsen) and tells the judge how much land they have. Lawson Hill ran the ranch until he was murdered in 1861. His wife Euphemia (aka "Auntie Hill '') then became the matriarch. During their marriage, they had four children, one daughter and three sons. Today, the location of the ranch is covered by the waters of Camanche Reservoir. A California state historical marker standing at Camanche South Shore Park mentions the historic ranch.
In the first episode, titled "Palms of Glory '', the grave of Thomas Barkley (1813 -- 1870) is shown after it is commented that he fought the railroad six years ago. Later, in the same episode, Frank Braun reminds Nicholas, Jarrod, and Eugene Barkley about how "Six years ago, your daddy and mine fought and died for this '' indicating the year is 1876.
The episode "The Odyssey of Jubal Tanner '' gives conflicting information. Audra states that her father died six years ago which would per "Palms of Glory '' would point to 1876, but Jubal seems to imply that he has been gone 30 years since his wife Margaret Tanner 's death, her grave marker showing that she had died in 1854 which would put the year around 1884.
In the second season episode "Hide the Children '', Nick Barkley makes reference that President Ulysses Simpson Grant is in the White House. Grant 's term of office was from March 4, 1869 to March 4, 1877.
In the fourth and final season episode "They Called Her Delilah '', the telegram Jarrod received from Julia dated April 27, 1878 can be seen on screen. The later "The Long Ride '' In season four episode, in which a friend of Audra Barkley was killed, a newly dug grave has a marker with the year 1878. Also in the fourth season episode "The Prize '', Heath buries the wife of an outlaw, adding a grave marker dated May 5, 1878.
So while the majority of episodes that give dates point to the late 1870s there are irregularities preventing that being stated definitively.
In the episode "The Jonah '' aired in 1968, the band at a town dance can be heard playing Johann Strauss II 's "Emperor Waltz '' or "Kaiser - Waltzer ''. The waltz was first performed in Berlin on 21 October 1889 which, by the time it would have reached the American West, would indicate a time period of 1890 or later. However since that seems to be much later than other historical references in the show, it may well have been a simple production mistake.
In addition to the Barkley family members, the episode plots typically revolved around morally conflicted protagonists and antagonists, a common theme in the mythology of the American West in the 19th century.
The Big Valley was well known for its many guest stars. Among others:
Despite the series ' popularity, the series ' ratings never made the top 30 in the yearly ratings charts. The Big Valley was canceled in 1969 as the TV western craze began to fade and to make room for more modern series. In Ella Smith 's 1973 biography, "Starring Miss Barbara Stanwyck '', Smith noted that The Big Valley had been cancelled by ABC mainly due to a poor time slot. In better times, the series had been enough of a hit to outlive various time slot rivals during its run (mainly on Monday nights at 10 p.m.), including The Jean Arthur Show, Run for Your Life and I Spy. According to Broadcasting magazine (September 27, 1965), its debut episode (actually Wednesday at 9 p.m., where the series aired for half - a-season) placed 39th in the Nielsen ratings for the week of September 13 -- 19, 1965.
The Big Valley also was ranked as one of the top five favorite new shows in viewer TVQ polling (the others were Get Smart, I Dream of Jeannie, Lost in Space and F Troop). Early into its second season, The Big Valley was still a mid-range performer, placing 47th out of just 88 series during the week of October 28, 1966, which was higher than such shows as That Girl, Daniel Boone, Petticoat Junction and The Wild Wild West. Even so, The Big Valley was popular enough to warrant at least three TV Guide covers. It also acted as a launching pad for two projected spin - offs from special episodes. A 1968 episode guest starring Van Williams was meant to lead to a Rifleman - like series titled Rimfire. A March 1969 episode, The Royal Road, guest - starring heartthrob Sajid Khan as a young rogue, was also hoped to lead to a series. But by that year the rising popularity of CBS 's The Carol Burnett Show -- and vocal complaints by Joey Bishop, ABC 's late - night talk show host, that the show 's faltering ratings were n't helping to provide his program with a proper lead - in -- ultimately led to the drama 's demise. In syndication, The Big Valley would prove exceptionally popular in the United States, Europe and Latin America.
In the comedy film Airplane! (1980), the wacky air traffic controller Johnny, played by Stephen Stucker, paid homage to Big Valley 's penchant for big drama in one of his many asides. After Lloyd Bridges ' character frets about a pilot who cracked under pressure, Johnny says: "It happened to Barbara Stanwyck! '' and "Nick, Heath, Jarrod -- there 's a fire in the barn! '' The Big Valley also has seeped into the darker cinematic subconscious. In Bug, an acclaimed 2006 thriller starring Ashley Judd and Michael Shannon as drug addicts, their characters spiral into a hallucination that leads them to imagine tiny bugs have invaded their dwelling, with one referring to the little critters as "matriarchal aphids '' that act "like Barbara Stanwyck in Big Valley. ''
In 1966, for her first season as Victoria Barkley, Barbara Stanwyck won the Emmy for lead actress in a drama series. She was nominated two more times (1967 and 1968) for her work in The Big Valley and earned three Golden Globe nominations as Best TV Star for the part as well (1966, 1967, 1968). And, on March 15, 1967, Stanwyck was named favorite TV actress at the Photoplay magazine awards, which aired as a special episode of The Merv Griffin Show (David Janssen of "The Fugitive '' was named favorite TV actor). Richard Long helped present Stanwyck her Gold Medal at the event.
The Big Valley was also recognized during its run for its polished production. In 1966 and 1968, the American Cinema Editors (ACE) named Valley the year 's Best Edited Television Program (for the episodes "40 Rifles '' and "Disappearance '', respectively).
While The Big Valley is set primarily in and near the city of Stockton, the filming of the series took place in Southern California.
A bit of Hollywood history: Nick 's girlfriend in "The River Monarch '' wears an open weave / knit gray coat with red trim that was worn by Olivia deHavilland as Melanie Wilkes in the Atlanta train station Christmas scene in Gone with the Wind.
The theme music was composed by George Duning, who also scored the pilot and four episodes; Lalo Schifrin, Elmer Bernstein and Joseph Mullendore also scored episodes. Paul Henreid, of Casablanca fame, directed a number of episodes.
Wilfred M. Cline, A.S.C., Technicolor Associate Cinematographer on Gone with the Wind (1939), was director of photography of several Big Valley episodes, together with Chas E. Burke, A.S.C.
Dell Comics published a short - lived comic book for six issues in 1966 - 69. (The last issue reprinted the first, and came out two years after issue # 5). All issues had photo covers.
Film columnist Patrick Goldstein reported in the Los Angeles Times in July 2009 that filmmakers Daniel Adams and Kate Edelman Johnson were producing a feature film version of The Big Valley with production to begin in April 2010 in New Mexico and Michigan. In 2012, the aforementioned film version of The Big Valley, which was to have first starred Susan Sarandon and then Jessica Lange in the role of Victoria Barkley, was put on hold indefinitely after the film 's would - be director, Daniel Adams, was indicted for fraud pertaining to two previous films and sued by investors in "Valley '' who claimed foul as well.
Several episodes of the original TV series have been combined into concurrent running feature - length TV movies, while the notable two part episodes: "Legend of a General '' and "Explosion! '' have also been made into feature - length TV movies. These have been issued as TV movies on DVD as a box set, along with seasons one and two.
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the first season on DVD in Region 1 on May 16, 2006. Season 2, Volume 1 was released on January 30, 2007.
On January 8, 2014, it was announced that Timeless Media Group (TMG) had acquired the rights to the series. They have subsequently released seasons 2 & 3 on DVD. The fourth and final season was released on October 28, 2014.
In Germany, all four seasons have been released as individual season sets, plus a complete four season box set in region 2 PAL format.
The series is currently being aired on # Talking Pictures TV. in UK Ch 81 (2018)
In the United States, the series is currently airing on MeTV and INSP, the Inspiration Network (2018)
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when does tamar and vince season 5 start | Tamar & Vince - wikipedia
Tamar & Vince is an American reality television series that debuted on September 20, 2012, and airs on WE tv. It is a spin - off of Braxton Family Values. In June 2013, Tamar & Vince was renewed for a ten - episode second season that premiered on September 5, 2013. The first season acquired 5.6 million total viewers for the network. The third season premiered on October 23, 2014, and consists of eight episodes. The fourth season premiered on December 10, 2015. The show has been renewed for a fifth season, which will premiere on November 9, 2017.
The first season follows Tamar Braxton through her journey to superstardom, and also features the struggles she and Vince encounter in their marriage. The second season encompasses the creation of Tamar 's new album, Love and War, the promotional tour for the album, Tamar 's pregnancy and the arrival of the couple 's first child. The fourth season chronicled Tamar 's health struggles with pulmonary embolisms.
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who won survivor blood vs water san juan del sur | Survivor: San Juan del Sur - wikipedia
Survivor: San Juan del Sur -- Blood vs. Water is the twenty - ninth season of the American CBS competitive reality television series Survivor, which premiered on September 24, 2014. Similar to Survivor: Blood vs. Water, the season features pairs of loved ones competing against each other but, unlike Blood vs. Water, all the players are new. The season was filmed in San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, the same location as Survivor: Nicaragua and Survivor: Redemption Island. The two - hour finale and one - hour reunion show aired on December 17, 2014, where Natalie Anderson was named the winner over Jaclyn Schultz and Missy Payne.
This season saw the return of Exile Island, which was last used in Survivor: Tocantins. In lieu of a reward challenge, a castaway and their loved one would square off in a duel. The loser is sent to Exile Island, while the winner earns reward for his or her tribe and must send one of their tribemates to Exile Island as well. The two castaways who are sent to Exile Island then have to choose one of two vases, where in only one has a clue to a hidden immunity idol located at their tribe 's camp. Exile Island continued after the merge with one castaway exiled by the reward winners, where there would be a single urn with a clue to an idol hidden somewhere on Exile.
A DVD release of the season is planned and currently available for pre-order on Amazon.com, however, no release date has been announced.
The season was originally set to have 20 castaways, So Kim and her sister Doo were originally cast but they dropped out before the game began due to a medical emergency. So eventually competed on the following season, Survivor: Worlds Apart. The season would continue with nine pairs, but with the first gender imbalance since Survivor: Fiji. While this season initially included Redemption Island, production decided to ultimately not use it for the season, and instead replaced it with the return of Exile Island.
Adam Klein and his mother auditioned for this season, but could not participate once Klein 's mother was diagnosed with cancer. Klein was eventually cast on the show 's 33rd season, Survivor: Millennials vs. Gen X, which he won.
On August 12, 2014, six weeks before the scheduled premiere, the post-production crew for the season went on strike, consequently endangering the premiere date. The approximately 20 - person post-production team, who have been working on the show since its inception in 2000, demanded a better health insurance and pension fund. The strike ended a day later, leaving the premiere 's intended airdate intact.
The cast is composed of nine pairs of loved ones, with relationships including parent - child, siblings, and partners (both married and dating). Notable contestants include former professional baseball player John Rocker, and two - time The Amazing Race contestants Natalie and Nadiya Anderson, who competed together on seasons 21 and 24.
Keith Nale, Jeremy Collins, and Kelley Wentworth returned for Survivor: Cambodia. Natalie Anderson was originally selected for Survivor: Game Changers but had to back out due to medical reasons.
The nine pairs of loved ones were separated onto two tribes: Coyopa and Hunahpu. Coyopa lost nearly every challenge; the tribe was initially dominated by a men 's alliance led by John, but Josh was torn between allegiances to the men and perpetual target Baylor. On Hunahpu, Jeremy and Natalie aligned after their loved ones were voted out, and argued with John at challenges over their loved ones ' eliminations. Due to John 's volatility, Josh orchestrated his ouster and took over the alliance. After a tribe swap, Missy -- Baylor 's mother -- came into power on Coyopa, while Josh and Jeremy vied for control on Hunahpu. While both men targeted each other, their conflict was never resolved as their tribe won every challenge.
At the merge, two factions emerged: Jeremy 's alliance with Natalie, Julie, Missy and Baylor, and Josh 's alliance with his boyfriend Reed, Wes and his father Keith, and Alec, with dating couple Jon and Jaclyn in the middle. While they prepared to side with Josh 's alliance for the first post-merge Tribal Council, it was cancelled after Julie quit the game, giving Jon and Jaclyn time to change their minds and side with Jeremy 's alliance to eliminate Josh. Jeremy 's fortune was not to last, and he was blindsided by his alliance sans Natalie. While Natalie rejoined her old alliance to pick off the remnants of Josh 's alliance, Keith was spared as Natalie enacted her revenge, voting out Jon and Baylor and leaving no intact pairs of loved ones remaining. Keith then lost the final immunity challenge and was the last player voted out of the game.
Missy, Jaclyn, and Natalie were the final three. At the final Tribal Council, Reed eviscerated Missy 's character, comparing her to a "wicked stepmother '' and chastising her for a lack of strategy, while Jaclyn was questioned for having only made moves with others, primarily Jon. Natalie was praised for making bold moves without a loved one 's support, and was ultimately awarded the title of Sole Survivor with five votes to win, compared to Jaclyn 's two and Missy 's one.
In the case of multiple castaways who win reward, they are listed in order of finish, or alphabetically where it was a team effort; where one castaway won and invited others, the invitees are in square brackets.
The nine pairs of loved ones were marooned separately in Nicaragua, and given only flint to survive the night. The next morning, the castaways gathered at Hero Arena, where they were split up into two tribes: Coyopa and Hunahpu. The tribes were immediately given their first reward challenge, to be completed by one representative per tribe. After winning rock - paper - scissors, Hunahpu earned the right to choose their rep, and Jeremy volunteered. Host Jeff Probst revealed that Jeremy would be competing against his loved one, his wife Val.
Jeremy won the duel and, as a result, Val was sent to Exile Island. Jeremy also had to choose someone from his tribe to join Val; he chose Keith. Upon arriving at the Hunahpu camp, Jeremy quickly made alliances with Missy, Kelley, and Natalie. At Coyopa, Dale, the oldest member of his tribe, struggled to fit in and, during a trip to the well, found and pocketed a mysterious wooden fragment, unsure of whether or not it was a hidden idol. Dale later won favor with his tribe after successfully making fire with his glasses. On Exile Island, Val and Keith chose urns to see who would get a clue to a hidden immunity idol; Val picked the urn containing the clue, and lied to Keith about what the note actually was. Back at Coyopa, Wes correctly identified his tribemate John as John Rocker, former relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves baseball team. While Wes hoped that this would forge an alliance between the two, John became wary of Wes 's newfound knowledge, and considered voting him out. At the immunity challenge, Keith and Val rejoined their tribes from Exile Island.
Coyopa used John 's height and strength to take an early lead, however they struggled at the puzzle and lost the challenge. At Hunahpu, Jeremy apologized for sending Keith to Exile Island, and promised to make it up to him. At Coyopa, Dale became wary of Nadiya for her backstabbing gameplay on The Amazing Race. The tribe was divided by gender lines, with Josh, perceived by Nadiya as "one of the girls '' for being gay, caught in the middle. He was approached by Baylor, who decided to stick with him and not necessarily the other women. The women decided to target Dale due to his age, and the men targeted Nadiya. At Tribal Council, Josh voted for Baylor while Baylor flipped on the girls, joining the other four men to form a majority of five to send Nadiya out of the game.
As the Coyopa tribe returned to camp after voting out Nadiya, Josh explained to Baylor that he voted for her to remove suspicion that the two were working together, although Baylor still felt scared by Josh 's move. The next morning, at Hunahpu, the tribe realized that they had lost their flint, with Jon owning up to the misplacement. Before the reward challenge, John beat Reed in rock - paper - scissors, giving Coyopa the right to pick the representatives for the duel; John volunteered for Coyopa, setting a matchup between himself and his girlfriend, Julie.
Julie won in a blowout victory, and chose Jeremy to join John on Exile Island. Before the tribes left, Hunahpu attempted to bargain with Jeff for a new flint, offering their remaining supply of beans for trade. Jeff vocalized that the trade was poorly planned and unbalanced, in turn putting Hunahpu 's newly - won fishing gear on the line, which the tribe reluctantly accepted as trade. At Coyopa, with John exiled, the tribe discussed his past as a baseball player, and Dale brought up the controversial statements he made about minority groups. At Exile Island, Jeremy picked the urn with the clue, but shared it with John under the proviso that they protect each other 's loved ones upon returning to camp.
With a score of 5 -- 4, Coyopa lost their fourth consecutive challenge. Upon returning to camp, John attempted to secure an alliance with Val, however she lied to him, claiming that she had two hidden idols that would keep herself and Jaclyn safe that night. John decided to look for the hidden immunity idol using Jeremy 's information, which he found. John, still believing in Val 's idols, organized a split vote between Val and Baylor with three men joining Jaclyn and Val in voting for Baylor, deemed untrustworthy after voting out Nadiya, and two men joining an unsuspecting Baylor in voting for Val to flush one of Val 's idols. At Tribal Council, Val and Jaclyn attempted to rally support against Baylor, publicly accusing her of playing both sides, while Val was called out for claiming to have two idols in hopes she would play one. The split vote plan went awry after Josh switched his vote to Val, resulting in a tie between her and Baylor. Since Val had no idols to play, she was left vulnerable during the re-vote, and was voted out for her duplicity.
Upon returning to camp, Josh revealed to John that he had switched his vote to Val at Tribal Council, explaining that if he had voted against Baylor, Val would have been safe without needing to play an idol. The next morning, at Hunahpu, Drew attempted to lead an effort to improve their shelter roof, but quickly gave up and took a nap, much to the ire of his tribe. At Hero Arena, upon seeing that his wife had been voted out, Jeremy called out the men 's alliance on Coyopa; John publicly apologized to Jeremy for being unable to save Val as he had promised him on Exile Island, making Josh suspicious of John 's loyalty.
Coyopa won rock - paper - scissors to choose their duelist; Wes volunteered to compete, thinking he could beat his father, Keith. Wes ' assumption was correct, winning the challenge and sending Josh to Exile Island with Keith; Coyopa, with their first challenge victory under their belt, chose the fishing gear over comfort. Back at Hunahpu, a scorned Jeremy outed John 's past baseball career and derogatory remarks against minority groups, alienating John 's girlfriend Julie from the tribe. At Exile Island, Keith shared the idol clue with Josh, and the two bonded despite their vastly different ways of life. At Coyopa, John effectively used the fishing gear to provide for his tribe, but Baylor still attempted to convince the majority alliance to turn against him.
With the score tied 2 - 2, Jon and Natalie edged out Wes and Alec to win Hunahpu 's third consecutive immunity challenge. When Natalie began trash - talking Coyopa after her tribe 's victory, John Rocker reacted by mocking her in front of everyone. Natalie called Coyopa to rally against Rocker, calling him a racist and a bigot, and he responded by telling her, "if you were a man, I 'd knock your teeth out. '' Back at camp, John attempted to throw Baylor and Jaclyn off his scent by claiming he was going to blindside Dale while, in actuality, he and the other men would send Baylor home. After John revealed his idol to Josh, Josh decided that John had to go for his volatility, and attempted to convince Alec and Wes to blindside John. Ultimately, despite some accidental tip - offs at Tribal Council, John decided not to play his idol and was voted out with it in his pocket.
With the Coyopa tribe in good spirits after voting out John, Dale felt he was now on the outs after being the only one not to vote against John. At Hunahpu, Natalie found the flint that they had earlier lost. At Hero Arena, some Hunahpu members reacted with cheers and applause after noticing that John had been voted out. Drew attempted to trade the old flint with Jeff to get the fishing gear back while the rest of his tribe appeared embarrassed and took no part in the negotiation, but Jeff quickly shut it down.
Jon volunteered for Hunahpu after they won rock - paper - scissors to choose their duelist, pitting him against his girlfriend, Jaclyn. Jon narrowly won the challenge, and Drew volunteered to go to Exile Island with Jaclyn; Hunahpu chose the comfort items over the feast. At Exile Island, Drew revealed to Jaclyn that he planned to throw the next immunity challenge to get rid of untrustworthy players on Hunahpu. At Hunahpu, Keith went searching for the hidden immunity idol; as he was unsuccessful, he assumed that Jeremy -- the only other person from his tribe to have been to Exile Island -- had found it, and voiced his suspicions to his tribemates. Reed ratted Keith out to Jeremy, while Keith eventually found the idol.
While the tribes were neck - and - neck, Drew intentionally botched the ring tossing to give Coyopa their first immunity challenge win. Back at camp, Jon proposed getting rid of the players without loved ones, for fear that they would outnumber the couples at the merge, with Julie as his first target. Drew vehemently proposed getting rid of Kelley, whom he perceived as the strongest manipulator of a potential women 's alliance, while Jeremy tried to get support to vote Keith out. Despite being outnumbered by the men, the four women banded together to take advantage of the men 's disorganization, and targeted Drew. At Tribal Council, Jeremy called out Keith for going straight to the other tribemates regarding Jeremy 's potential idol, and not discussing it with him directly. Kelley, Keith, Drew, and Julie all received votes, but Drew was sent out of the game after receiving votes from the women and Jeremy.
After returning from Hunahpu 's first Tribal Council, Jon, having lost his closest tribal ally in Drew, attempted to reintegrate within the tribe. At Hero Arena, instead of a duel taking place, Jeff announced a tribe swap. On the new Coyopa tribe were pairs Kelley and Dale, Missy and Baylor, and Jon and Jaclyn, with Keith as the only single castaway; Hunahpu 's only pair was Josh and Reed, joined by singles Natalie, Jeremy, Wes, Alec, and Julie. The new Hunahpu tribe lamented their nearly - depleted supply of rice, while Natalie and Jeremy were afraid that they would be in the minority against the three former Coyopa members -- Alec, Josh, and Wes -- and Reed, Josh 's boyfriend, so they attempted to sway Alec to form an alliance of those whose loved ones had already been voted out. At Coyopa, Missy and Dale quickly butted heads over rice portioning, and Missy thought about targeting Dale after hearing that he had tried to vote out her daughter, Baylor. Before the immunity challenge, a starving Hunahpu once again considered bartering with Jeff, this time for more rice.
Hunahpu held onto their early lead to land ten sandbags on the platform before Coyopa even threw one. After their victory, Hunahpu attempted to make a deal with Jeff for more rice, and Jeff promised to visit their camp the next morning to resolve the situation. Back at Coyopa, Dale and Missy targeted each other; Jon and Jaclyn, knowing that they held the power, pledged loyalty to both Missy and Baylor, and Dale and Kelley. While Jaclyn voiced concern with trusting Baylor, having already been betrayed by her once, she also conceded to Dale 's sneakiness. At Tribal Council, Kelley and Dale voted against Baylor, but the other five aligned against them; with three of their votes, Kelley was voted out.
After his daughter 's elimination, Dale again found himself on the bottom of his tribe. He showed Jon the wooden fragment he had found early on, claiming it was an immunity idol and he would not be the next one voted out. At Hunahpu, the starving tribe was visited by Jeff, who reprimanded the tribe for being incredibly mismanaged and demanded all of their reward comfort items, hatchet, hammer, a pot, and their extra flint in exchange for a new bag of rice; Hunahpu conceded to the trade. At the reward duel, since there were no intact pairs on opposite tribes who had yet to duel, the tribes were tasked to send their strongest competitor; Hunahpu sent Reed, while Coyopa chose Baylor.
Reed handily defeated Baylor to win the challenge for Hunahpu; while he initially chose to send Julie to Exile Island with Baylor, Natalie volunteered. Back at Coyopa, Jon told Missy and Baylor about Dale 's idol, thrusting a backup target on Keith. At Exile Island, Baylor shared the idol clue with Natalie. At Hunahpu, despite enjoying the reward, the tribe was still upset with the rice trade, and were forced to brave out a storm that night without their tarp, with Julie in particular having a very hard time.
Although Coyopa entered the puzzle portion with a lead, Jon and Missy got caught up with one piece, allowing Hunahpu to pull from behind and win. Dale, knowing his poor standing in Coyopa, offered Jon his idol if he survived the night 's vote, and asked him to vote against Missy. Baylor suggested to Missy, Jon, and Jaclyn that they split their votes between Keith and Dale out of fear of Dale 's idol. While Dale reminded the others about Baylor 's betrayal of the women at the first Tribal Council, the four followed through with their vote splitting plan, and Keith joined Jon and Jaclyn in voting against Dale, sending him out of the game.
The morning after Tribal Council, Missy confessed to Keith that she and Baylor voted against him solely as a precaution against Dale 's potential idol, which made an upset Keith question his place in their alliance despite their apology. At Hunahpu, two factions made themselves clear in preparation for the merge: Josh and Reed 's majority alliance with Alec and Wes, and the "singles '' alliance of Jeremy, Natalie, and Julie. Later that day, the tribes merged and enjoyed a commemorative feast. In the ensuing strategic scramble, Jeremy reconnected with Missy, and added her, Baylor, Jon, and Jaclyn to his alliance, while Keith aligned with his son Wes and his alliance.
The next morning, Josh continued to consolidate his alliance and target Jeremy. Josh tried to realign with Baylor but, despite Josh 's earlier protection of her, Baylor found herself torn between her allegiances with Josh and her mother, Missy; while Baylor voiced her uneasiness in betraying Josh, Missy told Baylor to not let her emotions rule her. Josh, noting that Baylor would be impossible to control with Missy around, decided to cajole Jon and Jaclyn instead. The tribe noticed that some of the leftover trail mix from the merge feast was missing, and started searching everyone 's bags for it. Jon found it in Julie 's bag, and the tribe ate it out of anger for her selfishness; when Julie returned from a walk, the tribe gave her the cold shoulder.
Keith outlasted Wes to win the first individual immunity of the game. Upon returning to camp, Julie overheard Alec making fun of her for taking the trail mix, and later told Missy that she was considering quitting due to missing her eliminated boyfriend John and feeling alone; while Missy implored Julie to stay in the game for at least one more night, Julie perceived that Missy 's support was only because she needed Julie to vote with their alliance that night, and felt further alienated. After weighing offers from both sides, Jon and Jaclyn decided to join Josh 's couple - heavy alliance and blindside Jeremy, however, Julie decided to officially quit the game after a quick talk with Jeff outside camp. Jeff informed the rest of the castaways of Julie 's decision and cancelled that night 's Tribal Council, leaving Josh and Jeremy 's feud intact for at least three more days.
The remaining competitors were upset at Julie for quitting and postponing a Tribal Council, but Jon and Jaclyn reaffirmed their commitment to vote out Jeremy. At the reward challenge, the tribe was divided into two teams; Missy was not chosen and thus ineligible for the reward.
The team of Reed, Keith, Wes, Jeremy, and Natalie maintained their lead to win the challenge; they chose to exile Jon. At the taco bar, the winners enjoyed their reward, but the combination of players from the two different factions resulted in awkward exchanges, although Wes ' overeating and subsequent sickness alleviated some tension. Back at camp, Josh again pleaded with Baylor for her vote but, even after reminders of his protection of her on the old Coyopa tribe, she refused to vote with Josh 's alliance. On Exile Island, Jon found a new hidden immunity idol after receiving a clue. After the reward winners returned to camp, the rest of the tribe was turned off by Wes, Alec, and Keith 's candid discussion of their bodily functions, and misogynistic behavior toward the women, which alienated Jaclyn and pushed her toward the women and Jeremy 's alliance. While Keith thought they should talk strategy with Jaclyn, Alec convinced him not to, confident in Jon 's loyalty.
The challenge came down to rivals Josh and Jeremy, with Jeremy coming out on top. Upon arriving to camp, Jon told Jaclyn about his idol, while Josh 's alliance shifted their target to Baylor. Jaclyn persuaded Jon to betray Josh 's alliance for their poor treatment of her in Jon 's absence and for the men 's potential as challenge threats. Keith told Missy that Baylor was his alliance 's target, and the two parents squabbled over their on - island parenting methods. At Tribal Council, Jaclyn and Jon evaluated their swing vote status, and members of both sides publicly pleaded for their votes; Jaclyn announced her disappointment in Josh 's alliance for disrespecting her when Jon was n't around, and that led to them ultimately siding with Jeremy 's alliance to send Josh to the jury.
After his boyfriend Josh 's elimination, a livid Reed vowed to rebound while the rest of his tribemates dealt with the repercussions of Jon and Jaclyn officially joining Jeremy 's alliance.
After a 4 - 4 tie, Baylor defeated her mother Missy to win the challenge for her, Alec, Reed, Jeremy, and Natalie. Natalie and Jeremy decided to give up their spots on the reward to Jon and Jaclyn out of gratitude and to ensure their loyalty, while the reward - goers decided to exile Jeremy. On the yacht, Jon and Jaclyn were thankful for Jeremy and Natalie 's sacrifice, but understood that it was still a game move. On Exile Island, after an unsuccessful idol hunt, Jeremy had to endure two restless, rainy nights, which left him drained of energy and suspicious that Jon had found the idol; back at camp, Jon was worried about Jeremy 's return for that very reason.
After Reed and Keith faltered with their final blocks, Baylor was able to stay steady and win immunity. Nervous that he was going to follow his boyfriend out of the game, Reed decided to stir up trouble and searched through Keith 's bag. He found the instructions for playing a hidden immunity idol, and showed it to Jaclyn, Missy and Baylor. Meanwhile, Jeremy attempted to catch Jon lying about the hidden idol, which led to a paranoid Jon telling Missy about his idol and trying to blindside Jeremy, forgoing the original plan of splitting the votes between Reed and Keith. At Tribal Council, Jaclyn announced her suspicion that one of Wes and Keith had an idol, which resulted in a shouting match of Keith and Wes against Jon and Jaclyn about the latter flipping to Jeremy 's alliance, and Wes and Keith 's treatment of the women of the tribe. Ultimately, Keith decided not to play his idol and received votes from Natalie and Jeremy, but Jon, Jaclyn, Missy, Baylor and Reed united to blindside Jeremy out of the game.
After Tribal Council, Reed tried to reconfirm the need for he, Keith, Wes, and Alec to stick together, while Jon told Natalie about his idol in order to retain her loyalty despite blindsiding Jeremy, her closest ally. Natalie agreed to remain in the alliance, but knew she would eventually have to betray Jon.
Alec, Jon, Jaclyn, and Reed won the challenge after Missy, Baylor, Natalie, and Wes struggled with unlocking the puzzle base. As Missy had never yet been on a reward trip, Reed volunteered to give up his spot to her; the reward - goers exiled Wes. Back at camp, Reed and Keith decided to target Jon at the next Tribal Council, while Natalie and Baylor searched for a hidden immunity idol with the clues they were given on Exile earlier in the game, leading to Natalie finding the idol.
While many of the castaways succumbed to food temptations, Reed outlasted Natalie after three hours to earn immunity. Back at camp, Reed played double agent and, along with Alec, convinced the rest of the tribe to split their votes between Keith and Wes, allowing Reed, Wes, Keith, and Alec to vote Jon out despite being at a numerical disadvantage. While Jon was skeptical of Reed 's loyalty, Missy convinced Jon to trust him. At Tribal Council, Reed went along with pretending that he was voting against Keith and Wes, prompting Keith to tell Reed to "stick to the plan. '' This led to Missy and Jon 's alliance whispering amongst each other wondering if Reed and Keith were working together, and if Reed was trustworthy. After the votes were cast, Natalie encouraged Jon to play his idol, which he did, and Keith played his. The four votes cast against Jon were negated, as were the three cast against Keith, sending Wes to the jury with only two votes.
After returning to camp, Jaclyn thanked Natalie for telling Jon to play his idol; Jon privately berated Jaclyn for giving Natalie praise, thinking it would make him look bad if he reached the final Tribal Council.
After the minority alliance of Reed, Alec, and Keith were eliminated, the remaining five openly began consulting each other to determine the winner and who to exile. Jeff decided to stop the challenge, as the majority alliance decided to award Missy with the victory. Jon volunteered to be exiled, and Missy was given the choice to take two more castaways with her on the reward; she picked Baylor and Natalie, leaving Jaclyn alone at camp with the minority alliance. After a comment from Reed about how he still likes Jaclyn despite her siding with the other alliance, Baylor retorted, resulting in Reed calling Baylor a brat, angering Missy. At Exile Island, Jon found another idol, while Jaclyn, scorned after being left behind from the reward, again considered flipping alliances in Jon 's absence as she feared Missy, Baylor, and Natalie would eventually vote out her and Jon.
Keith stayed steady to win immunity. Upon returning to camp after two days on Exile, Jon went for a chat with Jaclyn, but snapped at her after she started talking strategy. An angry Jaclyn stormed away and refused to talk to Jon, while both sides attempted to sway the pair to their side, noting the difficulty in making decisions with a pair that refuses to communicate with each other. At Tribal Council, Jon and Jaclyn decided to stay with their alliance, and Reed was eliminated.
After Tribal Council, Jon and Jaclyn resolved their argument, while Alec, as one of the two remaining outsiders, lamented his poor standing in the game.
Natalie outlasted Jaclyn to win the challenge and, after exiling Alec, chose to share the reward with Jaclyn and Jon in order to keep their trust while she tried to blindside Jon for betraying Jeremy. The ploy seemed to be working when Jon told Natalie about his new hidden immunity idol; Natalie told Baylor about her plan to blindside Jon, who agreed to it despite Jon 's closeness with Baylor 's mother, Missy.
Jon narrowly defeated Keith to win immunity, throwing Natalie 's plans into disarray. The majority alliance of five decided to split the vote between Keith and Alec just to be safe, with three votes on Keith to take out the proven challenge threat. Alec, to save himself, decided to open up emotionally to Baylor, talking about his loneliness after his brother Drew 's early elimination. Natalie considered deviating from her alliance 's plan and voting for Alec instead, which would spare Keith and ensure his loyalty during her impending coup. At Tribal Council, Natalie decided to follow through with her move, switching her vote to Alec and sending him out of the game, much to Missy, Jaclyn, and Jon 's surprise.
After voting Alec out, Natalie lied to Jon and Jaclyn, claiming to have misunderstood the instructions regarding the split vote plan, which they believed. Natalie then told Keith that she had spared him from elimination and wanted to blindside Jon.
Missy twisted her ankle on the teeter - totter, slowing her, Jon, and Keith down, but the trio worked quickly on the puzzle to win the challenge. Jon gave up his reward to Baylor, and both Jon and Natalie volunteered to be exiled, but ultimately Natalie was sent. Back at camp, Jaclyn told Jon she was suspicious of Natalie for voting against Alec, but Jon still believed it was a mistake. Before the immunity challenge, a medical team member looked at Missy 's swollen ankle. She was cleared to remain in the game, but was unable to compete in the challenge.
After a gust of wind knocked over Jon 's vase, Natalie won immunity. After the challenge, Natalie told Keith her plan to split the votes between Jaclyn and Jon to avoid Jon 's idol, and coached Keith to remain calm at Tribal Council to avoid him getting scared and running his mouth as he had earlier in the game. Baylor and Natalie tried to convince Missy to join them, but Missy told them she could n't do that, refusing to break her promise to Jon. At Tribal Council, Keith pretended that he was on his way out and Jaclyn and Jon admitted that they felt safe, with Jon discussing his plans for his speech at the final Tribal Council. Missy conceded that she was loyal to a fault, but decided to vote against Jaclyn and Jon, forcing a three - way tie in votes between the couple and Keith. Upon the revote, Jon was sent to the jury.
After her boyfriend 's elimination, Jaclyn expressed her anger when Missy, Baylor, and Natalie tried to rationalize their betrayal of Jon; Missy and Baylor later reinforced their desire to go to the end with Natalie.
Due to Missy 's injury, she sat out of the challenge. Keith maintained his lead over Natalie to win the reward and exile Jaclyn. Back at camp, Keith used his advantage -- access to a practice table for the upcoming challenge -- and practiced as long as he could. Before the immunity challenge, Missy and Baylor further discussed sticking with Natalie, as she was likely to survive the next Tribal Council with her hidden immunity idol. Natalie, however, conspired with Keith and Jaclyn to break up the mother and daughter pair as the last remaining set of loved ones.
Having spent hours practicing, Keith was able to win the challenge before the others could even get a single ball across. Back at camp, Jaclyn informed Natalie of her plan to vote for either Missy or Baylor, and promised she would take Natalie to the end, while Baylor asked Natalie to play her idol on Missy to be safe. At Tribal Council, Natalie decided to play her idol on Jaclyn after confirming with her that Jaclyn had followed through with their plan. The three votes against Jaclyn were negated, and Baylor was sent to the jury, leaving no pairs remaining.
Having betrayed Missy and eliminated her daughter, Natalie made sure that Missy was not angry with her; Missy understood that it was just a game, and that Natalie did what she had to do to further herself. Natalie then confirmed with the other women that Keith was still the next to go.
With Missy sitting out of the challenge, Natalie and Jaclyn fought hard to prevent Keith from winning immunity. While Keith and Natalie were neck - and - neck in retrieving their puzzle pieces, an exhausted Jaclyn was able to pull from behind to finish the puzzle and open the lock to win immunity. While Keith targeted Missy, Natalie was afraid that -- after making big moves at the last two Tribal Councils -- she would be an easy target. Missy and Jaclyn indeed discussed eliminating Natalie, with Jaclyn conceding that that 's what Jon would do if he were still in the game. At Tribal Council, while Natalie admitted that she had a chance to win, and thus was a threat to the others, the women stuck to their initial plan and Keith became the final member of the jury.
At the final Tribal Council, Missy stressed the importance of loyalty in her game despite turning on Jon, Jaclyn discussed her diagnosis of MRKH syndrome, which prohibits her from having children, and how she has been persevering despite it, while Natalie explained that she managed to persist and make big moves despite her twin sister being voted out first. Jaclyn was probed about making moves primarily with others, and Reed concluded the night by comparing Missy to a "wicked stepmother '' for her perceived entitlement and for making the minority alliance members feel unnecessary and subpar.
Former contestants Spencer Bledsoe (Survivor: Cagayan) and Rob Cesternino (Survivor: The Amazon and Survivor: All - Stars) both called the season 's final five "one of the worst '' and "least strategic '' final fives in the show 's history, while Cagayan winner Tony Vlachos criticized the cast as a whole. Entertainment Weekly 's Survivor columnist Dalton Ross called the cast "boring, if not boorish, '' and said that there were no standout moments from the season. Ross added, "This is not a season that inspires anger or rage, just apathy, which is maybe the worst indictment of all. '' Despite adding that the final episodes of the season were an improvement, as well as praising Anderson 's post-merge gameplay, Ross ultimately ranked it as the fifth - worst season of the series, only ahead of One World, Thailand, Fiji, and Nicaragua. The season was similarly ranked as the fifth - worst by Andrea Deiher of Zap2it in 2015, only ahead of Africa, Vanuatu, Thailand, and Redemption Island. Survivor: Tocantins runner - up and People 's Survivor columnist Stephen Fishbach called it a "humdrum '' season, and although it had "a great winner, '' he also called the Final Tribal Council "one of the worst in the show 's history. '' Host Jeff Probst acknowledged the season as lackluster, especially in comparison to the previous four seasons. In response to whether or not he disliked most of the cast, he stated that "there was a lot of frustration this season, '' but similarly to Ross, added that "it got a lot better as it went along. '' In 2015, Survivor fan site "The Purple Rock Podcast '' ranked San Juan Del Sur as the 8th - worst season of the series, describing the cast as "realistically about 80 % fodder, '' and that "it 's hard to get past how unappealing this cast is. '' Also in 2015, a poll on the website of former Survivor contestant and reality TV podcast host Rob Cesternino saw San Juan Del Sur rank as the 9th - worst season of the series. Rob himself ranked it in the top half of seasons at number 15. While Tom Santilli of Examiner.com reserved some praise for aspects such as the idol plays and the memorability of Keith Nale, he said that the season "mainly consisted of a cast full of people who could only be considered as ' non-gamers, ' '' and ultimately concluded that "something about this season did n't quite click, and I 'm afraid that most of it will be forgotten over time. '' Gordon Holmes of Xfinity similarly summarized: "I do n't get this season. There are big, interesting moves, but it does n't feel right. It just does n't pop. ''
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vincent van gogh a pair of boots 1887 | Still life paintings by Vincent Van Gogh (Paris) - wikipedia
Still life paintings by Vincent van Gogh (Paris) is the subject of many drawings, sketches and paintings by Vincent van Gogh in 1886 and 1887 after he moved to Montmartre in Paris from the Netherlands. While in Paris, Van Gogh transformed the subjects, color and techniques that he used in creating still life paintings.
He saw the work and met the founders and key artists of Impressionism, Pointillism and other movements and began incorporating what he learned into his work. Japanese art, Ukiyo - e, and woodblock prints also influenced his approach to composition and painting.
There was a gradual change from the somber mood of his work in the Netherlands to a far more varied and expressive approach as he began introducing brighter color into his work. He painted many still life paintings of flowers, experimenting with color, light and techniques he learned from several different modern artists before moving on to other subjects.
By 1887 his work incorporated several elements of modern art as he began to approach his mature oeuvre. Excellent examples are the Pairs of Shoes paintings, where in the space of four paintings one can observe the difference between the first pair of boots made in 1886, similar to some of his earlier peasant paintings from Nuenen, to the painting made in 1887 that incorporates complementary, contrasting colors and use of light. Another example are the Blue Vases paintings made in 1887 that incorporate both color and technique improvements that result in uplifting, colorful paintings of flowers.
With the spring of 1887 Van Gogh left the city proper for a visit to Asnières with his friend Émile Bernard. While there his work was further transformed stylistically and through the use of bright, contrasting color and light. See his works from Asnières and Seine.
From 1880 to 1885 Van Gogh began working as an artist in earnest. He was influenced not only by the great Dutch masters but also to a considerable extent by his cousin - in - law Anton Mauve a Dutch realist painter and a leading member of the Hague School.
Van Gogh 's palette consisted mainly of dark earth tones, particularly dark brown. His brother Theo, an art dealer, commented that his work was too somber to be marketable and encouraged him to explore modern art, particularly Impressionism for its bright, colorful paintings.
A Girl in the Street, Two Coaches in the Background, 1882, Private collection (F13)
Still Life with Earthenware, Bottle and Clogs, 1885, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands (F63)
Head of a Peasant Woman with White Cap, 1885, National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh (F140)
In 1886, Van Gogh left the Netherlands and traveled to Paris to explore emerging artistic movements under the guidance and continued support of his brother Theo van Gogh, an art dealer. Surprised that Vincent had come to Paris unannounced, and in opposition to their conversations about timing of his arrival, Vincent stayed in Theo 's apartment on Rue Laval until a larger apartment could be acquired. For four months, Van Gogh studied with Fernand Cormon, painting plaster casts, live nude models and props available at Cormon 's studio. Cormon also encouraged open - air painting. There me met Henri de Toulouse - Lautrec, Émile Bernard, and Louis Anquetin. Through Theo and artistic social circles he also met Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro, Paul Signac, Georges Seurat, and Paul Gauguin. Through the fellowship with these men, he was introduced to Impressionists, Symbolists, Pointillists, and Japanese art, Ukiyo - e, and woodcut prints. In spite of his unusual manner, disheveled clothes and often time frightening manner, Paris was the one place where Van Gogh developed friendships with other artists. So much so that when Toulouse - Lautrec heard disparaging remarks against Van Gogh, he challenged the man to a duel. Seeing and trading artwork with the Parisian avant - garde artists, Van Gogh understood what Theo had been trying to tell him for years about modern art. He was able to experiment with each of the movements to develop his own style, becoming what some say is "one of the most important artists in modern art. ''
Romanticism was an art and literature movement formed by people looking to escape the drab world. Its characteristics are paintings of "exotic lands '' with grandiose feeling and intense color. Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli developed a highly individual Romantic style of painting with richly colored, dappled, and textured painting and glazed surfaces. Monticelli was a French painter of the generation preceding the Impressionists who was friends with Narcisse Diaz, a member of the Barbizon school, and the two often painted together in the Fontainebleau Forest. Vincent van Gogh, greatly admired his work after seeing it in Paris when he arrived there in 1886. Van Gogh was influenced by the richness that he perceived in Monticelli 's work. In 1890, Van Gogh and his brother Theo were instrumental in publishing the first book about Monticelli.
Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli, Still life with Sardines and Sea Urchins, 1880 - 1882, Dallas Museum of Art
Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli, As You Like It, 1880, Phillips Collection, Washington, DC.
Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli, La Reverence, Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (Buenos Aires)
The Impressionism movement was a change from traditional artistic techniques. With Impressionism the intention was to depict colors and images the way they are seen, not the way that artists were taught to paint them. Aspects of Impressionism include using gleaming spots of light, color in shadows, colors straight from the tube in dots or dashes, and dissolving firm outlines.
Édouard Manet, Carnations and Clematis in a Crystal Vase, 1883, Musée d'Orsay
Edgar Degas, Two Ironing Women, 1884, Musée d'Orsay
Claude Monet, Still - Life with Anemones, 1885
Van Gogh was influenced by Impressionists Edgar Degas and Claude Monet, but even more so by Neo-impressionist Georges Seurat, partly because of the use of dots of contrasting colors to intensify the image, a technique called Pointillism. Van Gogh likened painting with constructing small, thoughtfully placed dashes of color to writing "words in a speech or a letter ''.
Georges Seurat, Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, 1884 -- 1886, The Art Institute of Chicago
Camille Pissarro, Shepherdess with Returning Sheep, 1886, Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art. One of Pissarro 's first Pointillist paintings.
Paul Signac, The Town Beach, Collioure, 1887, Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City
Camille Pissarro, Children on a Farm, 1887
Cloisonnism is a style of Post-impressionist painting with bold and flat forms separated by dark contours. The term was coined by critic Edouard Dujardin on occasion of the Salon des Indépendants, in March 1888. Artists Émile Bernard, Louis Anquetin, Paul Gauguin, Paul Sérusier, and others started painting in this style in the late 19th century. The name evokes the technique of cloisonné, where wires (cloisons or "compartments '') are soldered to the body of the piece, filled with powdered glass, and then fired. Many of the same painters also described their works as Synthetism a closely related movement.
Paul Sérusier, The Talisman / Le Talisman, 1888, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Émile Bernard, Pardon at Pont - Aven, 1888
Émile Bernard, Portrait of a Boy in Hat, 1889, Musée d'Art et d'Industrie de Roubaix.
Post-Impressionism is the term coined by the British artist and art critic Roger Fry in 1910 to describe the development of French art since Manet. Fry used the term when he organized the 1910 exhibition Manet and Post-Impressionism. Post-Impressionists extended Impressionism while rejecting its limitations: they continued using vivid colours, thick application of paint, distinctive brush strokes, and real - life subject matter, but they were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, to distort form for expressive effect, and to use unnatural or arbitrary colour.
Paul Cézanne, Still life with Soup Tureen, 1884, Musée d'Orsay
Paul Gauguin, Seaside II, 1887
Henri de Toulouse - Lautrec, Vincent van Gogh, 1887, Van Gogh Museum
Characteristic features of Ukiyo - e woodprints include their ordinary subject matter, the distinctive cropping of their compositions, bold and assertive outlines, absent or unusual perspective, flat regions of uniform colour, uniform lighting, absence of chiaroscuro, and their emphasis on decorative patterns. One or more of these features can be found in numbers of Vincent 's paintings from his Antwerp period onwards. Van Gogh wrote, "If we study Japanese art, we see a man who is undoubtedly wise, philosophical and intelligent, who spends his time... studying a single blade of grass. But this blade of grass leads him to draw every plant, and then the seasons, the wide aspects of the countryside, then animals, then the human figure... is n't it almost a true religion which these simple Japanese teach us, who live in nature as though they themselves are flowers. And you can not study Japanese art, it seems to me, without becoming much gayer and happier. ''
Utagawa Hiroshige, The Intertwined Catalpa Trees at Azuma Grove, c. 1856 - 58, Japanese Ukiyo - e, woodcut print
Utagawa Hiroshige, Evening Shower at Atake and the Great Bridge
Japonaiserie: Bridge in the Rain (after Hiroshige), by Vincent van Gogh, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F372)
One of the most transformational elements of Van Gogh 's work during his period in Paris was his use of color. Van Gogh used complementary, contrasting colors to bring an intensity to his work. Two complementary colors of the same degree of vividness and brightness placed next to one another produce an intense reaction, called the "law of simultaneous contrast. ''
From his days in the Netherlands Van Gogh became familiar with Delacroix 's color theory and was fascinated by color. While in Nuenen Van Gogh became familiar with Michel Eugène Chevreul 's laws in weaving to maximize the intensity of colors through their contrast to adjacent colors.
In Paris, Van Gogh eagerly studied Seurat 's use of complementary colors. Excited to try out complementary studies, Van Gogh would divide a large canvas into several rectangular sections, trying out "all the colors of the rainbow. '' There he was also exposed through his brother Theo to Adolphe Monticelli 's still life work with flowers, which he admired. He saw Monticelli 's use of color as an expansion of Delacroix 's theories of color and contrast. He also admired the effect Monticelli created by heavy application of paint.
In the still life series, particularly of flowers, Van Gogh experimented with color relationship, such as complementary, contrasting colors which are colors across from one another on the color wheel. A second color relationship, harmonious colors are colors adjacent to one another on the color wheel. He also used the trio of colors, where the relationship on the color wheel forms a triangle.
To help him choose colors for his studies, Van Gogh collected strands of different shades of yarn to experiment with color combinations. He rolled selected strands together into balls in combinations matching specific paintings, such as the yellow and ocher combinations found in Still Life with Quince Pears and Lemons (F383). The box and his sample balls of yarn have survived and are held by the Van Gogh Museum.
Soon after Van Gogh arrived in Paris he began painting still lifes with the goal of experimenting with contrasting colors. He wrote to a friend in England that his goal was to create "intense coloration, not gray harmony. ''
His started with still lifes of flowers. At first his still lifes maintained the subdued tones that he used in the Netherlands. The more he became immersed in his painting, he continually added brighter colors to his work until he was using colors directly from the tube. Then he moved on to other subjects from everyday life that reflect his use of vivid colors and a free brushstroke.
Van Gogh courted Agostina Segatori, the owner of the Café du Tambourin on the boulevard de Clichy, for a period of time and gave her paintings of flowers, "which would last for ever ''.
The energy that Van Gogh put into his Still Life paintings is representative of his habit for "working systematically, concentrating on a theme until he had exhausted it. ''
Flowers were the subject of many of Van Gogh 's paintings in Paris, due in great part to his regard for flowers. Knowing Van Gogh 's interest in making still life paintings of flowers, friends and acquaintances in Paris sent bouquets of flowers weekly for his paintings. He also purchased inexpensive bouquets himself, choosing flowers in a variety of types and colors for his paintings. Many of his still life paintings of flowers reflect a sense of overabundance of European still lifes, where blossoms fill the canvas, blooms spill out of the vase or stems of flowers teeter on the edge of the vase.
Van Gogh carefully studied the art of floral arranging, the works of Dutch masters, Japanese woodcut prints and Impressionist still life arrangements to master his paintings of flowers. Expressing his enthusiasm for the subject and the number of paintings he completed in Paris, Van Gogh wrote to his sister Wil, "I painted almost nothing but flowers so I could get used to colors other than grey - pink, soft or bright green, light blue, violet, yellow, glorious red. '' His expertise in color, composition, texture and placement may have made an impression on Constance Spry, a noted floral arranger who created guidelines for flower arranging as an art form. She learned a great deal about "structure, style, form, balance, harmony and rhythm '' from studying the paintings by great masters of flowers.
The longer he was in Paris, the more he had an Asian aesthetic for flowers. As he said to his brother Theo: "You will see that by making a habit of looking at Japanese pictures you will come to love to make up bouquets and do things with flowers all the more. ''
Van Gogh had an agreement with the Agostina Segatori proprietress of Café du Tambourin, an establishment that catered to Montmartre artists, for meals in exchange for a few paintings each week. Soon the walls of the café were full of floral still life paintings.
Vase with Carnations, 1886, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, Netherlands (F220)
Vase with White and Red Carnations, 1886, Private collection (F236)
Vase with Carnations, 1886, Detroit Institute of Arts, Michigan (F243)
Vase with Carnations and Zinnias, 1886, Private collection (F259)
Vase with Red and White Carnation on a Yellow Background, 1886, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F327)
Vase of carnations and other flowers, 1886, Private collection (F596)
Chrysanthemums, often depicted in Japanese woodcut prints, were painted by Impressionists primarily in floral arrangements. The most desired chrysanthemum was an autumn - blooming variety from Japan.
Ginger Jar Filled with Chrysanthemums, 1886, Private collection (F198)
Bowl with Chrysanthemums, 1886, Private Collection (F217)
Chrysanthemums and Wild Flowers in a Vase, 1887, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (F588)
Imperial Fritillaries in a Copper Vase (F213) reflects the influences of Neo-Impressionist Paul Signac. The background is painted with Pointillist brushwork. The painting was made with complementary, contrasting colors of blue and orange. Van Gogh was not a purist; he varied the shades of contrasting colors and chose subjects that he enjoyed, such as painting still lifes. Fritillary is a bulb that flowers in the spring with between three and ten flowers for each bulb. Imperial fritillaries, with an orange - red flower, were grown in French and Dutch gardens at the end of the 19th century.
Fritillaries, 1886, Location unknown (F214)
Fritillaries in a Copper Vase, 1887, Musée d'Orsay, Paris (F213)
The Gladiolus, plural Gladioli, was one of Van Gogh 's favorite flower. He especially enjoyed how they opened up like a fan after having been placed in a vase. Because of their height, Van Gogh liked to use Gladioli to create triangular - structured compositions, such as Vase with Gladioli and Carnation (F237) or an inverted triangle as in Vase with Gladioli and China Asters (F248a).
Vase with Red Gladioli, 1886, Private collection (F248)
Vase with Gladioli and China Asters, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F248a)
Vase with Red Gladioli, 1886, Musée Jenisch, Vevey, Switzerland (F248b)
Vase with Gladioli and Carnations, 1886, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam (F237)
Vase with Gladioli and Carnations, 1886, Private collection (F242)
Vase with Red Poppies (F279) is another illustration of how Van Gogh used red and green primary, complementary colors to make both colors appear more intense, set before a blue background. He paints pink in the unopened buds and sienna in the table.
Vase with Red Poppies, 1886, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford (F279)
Poppy Flowers also Vase with Viscaria, 1886, Stolen August 2010 from Mohammed Mahmoud Khalil palace, Cairo (F324a)
Vase with Cornflowers and Poppies, 1887, Private collection (F324)
Van Gogh 's paintings of rose, or any flowers, are evocative of his quote, "Ah, what portraits could be made from nature with photography and painting. ''
Glass with Roses, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F218)
Bowl with Peonies and Roses, 1886, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands (F249)
White Vase with Roses and Other Flowers, 1886, Private collection (F258)
Still life with meadow flowers and roses, 1886, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands
Two Cut Sunflowers (F375) is one of a sequence of four paintings that Van Gogh made in the summer of 1887. The first (Van Gogh Museum, F377) was a preparatory sketch. Paul Gauguin had the second and third Two Cut Sunflower paintings (F375, F376) and hung them proudly in his Paris apartment above his bed. In the mid-1890s he sold them to fund his trip to the South Seas. The image of the four sunflowers was made on a large canvas.
Two Cut Sunflowers, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F377)
Two Cut Sunflowers, 1887, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (F375)
Two Cut Sunflowers, 1887, Kunstmuseum Bern, Switzerland (F376)
Four Sunflowers Gone to Seed, 1887, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands (F452)
Vase with Zinnias and Geraniums (F241) reflects the influence of Adolphe Monticelli (1824 -- 1886) in its vivid color and impasto paint. Van Gogh admired, and later collected, Monticelli 's work. Van Gogh had been introduced by his brother Theo to Monticelli 's still life work with flowers in Paris. He admired Monticelli 's use of color as an expansion of Delacroix 's theories of color and contrast. Secondly he admired the effect Monticelli created by heavy application of paint called "impasto ''. It was partially Monticelli, from Marseilles, who inspired Van Gogh 's southerly move to Provence in 1888. He felt such kinship for the man, and desire to emulate his style, that he wrote in a letter to his sister Wil that he felt as if he were "Monticelli 's son or his brother. '' The first owner in the provenance of this painting is "C.M. van Gogh Gallery, Amsterdam, The Netherlands '', which was owned by Van Gogh 's uncle and an art dealer, Cornelius Marinus van Gogh (1824 -- 1908).
Bowl with Zinnias and Other Flowers (F251), painted within days of Vase with Zinnias and Geraniums (F241), is evidence of Van Gogh 's transition to a lighter color palette. Picking up elements of Impressionism Van Gogh painted with a more vigorous brushstroke, with thick application of paint, called "impasto '' which created a three - dimensional relief. <
Vase with Zinnias and Geraniums, 1886, National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Canada (F241)
Bowl with Zinnias and Other Flowers also Vase with Zinnias and Other Flowers, 1886, National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Canada (F251)
Vase with Zinnias, 1886, Kreeger Museum, Washington D.C. (F252)
Unable to pay for models to pose for portraits, Van Gogh threw himself heartily into painting still lifes of flowers, "red poppies, blue corn flowers and myosotis, white and red roses, yellow chrysanthemums. ''
Vase with Autumn Asters (F234) is one example of the many still lifes that Van Gogh painted after he arrived in Paris. As he said to a friend, he wished for his paintings to take on intense colors, rather than the grey tones. In this arrangement Van Gogh plays with harmonizing colors: rose, pink, red and brown.
Basket of pansies (F244) is an example of Van Gogh 's experimentation with contrasting colors. In this case the contrasting pair are purple and yellow. He also used the contrasting red in the tambourine and green in the background for the painting, also known as Tambourine with Pansies. Van Gogh found pansies an example of natural color theory.
Vase with Hollyhocks (F235) was painted in the summer in contrasting shades of red and green. Van Gogh believed that he could express the season of the year by the colors that he used in his work. He experimented in this painting with creating an image that was nearly one - dimensional. The decorative jug used in this painting also appears in Van Gogh 's Vase with Autumn Asters (F234). Hollyhocks, native to China and Japan, were favored by Impressionists "for their spire - like growth, deeply - lobed green leaves and their satiny, cup - shaped flowers that hug the upper flower stem. ''
Still Life with a Bouquet of Daisies, 1886, Philadelphia Museum of Art (F197)
Glass with Hellebores, 1886, Private collection (F199)
Vase with Autumn Asters also Vase with Asters and Phlox, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F234)
Vase with Hollyhocks, 1886, Kunsthaus Zürich (F235)
Vase with Myosotis and Peonies, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F243a)
Basket of Pansies on a Small Table, (Tambourine with Pansies), 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F244)
Vase of white carnations and roses and bottle, 1886, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F246)
Vase with cornflowers and poppies, peonies and chrysanthemums, 1886, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F278)
Vase with Asters, Salvia and Other Flowers, 1886, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, The Hague, Netherlands (F286)
Lilacs, 1887, Hammer Museum, Los Angeles (286b)
Still Life with Scabiosa and Ranunculus, 1886, Private collection (F666)
Vase with Daisies and Anemones (F323), also known as Flowers in a Blue Vase, was painted late in Van Gogh 's stay in Paris. The vase holds a lively selection of daisies and anemones made with a range of colors. Dark red - brown is enlivened by shades of yellow, pink and white. He particularly works with the various shades of yellow, likely having selected colors for the combinations of color and shades that he wanted to portray. The vase is painted in a contrasting shade of blue. Techniques of Impressionism and Divisionism are reflected in his brushstrokes of the background, having used broken strokes and dots of color.
Vase with Lilacs, Daisies and Anemones, 1887, Musée d'Art et d'Histoire (Geneva) (F322)
Flowers in a Blue Vase, 1887, Private collection (no F#, Add20)
Van Gogh preferred to select items from daily life to portray in his still life paintings. With Flowerpot with Chives (F337) Van Gogh used a thin brush to carefully create this painting of a pot of chives. Contrasting colors of red and orange against green are used in this work. The background is a pattern that Van Gogh used in other works, such as Still life with Carafe and Lemons (F340). From the time this painting was made in 1887 and forward, Van Gogh used colorful backgrounds for his still lifes and portraits.
Geranium in a Flowerpot, 1886, Private collection (F201)
Coleus Plant in a Flowerpot, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F281)
Cineraria in a Flowerpot, 1886, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, Netherlands (F282)
Flowerpot with Chives, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F337)
Still Life with a Basket of Crocuses, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F334)
Basket of Sprouting Bulbs, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F336)
Still Life with French Novels and a Rose is a painting with a number of novels with bindings of contrasting colors: green against pink and red. The books are meant to represent seven Parisian novels Van Gogh owned, that Van Gogh described as "a great source of light '', regardless of the somber literature they contain. The dashes of lemon, pink, orange and green seem to bring life to the books, like the blossoming flower that also adds a feeling that the paintings is made for a woman. In 1888 Van Gogh gave this painting and another to his sister, Wil for her birthday. The other painting was made in Arles and is titled Blossoming Almond Branch in a Glass with a Book (F393).
Still Life with Books (F335) was painted by Van Gogh on a lid of a Japanese tea box. The books are Naturalist novels: "Braves Gens '' by Jean Richepin, "Au Bonheur Des Dames '' by Émile Zola and "La Fille Elisa '' by Edmond de Goncourt. Van Gogh, an avid reader, was particularly interested by French Naturalists. To his sister Wil, he once wrote "they paint life as we ourselves feel it, thereby fulfilling the need we have for people to tell us the truth. ''
Still Life with Three Books, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F335)
Still Life with Piles of French Novels and a Glass with a Rose (Romans Parisiens), 1887, Private Collection, Switzerland (F359)
Still Life with Plaster Statuette, a Rose and Two Novels, 1887, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F360)
Van Gogh made Pair of Shoes (F255) from a pair of boots he purchased at a flea market. He wore the boots on an extended rainy walk to create the effect he wished for this painting, which may have been a tribute to the working man. The Van Gogh Museum speculates that they may also be symbolic for Van Gogh of his "difficult passage through life. '' Of his walking through mud to make the shoes look more worn and dirty, Van Gogh was known to say "Dirty shoes and roses can both be good in the same way. ''
Van Gogh 's friend and fellow artist, John Peter Russell, received Van Gogh 's Three Pairs of Shoes (F332) in 1886. Russell had painted a portrait of Van Gogh that he dearly loved. In exchange for the portrait he had given Van Gogh, Russell selected Three Pairs of Shoes and a lithograph copy of Worn Out (Eternity 's Gate) (F997) that Van Gogh made in 1882. Russell selected these works at a time when Van Gogh had begun to make more colorful work. Russell 's selections indicate that he understood who Van Gogh was and the messages about the peasant or working man that he wished to convey through his work.
A Pair of Shoes, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F255)
A Pair of Shoes, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F331)
Three Pairs of Shoes, 1886, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge (F332)
A Pair of Boots, 1887, Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Maryland (F333)
Glass of Absinthe and a Carafe (F339) was made by Van Gogh in a café. On the table sits a glass of absinthe, its green - yellow liquid lighter for window 's sunlight and in contrast to the brown background. The painting catches a moment in the café from a patron 's perspective, with a view of pedestrians walking on the street. Absinthe was popular to Van Gogh and other artists both as a drink, although toxic and in some cases deadly, and because of its unique color, it was also favored as a subject for paintings.
Absinthe may have significantly contributed to Van Gogh 's poor health. When he lived in Paris, absinthe was a popular drinks among artists. Paul Signac commented that Van Gogh drank steadily drinks of brandy following drinks of absinthe. By the time Van Gogh left Paris he was in very poor health and known to say to a friend that drinking and smoking left him "seriously sick at heart and in body and nearly an alcoholic. '' According to author Doris Lanier, author of "Absinthe the Cocaine of the Nineteenth Century '': Many of Van Gogh 's symptoms following his arrival in Paris are indicative of absinthe poisoning: stomach and nervous system problems, hallucinations and convulsions.
Still Life with Apple, Meat, and Bread Rolls, 1886, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F219)
Still Life with Meat, Vegetables and Pottery, 1886, Private collection (F1670)
Still Life with Red Cabbages and Onions, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F374)
Still life with bottle, two glasses, cheese and bread, 1886, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F253)
Anecdotally, one cold Parisian day Van Gogh, dressed more like a cattle drover than an urban artist, peddled a painting of pink shrimp on pink paper to a shopkeeper who sold old ironworks and inexpensive oil paintings. Out of charity, the man gave the hungry Van Gogh five francs (less than a dollar). Out on the street, Van Gogh saw a prostitute who had recently escaped from Prison Saint - Lazare. With thoughts of the novel about a prostitute, "La Fille Elisa '' by Edmond de Goncourt, Van Gogh gave her the five francs and quickly moved on his way. The novel appears in Van Gogh 's Still Life with Books (F335).
Still Life with Bloaters also Smoked Herrings, 1886, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F203)
Still Life with Bloaters also Still Life: The Saurs Herrings, 1886, Kunstmuseum, Basel, Switzerland (F283)
Still Life with Two Herrings, a Cloth and a Glass, 1886, Private collection (F1671)
Still Life with Bloaters and Garlic, 1887, Bridgestone Museum of Art, Tokyo (F283b)
In Van Gogh 's first months in Paris, he stayed in his brother Theo 's small apartment on Rue Laval. Vincent 's behavior could be disruptive and unnerving to Theo and others. A friend of Theo 's wrote of Vincent, "The man has n't the slightest notion of social conditions. He is always quarreling with everybody. Consequently Theo has a lot of problem getting along with him. '' As means of calming himself, Vincent painted fall fruit in the autumn of 1886, which he imbues with seemingly "supernatural vitality and beauty. '' Multi-colored, contrasting colored brushstrokes radiate in a circle from the fruit with an "aura of electrical radiance. ''
Still Life with Apples, Pears, Lemons and Grapes (F382) was Van Gogh 's opportunity to explore Blanc 's recommendation about combining colors: "If one brings together sulfur (yellow) and garnet (dark red), which is its exact opposite, being equidistant from nasturtium (orange) and campanula (blue - mauve), the garnet and sulfur will excite one another, because they are each others ' complementaries. '' In the background, Van Gogh used short brushstrokes of light blue and pink, giving the impression that the fruit is sitting in a basket. Van Gogh may have seen Claude Monet 's Still Life with Apples and Grapes in Paris, but while the subject matter is roughly the same, the composition is not. Monet paints the fruit on a diagonally placed table to "anchor his composition in space. '' Having removed any form of distraction, such as a table or background, Van Gogh placed each piece of fruit by itself, creating a "semi-abstract, decorative effect. ''
Still Life with Quinces and Lemons (F383) is a study in yellow. The painting, and even the frame, are in shades of yellow, ocher and brown. The painting also has highlights in pink, red, green and blue. A fine example of an Impressionist painting, Van Gogh dedicated the painting to his brother Theo for his guidance and introduction to modern art. Over the yellow frame, Van Gogh painted criss - cross marks, evocative of Japanese calligraphy. Adding a painted frame to a work of art was not unusual for painters of this time; Georges Seurat and Paul Signac also painted their frames. What is unusual is that the painted frame remained with the painting. In most cases the original frames were replaced over the years to suit its owner 's taste.
Still Life with Quinces, Lemons, Pears and Grapes, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F383)
Still Life with Quince Pears, 1887, Galerie Neue Meister, Dresden, Germany (F602)
Still Life with Grapes, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F603)
Basket of Apples (F99) was made in 1885 when Van Gogh experimented with Delacroix 's color theory. To his brother Theo, Van Gogh wrote: "There is a certain pure bright red for the apples, then some greenish things. Now there are one or two apples in another color, in a kind of pink -- to improve the whole. The pink is the broken color, created by mixing the first red and green mentioned. This is why there is a connection between the colors. Then I painted a second contrast, in the back - and foreground. One was given a neutral color by "breaking '' blue with orange; the other the same neutral color, only this time changed by adding a little yellow. ''
Still Life with Basket of Apples (to Lucien Pissarro), 1887, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands (F378)
Still Life with Basket of Apples, 1887 -- 88, Saint Louis Art Museum, St Louis, Missouri (F379)
Still Life with Lemons on a Plate (F338) is one of the paintings that Enrica Crispino, author of "Van Gogh '' uses to illustrate Van Gogh 's progression in the use of light and movement from colors darkened with black to "pure color ''.
Van Gogh made Still life with Carafe and Lemons (F340) quickly, with a very thin layer of paint that does not completely obscure the canvas. The carafe of water catches the reflection of the papered background. Complementary colors are used well in the painting, such as yellow lemons against its purple shadow. The green in the foreground contrasts with the red in the background. Van Gogh signed this still life, indicating that he was pleased with the result.
Still Life with Lemons on a Plate, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F338)
Still Life with Decanter and Lemons on a Plate, 1887, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (F340)
Van Gogh 's work in still life reflects his emergence as an important practitioner of modern art, particularly integrating techniques of Impressionism. The table identifies key Impressionist techniques and examples of how Van Gogh used them in this series of still life paintings.
Van Gogh experimented with each of the three color relationships:
Van Gogh experimented with use of light over his ten - year painting career. A trio of still lifes shows his developing style for managing light. At first he placed light subjects against a background, as in Still Life with Four Stone Bottles, Flask and White Cup (1884) Then he realized the effectiveness of using "pure colors, such as in Still Life with Lemons on a plate (1887) and even more so in Still Life: Drawing Board, Pipe, Onions and Sealing - Wax (1889). ''
Still Life with Four Stone Bottles, Flask and White Cup, 1884, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F50)
Still Life with Lemons on a plate, 1887, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (F338)
Still Life: Drawing Board, Pipe, Onions and Sealing - Wax, January 1889, Kröller - Müller Museum, Otterlo (F604)
After he made most of the still life paintings, Van Gogh left the city in April 1887 for the tranquil Parisian suburb called Asnières and to paint with his friends and Asnières residents Paul Signac and Émile Bernard. Asnières is located beyond the city fortifications, along the banks of the Seine and the island of Grand Jatte. There he experimented with an even lighter, more colorful palette than used in his early Montmartre, Still Life and Dutch paintings and more fully defined his unique brushstroke: one that was rapid with thickly painted strokes laid closely together.
For books, also see the Bibliography using the author 's last name and, if indicated, the year the book was published.
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where was bad news bears breaking training filmed | The Bad News Bears in Breaking Training - wikipedia
The Bad News Bears in Breaking Training is a 1977 American sports comedy - drama film and a sequel to the feature film The Bad News Bears. Chris Barnes returns to his role as the foul - mouthed Tanner Boyle; also starring is Jimmy Baio as pitcher Carmen Ronzonni.
This film picks up the Bears ' career a year after their infamous second - place finish in the North Valley League. However, after winning this year, they are left reeling by the departure of Buttermaker as their coach and an injury to goat - turned - hero Timmy Lupus (Quinn Smith). Faced with a chance to play the Houston Toros for a shot at the Japanese champs, they devise a way to get to Houston to play at the famed Astrodome, between games of a Major League Baseball doubleheader. In the process, Kelly Leak (Jackie Earle Haley) reunites with his estranged father (William Devane), who is ultimately recruited to coach them.
This film is remembered for the scene in which Coach Leak leads the Astrodome crowd in the chant "Let them play! '' when the umpires attempt to call the game prematurely because of time constraints. The crowd at the 2002 Major League Baseball All - Star Game also used this chant when the announcement came that the game would end in a tie at the end of the inning if neither team scored.
When the team arrives in downtown Houston, they book a room at the Concord Hotel. The building is actually the Lancaster Hotel, located off Texas Avenue across from Jones Hall.
The scene where Kelly meets up with his father for the first time was filmed at Texas Pipe Bending company which is actually in business and located at 2500 Galveston Rd.
Later in the movie, after Coach Leak reappears, the Bears stayed at the Houston Hilton rooms 324 and 325 among others. The actual hotel is located at 6633 Travis Street in Houston, but the filming location was the Pasadena Hilton in Pasadena, California.
Coach Leak confronting Sy Orlansky about playing the Bears instead of the team from El Paso was filmed at Bayland Park. The Toros practice scenes were also filmed on the Sharpstown Little League Major field M2 and extras included local girls from area Middle Schools (Leigh Manley).
Members of the 1976 -- 1977 Houston Astros make a cameo appearance during the film 's climactic scene. They include César Cedeño, Enos Cabell, Ken Forsch, Bob Watson and J.R. Richard.
Unlike its predecessor, The Bad News Bears in Breaking Training received mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 50 % rating based on 8 reviews, with an average score of 6 / 10.
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who starred in the original movie the fly | The Room (film) - wikipedia
The Room is a 2003 American independent drama film written, directed, produced by and starring Tommy Wiseau, and co-starring Greg Sestero and Juliette Danielle. The film centers on a melodramatic love triangle between amiable banker Johnny (Wiseau), his deceptive fiancée Lisa (Danielle) and his conflicted best friend Mark (Sestero). Lisa is tearing Tommy apart. A significant portion of the film is dedicated to a series of unrelated subplots, most of which involve at least one supporting character, and are unresolved due to the film 's inconsistent narrative structure. According to Wiseau, the title alludes to the potential of a room to be the site of both good and bad events; the stage play from which the screenplay is derived takes place in a single room. Sestero has explained that the film is semi-autobiographical, and attempts to serve as "an advisory warning about the perils of having friends ''.
A number of publications have labeled The Room one of the worst films ever made. Ross Morin, an assistant professor of film studies at St. Cloud State University in Minnesota, described The Room as "the Citizen Kane of bad movies '' (i.e., the "best '' of bad movies). Originally shown only in a limited number of California theaters, The Room quickly became a cult film due to its bizarre and unconventional storytelling, technical and narrative flaws, and Wiseau 's off - kilter performance. Although Wiseau has retrospectively described the film as a black comedy, audiences have generally viewed it as a poorly - made drama, an opinion shared by some of the cast.
The Disaster Artist, Sestero 's memoir of the making of The Room, was co-written with Tom Bissell and published in 2013. A film of the same name based on the book, directed by and starring James Franco, was released on December 1, 2017; both the book and film received widespread acclaim and numerous award nominations. The Room also inspired an unofficial video game adaptation, The Room Tribute, released on Newgrounds in 2010.
Johnny is a successful banker who lives in a San Francisco townhouse with Lisa, his fiancée. Lisa, however, having become dissatisfied with her life and Johnny, seduces his best friend Mark and the two begin a secret affair. As the wedding date approaches and Johnny 's influence at his bank slips, Lisa alternates between glorifying and vilifying Johnny to her family and friends, both making false accusations of domestic abuse and defending Johnny against criticisms. Meanwhile, Johnny, having overheard Lisa confess her infidelity to her mother, attaches a tape recorder to their phone in an attempt to identify her lover.
Denny, a neighboring student whom Johnny financially and emotionally supports, has a run - in with an armed drug dealer named Chris - R, whom Johnny and Mark overpower and take into custody. Denny also lusts after Lisa, ultimately confessing to Johnny his attraction. Johnny slowly begins spiraling into a mental haze and calls upon Peter, his and Mark 's psychologist friend. Peter alternates between defending Lisa and assessing her as a sociopath, which results in Mark, feeling guilty about his and Lisa 's affair, briefly trying to murder him.
At a surprise birthday party for Johnny, one of his friends catches Lisa kissing Mark while the rest of the guests are outside and confronts her about the affair. Johnny announces to the guests that he and Lisa are expecting a child, only for Lisa to tell the other guests that she lied about it. At the end of the evening, Lisa flaunts her affair in front of Johnny, who attacks Mark.
After the party, Johnny locks himself in the bathroom in despair. Upon coming out, he retrieves the cassette recorder that he attached to the phone and listens to an intimate call between Lisa and Mark. Outraged, Johnny berates Lisa for betraying him, prompting her to end their relationship and live with Mark. Johnny has an emotional breakdown, destroying his apartment and committing suicide via gunshot. Hearing the commotion, Denny, Mark, and Lisa rush up the stairs to find his body. Mark blames Lisa for Johnny 's death. Denny asks Lisa and Mark to leave him with Johnny, but they stay and comfort each other as the police arrive.
Tommy Wiseau originally wrote The Room as a play in 2001. He then adapted the play into a 500 - page book, which he was unable to get published. Frustrated, Wiseau decided to adapt the work into a film, producing it himself to maintain creative control.
Wiseau has been secretive about how he obtained funding for the project, but told Entertainment Weekly that he made some of the money by importing leather jackets from Korea. According to The Disaster Artist (Greg Sestero 's book based on the making of The Room), Wiseau was already independently wealthy at the time production began. Over several years, he had amassed a fortune through entrepreneurship and real estate development in Los Angeles and San Francisco. Wiseau spent the entire US $ 6,000,000 (equivalent to about $8,000,000 in 2017) budget for The Room on production and marketing. Wiseau stated that the film was relatively expensive because many members of the cast and crew had to be replaced. According to Sestero, Wiseau made numerous poor decisions during filming that unnecessarily inflated the film 's budget -- Wiseau built sets for sequences that could have been filmed on location, purchased unnecessary equipment, and filmed scenes multiple times using different sets. Wiseau also forgot his lines and place on camera, resulting in minutes - long dialogue sequences taking hours or days to shoot. Wiseau 's actions further caused the film 's budget to skyrocket, according to Sestero.
According to Sestero and Greg Ellery, Wiseau rented a studio at the Birns and Sawyer film lot and bought a "complete Beginning Director package '', which included two film and HD cameras. Wiseau was confused about the differences between 35 mm film and high - definition video. He wanted to be the first director to film an entire movie simultaneously in two formats. He achieved this by using a custom - built apparatus that housed both cameras side - by - side and required two crews to operate. Only the 35 mm footage was used in the final edit.
Wiseau hired actors from thousands of head shots, and most of the cast had never been in a full - length film. Sestero had limited film experience and only agreed to work as part of the production crew because he had known Wiseau for some time before production began. Sestero then agreed to play the Mark character after Wiseau fired the original actor on the first day of filming. He was uncomfortable filming his sex scenes and was allowed to keep his jeans on while shooting them.
According to Greg Ellery, Juliette Danielle had "just gotten off the bus from Texas '' when shooting began, and "the cast watched in horror '' as Wiseau jumped on Danielle, immediately beginning to film their "love scene ''. Sestero disputed this, stating that the sex scenes were among the last filmed. Wiseau said that Danielle was originally one of three or four understudies for the Lisa character, and was selected after the original actress left the production. According to Sestero, the original actress was "Latina '' and came from an unidentified South American country; per Danielle, the actress was closer to Wiseau 's age with a "random '' accent. Danielle stated that she had been cast as Michelle, but was given the Lisa role when the original actress was dismissed because her "personality... did n't seem to fit '' the character. Danielle corroborates that multiple actors were dismissed from the production prior to filming, including another actress hired to play Michelle.
Even though Kyle Vogt (who played Peter) told the production team that he only had a limited amount of time for the project, not all of his scenes were filmed by the time his schedule ran out. Despite the fact that Peter was to play a pivotal role in the climax, Vogt left the production; his lines in the last half of the film were given to Ellery, whose character is never introduced, explained, or addressed by name.
The original script was significantly longer than the one used and featured a series of lengthy monologues; it was edited on - set by the cast and script supervisor, who found much of the dialogue incomprehensible. An anonymous cast member told Entertainment Weekly that the script contained "stuff that was just unsayable. I know it 's hard to imagine there was stuff that was worse. But there was. '' Regarding dialogue, Sestero mentions that Wiseau was adamant characters say their lines as written, but that several cast members slipped in ad libs that made the final cut.
Much of the dialogue is repetitive, especially Johnny 's. His speech contains several catchphrases: he begins almost every conversation with "Oh, hi! '' and ends with "That 's the idea ''. To dismissively end conversations, many characters use the phrase "Do n't worry about it '', and almost every male character discusses Lisa 's physical attractiveness (including an unnamed character whose only line is "Lisa looks hot tonight ''). Lisa often stops discussions about Johnny by saying "I do n't want to talk about it ''. Despite the significant amount of dialogue regarding Johnny and Lisa 's forthcoming wedding, characters only use the words "future husband '' or "future wife '' rather than "fiancé '' or "fiancée ''.
In The Disaster Artist, Sestero recalls that Wiseau planned a subplot in which Johnny was revealed to be a vampire because of Wiseau 's fascination with the creatures. Sestero recounts how Wiseau tasked the crew with devising a way for Johnny 's Mercedes - Benz to fly across the San Francisco skyline, revealing Johnny 's vampiric nature.
Principal photography lasted six months. It was mainly shot on a Los Angeles soundstage, with some second unit shooting in San Francisco, California. The many rooftop sequences were shot on the soundstage, and exteriors of San Francisco greenscreened in. A behind - the - scenes feature shows that some of the roof scenes were shot in August 2002. The film employed over 400 people, and Wiseau is credited as an actor, writer, producer, director, and executive producer. Other executive producer credits include Chloe Lietzke and Drew Caffrey, Lietzke had no involvement in the film and Caffrey had died years prior to filming, according to Sestero. Wiseau had several problems with his behind - the - camera team, and claims to have replaced the entire crew four times. Some people had multiple jobs on the film: Sestero played the role of Mark, worked as a line producer, helped with casting, and assisted Wiseau. Wiseau required numerous retakes and direction from the script supervisor; because he frequently forgot his own lines or missed cues. Much of his dialogue had to be re-dubbed in post production.
The score was written by Mladen Milicevic, a music professor at Loyola Marymount University. Milicevic later provided the score for Wiseau 's 2004 documentary Homeless in America and Room Full of Spoons, the 2016 documentary on The Room.
The soundtrack features four R&B slow jams which play during four of the film 's five love scenes; Michelle and Mike 's oral sex scene uses only instrumental music. The songs are "I Will '' by Jarah Gibson, "Crazy '' by Clint Gamboa, "Baby You and Me '' by Gamboa with Bell Johnson, and "You 're My Rose '' by Kitra Williams & Reflection. "You 're My Rose '' is also reprised during the end credits. The soundtrack was released by Wiseau 's TPW Records on July 27, 2003.
In a February 11, 2011 Entertainment Weekly article, veteran script supervisor Sandy Schklair announced that he desired credit for directing The Room. Schklair told EW that Wiseau became too engrossed with his acting duties to direct the film properly and asked him to "tell the actors what to do, and yell ' Action ' and ' Cut ' and tell the cameraman what shots to get. '' The script supervisor also said that Wiseau asked Schklair to "direct (his) movie '', but refused to give up the "director '' title. The story is corroborated by one of the film 's actors (who requested anonymity) and also Sestero in The Disaster Artist. Sestero describes Schklair taking charge of numerous sequences in which Wiseau found himself unable to remember lines or adequately interact with the rest of the cast, but jokes that claiming directorial credit was like "claiming to have been the Hindenburg 's principal aeronautics engineer ''. Wiseau has dismissed Schklair 's comments, saying, "Well, this is so laughable that... you know what? I do n't know, probably only in America it can happen, this kind of stuff. ''
The basic premise of The Room draws on specific incidents from Wiseau 's own life, including the details of how Johnny came to San Francisco and met Lisa, and the nature of Johnny and Mark 's friendship. According to Greg Sestero, the character of Lisa is based on a woman to whom Wiseau once proposed with a US $1,500 diamond engagement ring, but who "betrays him multiple times '', resulting in the breakup of their relationship.
Sestero further postulates that Wiseau based Lisa 's explicit conniving on the character Tom Ripley, after Wiseau had a profound emotional reaction to the film The Talented Mr. Ripley, and matches elements of its three main characters to those in The Room; Sestero has likewise indicated that the character Mark was named for the Ripley actor Matt Damon, whose first name Wiseau had misheard. Wiseau also drew on the chamber plays of Tennessee Williams, whose highly emotional scenes he enjoyed acting out in drama school -- many advertising materials for The Room make explicit parallels to Williams 's work.
In his direction and performance, Wiseau attempted to emulate Orson Welles, Clint Eastwood and James Dean, especially Dean 's performance in the film Giant, and went as far to directly use quotes from their films -- the line "You are tearing me apart, Lisa! '' is derived from a similar line performed by Dean in Rebel Without a Cause.
The script is characterized by numerous inexplicable mood and personality shifts in characters. In analyzing the film 's abrupt tone shifts, Greg Sestero highlighted two scenes in particular. In the first scene, Johnny enters the rooftop in the middle of a tirade about being accused of domestic abuse, only to become abruptly cheerful upon seeing Mark; a few moments later, he laughs inappropriately upon learning that a friend of Mark 's had been severely beaten. On set, Sestero and script supervisor Sandy Schklair repeatedly tried to convince Wiseau that the line should not be delivered as comical, but Wiseau refused to refrain from laughing. In the second instance, occurring later in the film, Mark attempts to kill Peter by throwing him off a roof after Peter expresses his belief that Mark is having an affair with Lisa; seconds later however, Mark pulls Peter back from the edge of the roof, apologizes, and the two continue their previous conversation with no acknowledgement of what just occurred.
In addition to being rife with continuity errors, the film has several plots, subplots and character details whose inconsistencies have been commented on by critics and audiences. The Portland Mercury has stated that a number of "plot threads are introduced, then instantly abandoned. '' In an early scene, halfway through a conversation about planning a birthday party for Johnny, Claudette off - handedly tells Lisa: "I got the results of the test back. I definitely have breast cancer. '' The issue is casually dismissed and never revisited during the rest of the film. In addition, the audience never learns the details surrounding Denny 's drug - related debt to Chris - R or what led to their violent confrontation on the roof.
Beyond being Johnny 's friend, Mark 's background receives no exposition; when he is first introduced he claims to be "very busy '' while sitting in a parked car in the middle of the day, with no explanation ever given as to his occupation or what he was doing. In The Disaster Artist, Sestero stated that he created a backstory for the character in which Mark was an undercover vice detective, which Sestero felt united several otherwise disparate aspects of Mark 's character: the secretive nature of various aspects of his behavior, including marijuana use, his mood swings, and his handling of the Chris - R incident. However, Wiseau dismissed adding any reference to Mark 's past to the script. The makers of The Room video game would later introduce a similar idea as part of a subplot involving Mark 's unexplained backstory, much to Sestero 's amusement.
At one point, the principal male characters congregate in an alley behind Johnny 's apartment to play catch with a football while wearing tuxedos. When Mark arrives, he is revealed to have shaved his beard, and the camera slowly zooms in on his face while dramatic music plays on the soundtrack. Nothing that is said or occurs during the scene has any effect on the plot; the scene ends abruptly when the men decide to return to Johnny 's apartment after Peter trips. Wiseau received enough questions about the scene that he decided to address it on a Q&A segment featured on the DVD release; rather than explaining the scene, though, Wiseau only states that playing football without the proper protective equipment is fun and challenging. Greg Sestero has been questioned about the significance of Mark 's shaving, though his only response for several years was "if people only knew. '' Sestero describes in The Disaster Artist that Wiseau insisted he shave his beard on - set just so that Wiseau would have an excuse for Johnny to call Mark "Babyface, '' Wiseau 's own nickname for Sestero, and that the revealing of beardless Mark would be "a moment ''. Sestero further detailed how the football - in - tuxedos scene was concocted on set by Wiseau, who never explained the significance of the scene to the cast or crew and insisted that the sequence be filmed at the expense of other, relevant scenes.
The film was promoted almost exclusively through a single billboard in Hollywood, located on Highland Avenue just north of Fountain, featuring an image Wiseau refers to as "Evil Man '': an extreme close - up of his own face with one eye in mid-blink. Although more conventional artwork was created for the film, featuring the main characters ' faces emblazoned over the Golden Gate Bridge, Wiseau chose the "Evil Man '' for what he regarded as its provocative quality; around the time of the film 's release, the image led many passers - by to believe that The Room was a horror film. Wiseau also paid for a small television and print campaign in and around Los Angeles, with taglines calling The Room "a film with the passion of Tennessee Williams ''. Wiseau hired publicist Edward Lozzi in his efforts to promote the film after Paramount Studios rejected distributing it.
Despite the film 's failure to enjoy immediate success, Wiseau paid to keep the billboard up for over five years, at the cost of US $5,000 a month. Its bizarre imagery and longevity led to it becoming a minor tourist attraction. When asked how he managed to afford to keep the billboard up for so long in such a prominent location, Wiseau responded: "Well, we like the location, and we like the billboard. So we feel that people should see The Room. (...) we are selling DVDs, which are selling okay. ''
The Room premiered on June 27, 2003 at the Laemmle Fairfax and Fallbrook theaters in Los Angeles. Wiseau additionally arranged a screening for the cast and the press at one of the venues, renting a spotlight to sit in front of the theater and arriving in a limousine. Ticket buyers were given a free copy of the film 's soundtrack on CD. Actress Robyn Paris described the audience laughing at the film, and Variety reporter Scott Foundas, who was also in attendance, would later write that the film prompted "most of its viewers to ask for their money back -- before even 30 minutes (had) passed. '' IFC.com described Wiseau 's speaking voice in the film as "Borat trying to do an impression of Christopher Walken playing a mental patient. '' The Guardian described the film as a mix of "Tennessee Williams, Ed Wood, R. Kelly 's Trapped in the Closet ''.
The Room has received negative reviews for its acting, screenplay, dialogue, production values, score, direction, and cinematography. The film is described as one of the worst films ever made by several publications. As of 2017, the film has a score of 26 % on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 2.9 out of 10. The critical consensus states "A bona - fide classic of midnight cinema, Tommy Wiseau 's misguided masterpiece subverts the rules of filmmaking with a boundless enthusiasm that renders such mundanities as acting, screenwriting, and cinematography utterly irrelevant. You will never see a football the same way again. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics, the film has a score of 9 (indicating "overwhelming dislike ''), based on five reviews. Despite the criticism, the film has received a positive reception from audiences for its perceived shortcomings, with some viewers calling it the "best worst movie ever ''.
In 2013, The Atlantic 's Adam Rosen wrote an article entitled "Should Gloriously Terrible Movies Like The Room Be Considered ' Outsider Art '? '' where he made the argument "The label (of outsider art) has traditionally applied to painters and sculptors... but it 's hard to see why it could n't also refer to Wiseau or any other thwarted, un-self - aware filmmaker. ''
In a 2017 interview for a Vox video, The Disaster Artist co-writer Tom Bissell explained his views on The Room 's popularity, as well as his personal enjoyment of the film, by noting that:
The Room played in the Laemmle Fairfax and Fallbrook for the next two weeks, grossing a total of US $1,800 (equivalent to $2,395 in 2017) before it was pulled from circulation. Toward the end of its run, the Laemmle Fallbrook theatre displayed two signs on the inside of the ticket window in relation to the film: one that read "NO REFUNDS '' and another citing a blurb from an early review: "This film is like being stabbed in the head. '' During one showing in the second week of its run, one of the few audience members in attendance was 5 - Second Films ' Michael Rousselet, who found unintentional humor in the film 's poor dialogue and production values. After treating the screening as his "own private Mystery Science Theater '', Rousselet began encouraging friends to join him for future showings to mock the film, starting a word - of - mouth campaign that resulted in about 100 attending the film 's final screening. Rousselet and his friends saw the film "four times in three days, '' and it was in these initial screenings that many of The Room traditions were born, such as the throwing of spoons and footballs during the film.
After the film was pulled from theaters, those who had attended the final showing began e-mailing Wiseau telling him how much they had enjoyed the film. Encouraged by the volume of messages he received, Wiseau booked a single midnight screening of The Room in June 2004, which proved successful enough that Wiseau booked a second showing in July, and a third in August. Celebrity fans of the film included Paul Rudd, David Cross, Will Arnett, Patton Oswalt, Tim Heidecker, Eric Wareheim, Seth Rogen, and James and Dave Franco. Kristen Bell acquired a film reel and hosted private viewing parties; Veronica Mars creator Rob Thomas would also slip references into episodes of Mars "as much as possible ''. The film eventually developed a national and international cult status, with Wiseau arranging screenings around the United States and in Canada, Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand.
The film had regular showings in many theaters worldwide, with many as a monthly event. Fans interact with the film in a similar fashion to The Rocky Horror Picture Show; audience members dress up as their favorite characters, throw plastic spoons in reference to an unexplained framed photo of a spoon on a table in Johnny 's living room, toss footballs to each other from short distances, and yell insulting comments about the quality of the film as well as lines from the film itself. Wiseau has claimed that it was his intent for audiences to find humor in the film, although viewers and some of the cast members generally have viewed it as a poorly - made drama.
The Room was released on DVD in December 2005, and Blu - ray in December 2012.
The DVD 's special features include an interview with Wiseau, who is asked questions by an off - screen Greg Sestero. Wiseau sits directly in front of a fireplace, with a mantel cluttered by various props from the film; next to him sits a large framed theatrical poster for the film. A few of Wiseau 's answers are dubbed in, although it is evident that the dubbed responses match what he was originally saying. Wiseau fails to answer several of the questions, instead offering non sequiturs.
Among the outtakes included on the Blu - ray is an alternate version of the Chris - R scene, set in a back alley; instead of tossing a football, Denny is playing basketball and attempts to get the drug dealer to "shoot some H-O-R-S-E '' with him to distract him from the debt. Another bonus feature on the Blu - ray is a more than half - hour long fly - on - the - wall style documentary about the making of The Room. The documentary includes no narration, very little dialogue, and only one interview (with cast member Carolyn Minnott), and consists largely of clips of the crew preparing to shoot.
Wiseau announced plans in April 2011 for a 3D version of The Room, scanned from the 35 mm film version.
In June 2011, it was announced that Greg Sestero had signed a deal with Simon & Schuster to write a book based on his experiences making the film. The book, titled The Disaster Artist, was published in October 2013.
A film adaptation of The Disaster Artist was announced in February 2014, produced by Seth Rogen and directed by James Franco. Franco has stated The Disaster Artist was "a combination of Boogie Nights and The Master ''. The film stars Franco as Wiseau and his brother Dave Franco as Sestero, with the script written by The Fault in Our Stars screenwriters Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber. On October 15, 2015, it was announced Seth Rogen would co-star (playing Sandy Schklair), and cinematographer Brandon Trost served as the DP. On October 29, 2015, it was announced that Warner Bros. and New Line Cinema would distribute The Disaster Artist. Filming began December 7, 2015. A work - in - progress version was screened at South by Southwest in March 2017, with the wide release beginning on December 8, 2017.
In September 2010, Newgrounds owner Tom Fulp released a Flash game tribute, in the form of a 16 - bit styled adventure game played entirely from Johnny 's point of view. The game 's artwork was provided by staff member Jeff "JohnnyUtah '' Bandelin, with music transcribed by animator Chris O'Neill from the Mladen Milicevic score and soundtrack.
On June 10, 2010, the AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center presented a live play / reading based on the original script for the movie. Wiseau reprised his role of Johnny and was joined by Greg Sestero playing the role of Mark.
In 2011, Wiseau mentioned plans for a Broadway adaptation of the film, in which he would appear only on opening night: "It will be similar to what you see in the movie, except it will be musical. As well as, you will see... like, for example, Johnny, we could have maybe 10 Johnnys at the same time singing, or playing football. So, the decision have to be made at the time when we actually doing choreography, ' cause I 'll be doing choreography, as well I 'll be in it only one time, that 's it, as Johnny. '' He mentioned the plans again during a 2016 interview, describing his idea for it to be a "musical slash comedy. ''
On October 21, 2014, cast member Robyn Paris launched a Kickstarter campaign to raise the budget for her comedy mockumentary web series, The Room Actors: Where Are They Now? A Mockumentary. On completion, the campaign had raised US $31,556 (equivalent to $32,621 in 2017) from 385 backers. Although a number of the original cast appeared in the series, Wiseau, Sestero and Holmes are not involved. The series premiered at the 24th Raindance Film Festival on September 30, 2016, and debuted on the website Funny or Die on November 30, 2017.
There is a fan - made musical called OH HAI!: The Rise of Chris - R.
The comedy show Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job! on Adult Swim featured Wiseau prominently in the fourth season March 9, 2009 episode titled Tommy. Recruited as a "guest director '', Wiseau is interviewed in mockumentary style, along with the show 's leading actors, during the production of a fake film titled The Pig Man. Two scenes from The Room are featured during the episode. Adult Swim broadcast the movie three times from 2009 to 2011 as part of their April Fools ' Day programming. In 2012, they showed the first 20 seconds of it before switching to Toonami for the remainder of the night.
On June 18, 2009, a RiffTrax for The Room was released, featuring commentary by Michael J. Nelson, Bill Corbett and Kevin Murphy, formerly of Mystery Science Theater 3000. This was followed up with a live theater show by RiffTrax on May 6, 2015, which was shown in 700 theaters across the U.S. and Canada. The show screened once more on January 28, 2016 as part of the Best of RiffTrax Live series.
On his 2009 DVD My Weakness Is Strong, comedian Patton Oswalt parodied The Room with a fake infomercial. The spoof also features a cameo from Jon Hamm.
In 2010, the film was mocked on the Internet comedy series Nostalgia Critic, which highlighted the film 's bad acting and writing, but encouraged viewers to see the movie: "It truly is one of those films you have to see to believe. '' The episode was taken down following claims of copyright infringement from Wiseau - Films. It was replaced by a short video titled "The Tommy Wi - Show '', in which host Doug Walker, dressed as Wiseau, mocked the threatened legal actions. The main review was later reinstated. Both Greg Sestero and Juliette Danielle have praised the review, and Sestero later made a cameo appearance on The Nostalgia Critic episode "Dawn of the Commercials '', reprising his role of Mark. Both Wiseau and Sestero appeared in separate episodes on Walker 's talk show, Shut Up and Talk.
In Wiseau 's 2014 sitcom pilot The Neighbors, the character Troy watches The Room in a scene.
In 2015, Sestero starred in the 5 - Second Films feature Dude Bro Party Massacre III, directed by Michael Rousselet, the patient zero of The Room cult movement.
The Sunday, July 5, 2015, installment of Amy Dickinson 's advice column Ask Amy unwittingly featured a hoax letter that derived its situational premise from The Room and, even after being edited for publication, retained phrases from the film 's dialogue; Dickinson addressed the hoax in the following Saturday 's July 11 edition of the National Public Radio comedy and quiz show Wait Wait... Do n't Tell Me!, where she appears as a regular panelist, and in her July 20, 2015 column.
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who wrote the music for back to the future | Alan Silvestri - wikipedia
Alan Anthony Silvestri (born March 26, 1950) is an American composer and conductor known for his film and television scores.
He is best known for his frequent collaboration with Robert Zemeckis, composing for such major hit films as the Back to the Future trilogy, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, and Forrest Gump, as well as the superhero films Captain America: The First Avenger, The Avengers, and the upcoming Avengers: Infinity War. His other film scores include The Delta Force, Predator and its sequel Predator 2, The Abyss, Stuart Little, The Mummy Returns, Lilo & Stitch, Night at the Museum and more recently, Ready Player One. He is a two - time Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominee, and a three - time Saturn Award and Primetime Emmy Award recipient.
Silvestri 's grandparents emigrated in 1908 from the Italian town of Castell'Alfero, and settled in Teaneck, New Jersey. He grew up in Teaneck, and attended Teaneck High School. He went to Berklee College of Music for two years. Alan was a drummer for a short time in 1966 with Teaneck - based rock band The Herd.
Silvestri started his film / television composing career in 1972 at age 21, composing the score for the low - budget action film The Doberman Gang.
From 1977 to 1983, Silvestri served as the main composer for the television series CHiPs, writing music for 95 of the series ' 139 episodes.
Silvestri met producer Robert Zemeckis, when the two worked together on Zemeckis 's film Romancing the Stone (1984). Since then, Silvestri has composed the music for all of Zemeckis 's movies, including the Back to the Future trilogy (1985 - 1990), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), Death Becomes Her (1992), Forrest Gump (1994), Contact (1997), Cast Away (2000), The Polar Express (2004), Beowulf (2007), A Christmas Carol (2009), Flight (2012) and The Walk (2015).
In 1989, Silvestri composed the score for the James Cameron - directed blockbuster The Abyss, and is also known for his work on the films Predator (1987) and Predator 2 (1990), both of which are considered preeminent examples of action / science fiction film scores. Since 2001, Silvestri has also collaborated regularly with director Stephen Sommers, scoring the films The Mummy Returns (2001), Van Helsing (2004), and G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra (2009). His most recent work includes The Avengers (2012), The Croods (2013), and Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb (2014).
Silvestri has also composed music for television series, including T.J. Hooker (one episode), Starsky & Hutch (three episodes), Tales from the Crypt (seven episodes). In 2014, he composed the award - winning music for the science documentary series Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey.
On 31 January 2014, it was announced that a stage musical adaptation of Back to the Future was in production. The show, which is being co-written by original writers Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale, is expected to be performed in 2015, on the 30th anniversary year of the film. Silvestri will team up with Glen Ballard to compose a new score, with the addition of original songs from the film, including "The Power of Love '', "Johnny B. Goode '', "Earth Angel '' and "Mr. Sandman ''.
Silvestri and his wife Sandra own a vineyard, Silvestri Vineyards, located in Carmel Valley, California.
Silvestri has received two Academy Award nominations, one for Best Original Score for Forrest Gump (1994) and one for Best Original Song for "Believe '' on The Polar Express soundtrack. He also received two Golden Globe nominations: Best Score for Forrest Gump and Best Song for The Polar Express.
Silvestri was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music in 1995.
He has also received four Grammy Award nominations, winning two awards -- Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media, for "Believe '' from The Polar Express in 2004 and Best Instrumental Composition, for "Cast Away End Credits '' from Cast Away in 2002. His other nomination was for Best Soundtrack Album, for Back to the Future. During the 2005 Grammy Awards, Josh Groban performed "Believe ''.
He has won two Emmys, both for Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey -- Outstanding Main Title Theme Music and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for the episode "Standing Up in the Milky Way ''.
He has won the Saturn Award for Best Music three times, for his scores for Predator (1987), Back to the Future Part III (1989 / 90) and Van Helsing (2004).
On September 23, 2011, he was awarded with the Max Steiner Film Music Achievement Award by the City of Vienna at the yearly film music gala concert Hollywood in Vienna.
Nominated -- Saturn Award for Best Music Nominated -- Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media
Won - BMI Film Music Award Nominated -- Saturn Award for Best Music Nominated -- Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score
Themes by Graeme Revell
Themes by Mike Post and Pete Carpenter
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avatar the last airbender episode 19 season 2 | Avatar: the Last Airbender (season 2) - wikipedia
Season Two (Book Two: Earth) of Avatar: The Last Airbender, an American animated television series on Nickelodeon, first aired its 20 episodes from March 17, 2006 to December 1, 2006. The season was created and produced by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, and starred Zach Tyler Eisen, Mae Whitman, Jack DeSena, Jessie Flower, Dante Basco, Dee Bradley Baker, Mako Iwamatsu and Grey DeLisle as the main character voices.
In this season, Aang and his friends Katara and Sokka are on a quest to find an Earthbending teacher which finishes when they recruit Toph Beifong. After finding important information concerning the war with the Fire Nation, Appa ends up kidnapped. Their journey leads to Ba Sing Se, the capital of the Earth Kingdom, where they uncover great internal government corruption. Meanwhile, due to their actions at the North Pole, Zuko and Iroh are declared enemies of the Fire Nation and desert their country, becoming fugitives in the Earth Kingdom. Pursuing both Zuko and Aang is Princess Azula, Zuko 's younger sister.
Throughout the season 's airing, the show received much critical acclaim, with praises such as, "As a flat concept, Avatar: The Last Airbender is nothing special, but in execution, it is head and shoulders above other children 's entertainment '', and that "as a whole, the look of Avatar is consistently excellent. '' Season 2 has won multiple awards, including the "Best Character Animation in a Television Production '' award from the 34th Annie Awards and the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation '' award from the 2007 Emmy Awards.
Between January 23, 2007 and September 11, 2007, Nickelodeon released five DVD sets for the season: four sets containing five episodes each, and a fifth DVD collection of all twenty episodes. All DVDs were encoded in Region 1. In the United Kingdom, only the season boxset was released without being released in four volumes first. The boxset was released on July 20, 2009.
The season was produced by and aired on Nickelodeon, which is owned by Viacom. The season 's executive producers and co-creators are Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, who worked alongside episode director and co-producer Aaron Ehasz. Most of the individual episodes were directed by Ethan Spaulding, Lauren MacMullan and Giancarlo Volpe. Episodes were written by a team of writers, which consisted of Aaron Ehasz, Elizabeth Welch Ehasz, Tim Hedrick, John O'Bryan; along with creators DiMartino and Konietzko.
The season 's music was composed by "The Track Team '', which consists of Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn, who were known to the show 's creators because Zuckerman was Konietzko 's roommate.
Most of the main characters from the first season remained the same: Zach Tyler Eisen voices Aang, Mae Whitman voices Katara, Jack DeSena voices Sokka, Dee Bradley Baker voices both Appa and Momo, and Dante Basco voices Zuko.
However, several new characters appear: Jessie Flower voices Toph Beifong, Grey DeLisle voices Azula, Cricket Leigh voices Mai, Olivia Hack voices Ty Lee, and Clancy Brown voices Long Feng.
Mako Iwamatsu, who voiced Iroh, died from throat cancer after production was completed; he was replaced by Greg Baldwin for the following season and The Legend of Korra.
In a review of the Volume 2 DVD Release for Book 2, Gabriel Powers from DVDActive.com described the series as one of the best children 's series in recent times, making comparisons with Samurai Jack and Justice League, and complimented it for its depth and humour. Powers also comments:
For the video and audio quality, Powers says "Season two generally looks better than the bulk of season one, but still has some issues '' concerning image sharpness. Rotten Tomatoes gave it an 87 % fresh rating in 2008. Jamie S. Rich from DVD Talk says that "As a flat concept, Avatar the Last Airbender is nothing special, but in execution, it is head and shoulders above other children 's entertainment '', and that "as a whole, the look of Avatar is consistently excellent ''.
The show also received acclaim for its visual appeal. In the 34th Annie Awards, the show was nominated for and won the "Best Character Animation in a Television Production '' award, for Jae - Myung Yu 's animation in "The Blind Bandit '', and the "Best Directing in an Animated Television Production '' award, for the episode "The Drill ''. In 2007, the show was nominated for "Outstanding Animated Program '' in the 2007 Emmy Awards for the "City of Walls and Secrets '' episode, though it did not win. However, the show did win the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation '' award for Sang - Jin Kim 's animation in the "Lake Laogai '' episode.
Sokka decides the group needs some intelligence to defeat the Fire Lord. At an oasis, the group encounters a professor who tells them about a hidden Spirit Library in the desert. Inside, Sokka discovers a crucial weakness to the Fire Nation that could end the war: the date of the upcoming solar eclipse which will cripple the firebenders ' firebending. The spirit of the library, Wan Shi Tong, refuses to allow them to leave with the knowledge and sinks the library into the sand. Meanwhile, Appa is kidnapped by Sandbenders. They all escape from the library but are devastated by the loss of Appa.
Aang and the rest of the group arrive in Ba Sing Se to find Appa and inform the Earth King about the solar eclipse, but they are constantly hindered by their tour guide, Joo Dee. They soon learn that any mention of war is forbidden and enforced by the Dai Li, secret police of Ba Sing Se, and their corrupt leader, Long Feng, who appears to know something about Appa. Elsewhere, Jet repeatedly tries and fails to gather evidence that Zuko and Iroh are firebenders. His last attempt, challenging Zuko to a sword fight, ends in his own arrest and being brainwashed by the Dai Li into believing there is no war in the city.
"The Tales of Ba Sing Se '' is a set of vignettes about each of the main characters ' adventures in Ba Sing Se, providing a glimpse of their personalities and private lives.
Note: Iroh 's tale was dedicated to his voice actor Mako Iwamatsu, who had just died 7 days after Chapters 10 and 11 initially aired.
After being abducted, Appa is traded to the Fire Nation Circus where the Circus Trainer mistreats him, though the Sky Bison soon escapes with the help of a small boy. He later unwillingly enters a fight with a Boarcupine, and wins but is badly wounded. By fortune, Suki and the Kyoshi warriors come across Appa and help him recover from his injuries, but are later attacked by Azula and her team and Appa is forced to flee. He returns to his childhood home at the Eastern Air Temple, where he encounters a mysterious guru. The guru aids Appa in his search for Aang, telling him to find Aang in Ba Sing Se, but before he is able to, he is captured by Long Feng.
Nickelodeon began releasing DVDs for Book 2 on January 23, 2007. The first four DVD releases contain one disc that consisted of five episodes each. The final DVD was the "Complete Book 2 Box Set '', which contains all of the episodes in the season on four discs, and packaged with a special features disc. All of the DVD sets for Book 2 were released with Region 1 encoding, meaning that they can only play on North American DVD players. Book 2 was released on Region 2 on July 20, 2009.
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the himalaya mountains are an example of a mountain chain formed at which type of boundary | Mountain range - wikipedia
A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills ranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny. Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics. Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets.
Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys. Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types.
Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth 's land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera along the Pacific Coast, the Aleutian Range, on through Kamchatka, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, to New Zealand. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres (4,350 mi) long and is often considered the world 's longest mountain system.
The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, and ends in the Alps, Spain and Atlas Mountains. The belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, which is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) high and traverses the border between China and Nepal.
Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then the Ocean Ridges form the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of 65,000 kilometres (40,400 mi).
The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, where mountain ranges can contain sub-ranges. The sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent - child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains. Equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians.
The parent - child expression extends to the sub-ranges themselves: the Sandwich Range and the Presidential Range are children of the White Mountains, while the Presidential Range is parent to the Northern Presidential Range and Southern Presidential Range.
The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (in accordance with the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range.
Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains. Rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. Computer simulation has shown that particle abrasion in the water and local landslide can account for the change from high to low erosion rates as mountain belts change from tectonic active to inactive. The rugged topography of a mountain range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock.
The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some 10,000 feet (3,000 m) of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to the east. This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift. The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight.
Mountains on other planets and natural satellites of the Solar System are often isolated and formed mainly by processes such as impacts, though there are examples of mountain ranges (or "Montes '') somewhat similar to those on Earth. Saturn 's moon Titan and Pluto, in particular exhibit large mountain ranges in chains composed mainly of ices rather than rock. Examples include the Mithrim Montes and Doom Mons on Titan, and Norgay Montes and Hillary Montes on Pluto. Some terrestrial planets other than Earth also exhibit rocky mountain ranges, such as Maxwell Montes on Venus taller than any on Earth and Tartarus Montes on Mars, Jupiter 's moon Io has mountain ranges formed from tectonic processes including Boösaule Montes, Dorian Montes, Hi'iaka Montes and Euboea Montes.
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which case in india was heared by 13 judges | Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala - wikipedia
The Kesavananda Bharati judgement or His Holiness Kesavananda Bharati Sripadagalvaru and Ors. v. State of Kerala and Anr. (case citation: (1973) 4 SCC 225) is a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of India that outlined the basic structure doctrine of the Constitution. Justice Hans Raj Khanna asserted through this doctrine that the constitution possesses a basic structure of constitutional principles and values. The Court partially cemented the prior precedent Golaknath v. State of Punjab, which held that constitutional amendments pursuant to Article 368 were subject to fundamental rights review, by asserting that only those amendments which tend to affect the ' basic structure of the Constitution ' are subject to judicial review. At the same time, the Court also upheld the constitutionality of first provision of Article 31 (c), which implied that any constitutional amendment seeking to implement the Directive Principles, which does not affect the ' Basic Structure ', shall not be subjected to judicial review.
The basic structure doctrine forms the basis of power of the Indian judiciary to review, and strike down, amendments to the Constitution of India enacted by the Indian parliament which conflict with or seek to alter this basic structure of the Constitution.
The 13 - judge Constitutional bench of the Supreme Court deliberated on the limitations, if any, of the powers of the elected representatives of the people and the nature of fundamental rights of an individual. In a sharply divided verdict, by a margin of 7 - 6, the court held that while the Parliament has "wide '' powers, it did not have the power to destroy or emasculate the basic elements or fundamental features of the constitution.
Although the court upheld the basic structure doctrine by only the narrowest of margins, it has since gained widespread acceptance and legitimacy due to subsequent cases and judgments. Primary among these was the imposition of the state of emergency by Indira Gandhi in 1975, and the subsequent attempt to suppress her prosecution through the 39th Amendment. When the Kesavananda case was decided, the underlying apprehension of the majority bench that elected representatives could not be trusted to act responsibly was perceived to be unprecedented. However, the passage of the 39th Amendment proved that in fact this apprehension was well - founded. In Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, a Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court used the basic structure doctrine to strike down the 39th amendment and paved the way for restoration of Indian democracy.
The Kesavananda judgment also defined the extent to which Parliament could restrict property rights, in pursuit of land reform and the redistribution of large landholdings to cultivators, overruling previous decisions that suggested that the right to property could not be restricted. The case was a culmination of a series of cases relating to limitations to the power to amend the Indian constitution.
In February 1970 Swami Kesavananda Bharati, senior plaintiff and head of "Edneer Mutt '' - a Hindu Mutt situated in Edneer, a village in Kasaragod district of Kerala, challenged the Kerala government 's attempts, under two state land reform acts, to impose restrictions on the management of its property. Although the state invoked its authority under Article 21, a noted Indian jurist, Nanabhoy Palkhivala, convinced Swami into filing his petition under Article 26, concerning the right to manage religiously owned property without government interference. Even though the hearings consumed five months, the outcome would profoundly affect India 's democratic processes. The case had been heard for 68 days, the arguments commencing on October 31, 1972, and ending on March 23, 1973.
The Supreme Court reviewed the decision in Golaknath v. State of Punjab, and considered the validity of the 24th, 25th, 26th and 29th amendments. The case was heard by the largest ever Constitution Bench of 13 Judges. The bench gave eleven separate judgements, which agreed on some points and differed on others. Nanabhoy Palkhivala, assisted by Fali Nariman, presented the case against the government in both cases.
Upholding the validity of clause (4) of article 13 and a corresponding provision in article 368 (3), inserted by the 24th Amendment, the Court settled in favour of the view that Parliament has the power to amend the fundamental rights also. However, the Court affirmed another proposition also asserted in the Golaknath case, by ruling that the expression "amendment '' of this Constitution in article 368 means any addition or change in any of the provisions of the Constitution within the broad contours of the Preamble and the Constitution to carry out the objectives in the Preamble and the Directive Principles. Applied to fundamental rights, it would be that while fundamental rights can not be abrogated, reasonable abridgement of fundamental rights could be effected in the public interest. The true position is that every provision of the Constitution can be amended provided the basic foundation and structure of the Constitution remains the same.
The nine signatories to the statement were Chief Justice SM Sikri, and Justices J.M. Shelat, K.S. Hegde, A.N. Grover, B. Jaganmohan Reddy, D.G. Palekar, HR Khanna, A.K. Mukherjee and Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud. Four judges did not sign: A.N. Ray, K.K. Mathew, M.H. Beg and S.N. Dwivedi.
SM Sikri, Chief Justice held that the fundamental importance of the freedom of the individual has to be preserved for all times to come and that it could not be amended out of existence. According to the Hon'ble Chief Justice, fundamental rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution of India can not be abrogated, though a reasonable abridgement of those rights could be effected in public interest. There is a limitation on the power of amendment by necessary implication which was apparent from a reading of the preamble and therefore, according to the learned Chief Justice, the expression "amendment of this Constitution '', in Article 368 means any addition or change in any of the provisions of the Constitution within the broad contours of the preamble, made in order to carry out the basic objectives of the Constitution. Accordingly, every provision of the Constitution was open to amendment provided the basic foundation or structure of the Constitution was not damaged or destroyed.
Held that the preamble to the Constitution contains the clue to the fundamentals of the Constitution. According to the learned Judges, Parts III and IV of the Constitution which respectively embody the fundamental rights and the directive principles have to be balanced and harmonised. This balance & harmony between two integral parts of the Constitution forms a basic element of the Constitution which can not be altered. The word ' amendment ' occurring in Article 368 must therefore be construed in such a manner as to preserve the power of the Parliament to amend the Constitution, but not so as to result in damaging or destroying the structure and identity of the Constitution. There was thus an implied limitation on the amending power which prevented the Parliament from abolishing or changing the identity of the Constitution or any of its Basic Structure.
Held that the Constitution of India which is essentially a social rather than a political document, is founded on a social philosophy and as such has two main features basic and circumstantial. The basic constituent remained constant, the circumstantial was subject to change. According to the learned Judges, the broad contours of the basic elements and the fundamental features of the Constitution are delineated in the preamble and the Parliament has no power to abolish or emasculate those basic elements of fundamental features. The building of a welfare State is the ultimate goal of every Government but that does not mean that in order to build a welfare State, human freedoms have to suffer a total destruction. Applying these tests, the learned Judges invalidated Article 31C even in its un-amended form.
Held that the word ' amendment ' was used in the sense of permitting a change, in contradistinction to destruction, which the repeal or abrogation brings about. Therefore, the width of the power of amendment could not be enlarged by amending the amending power itself. The learned Judge held that the essential elements of the basic structure of the Constitution are reflected in its preamble and that some of the important features of the Constitution are justice, freedom of expression and equality of status and opportunity. The word ' amendment ' could not possibly embrace the right to abrogate the pivotal features and the fundamental freedoms and therefore, that part of the basic structure could not be damaged or destroyed. According to the learned Judge, the provisions of Article 31d, as they hen, conferring power on Parliament and the State Legislatures to enact laws for giving effect to the principles specified in Clauses (b) and (c) of Article 39, altogether abrogated the right given by Article 14 and were for that reason unconstitutional. In conclusion, the learned Judge held that though the power of amendment was wide, it did not comprehend the power to totally abrogate or emasculate or damage any of the fundamental rights or the essential elements of the basic structure of the Constitution or to destroy the identity of the Constitution. Subject to these limitations, Parliament had the right to amend any and every provision of the Constitution.
HR Khanna has given in his judgment that the Parliament had full power to amend the Constitution, however, since it is only a "power to amend '', the basic structure or framework of the structure should remain intact. While as per the aforesaid views of the six learned Judges, certain "essential elements '' (which included fundamental rights) of the judgment can not be amended as there are certain implied restrictions on the powers of the parliament.
According to the Hon'ble Judge, although it was permissible to the Parliament, in exercise of its amending power, to effect changes so as to meet the requirements of changing conditions, it was not permissible to touch the foundation or to alter the basic institutional pattern. Therefore, the words "amendment of the Constitution '' in spite of the width of their sweep and in spite of their amplitude, could not have the effect of empowering the Parliament to destroy or abrogate the basic structure or framework of the Constitution.
This gave birth to the basic structure doctrine, which has been considered as the cornerstone of the Constitutional law in India.
This judgement ruled that Article 368 does not enable Parliament in its constituent capacity to delegate its function of amending the Constitution to another legislature or to itself in its ordinary legislative capacity. This ruling made all the deemed constitutional amendments stipulated under the legislative powers of the parliament as void and inconsistent after the 24th constitutional amendment. These are articles 4 (2), 169 (3) - 1962, 239A2 - 1962, 244A4 - 1969, 356 (1) c, para 7 (2) of Schedule V and para 21 (2) of Schedule VI. Also articles 239AA (7) b - 1991, 243M (4) b - 1992, 243ZC3 - 1992 and 312 (4) - 1977 which are inserted by later constitutional amendments and envisaging deemed constitutional amendments under legislative powers of the parliament, should be invalid. The Supreme Court declared in the case ' A.K. Roy, Etc vs Union Of India And Anr on 28 December 1981 ' that the article 368 (1) clearly defines constituent power as ' the power to amend any provision of the constitution by way of an addition, variation or repeal '. it reiterated that constituent power must be exercised by the parliament itself in accordance with the procedure laid down in article 368.
The government of Indira Gandhi did not take kindly to this implied restriction on its powers by the court. On 26 April 1973, Justice Ajit Nath Ray, who was among the dissenters, was promoted to Chief Justice of India superseding three senior Judges, Shelat, Grover and Hegde, which was unprecedented in Indian legal history. Advocate C.K. Daphtary termed the incident as "the blackest day in the history of democracy ''. Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah (previous Chief Justice of India) remarked that "this was an attempt of not creating ' forward looking judges ' but ' judges looking forward ' to the office of Chief Justice ''.
The 42nd Amendment, enacted in 1976, is considered to be the immediate and most direct fall out of the judgement. Apart from it, the judgement cleared the deck for complete legislative authority to amend any part of the Constitution except when the amendments are not in consonance with the basic features of the Constitution.
The basic structure doctrine was adopted by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh in 1989, by expressly relying on the reasoning in the Kesavananda case, in its ruling on Anwar Hossain Chowdhary v. Bangladesh (41 DLR 1989 App. Div. 165, 1989 BLD (Spl.) 1).
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who scored the first goal in football history | Fastest goals in Association football - wikipedia
This article lists goals which have been considered among the fastest ever scored in association football matches. The records concerning the fastest goals are disputed for a number of reasons. Ray Spiller of the Association of Football Statisticians has argued that as there is no official system for recognizing the timing of goals there are always going to be disputes concerning these records.
In addition, many of the goals listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as being among the fasted were not filmed preventing the precise timing of goals from being assessed. The status of Nawaf Al Abed 's goal which is credited as being scored after two seconds is also disputed given that the match was later declared void due to ineligible players, when several players over the age of 23 were found to have played in the age restricted game.
Marc Burrows ' goal has also been considered the fastest ever but it was scored in an amateur reserve game. As there is no standard size for a football pitch some of the goals listed benefit from being played on smaller pitches that require the ball to travel a shorter distance before reaching the goal. Furthermore, many of the records listed come from English language publications and reflect a bias towards English football within the sources.
Under The Laws of the Game, specifically Law 8, goals may be scored directly from the kick - off. Some of the fastest goals on the list below are shots taken directly from the kick - off.
Some sources consider Nawaf Al Abed to have scored the fastest ever goal in a football match although the status of this record is disputed.
The following is a list of 49 goals scored by any kind of players, including juniors, amateurs, semi-professionals, professionals, women football, in any football league, cup or other competition around the world.
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when did the first large winter carnival take place in quebec city | Quebec winter carnival - wikipedia
The Quebec Winter Carnival (French: Carnaval de Québec), commonly known in both English and French as Carnaval, is a pre-Lenten festival held in Quebec City. After being held intermittently since 1894, the Carnaval de Québec has been celebrated annually since 1955. That year Bonhomme Carnaval, the mascot of the festival, made his first appearance. Up to one million people attended the Carnaval de Québec in 2006 making it the largest winter festival in the world.
The most famous attractions of this winter festival are the night - time and daytime parades led by mascot Bonhomme Carnaval. The parades wind through the upper city, decorated for the occasion with lights and ice sculptures.
Numerous public and private parties, shows and balls are held across the city, some of them outside in the bitter cold, testimony to the Québécois ' fabled joie de vivre.
Other major events include:
Outdoor dance parties are held at the Ice Palaces.
Also not part of the official program but worth a visit or a stay, the Quebec City Ice Hotel is open every year from early January to late March with its bar, nightclub, exhibition galleries and ceremonial chapel.
Ice sculpture (2005)
Family venue (2006)
Ice Palace (2009)
Parade in Montreal (2011)
Canoe race (2011)
Ice Palace (2011)
Toboggan at Terrasse Dufferin
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the abbreviation inh indicates what route of drug administration | Route of administration - wikipedia
A route of administration in pharmacology and toxicology is the path by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body. Routes of administration are generally classified by the location at which the substance is applied. Common examples include oral and intravenous administration. Routes can also be classified based on where the target of action is. Action may be topical (local), enteral (system - wide effect, but delivered through the gastrointestinal tract), or parenteral (systemic action, but delivered by routes other than the GI tract).
Routes of administration are usually classified by application location (or exposition).
The route or course the active substance takes from application location to the location where it has its target effect is usually rather a matter of pharmacokinetics (concerning the processes of uptake, distribution, and elimination of drugs). Exceptions include the transdermal or transmucosal routes, which are still commonly referred to as routes of administration.
The location of the target effect of active substances are usually rather a matter of pharmacodynamics (concerning e.g. the physiological effects of drugs). An exception is topical administration, which generally means that both the application location and the effect thereof is local.
Topical administration is sometimes defined as both a local application location and local pharmacodynamic effect, and sometimes merely as a local application location regardless of location of the effects.
Administration through the gastrointestinal tract is sometimes termed enteral or enteric administration (literally meaning ' through the intestines '). Enteral / enteric administration usually includes oral (through the mouth) and rectal (into the rectum) administration, in the sense that these are taken up by the intestines. However, uptake of drugs administered orally may also occur already in the stomach, and as such gastrointestinal (along the gastrointestinal tract) may be a more fitting term for this route of administration. Furthermore, some application locations often classified as enteral, such as sublingual (under the tongue) and sublabial or buccal (between the cheek and gums / gingiva), are taken up in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract without reaching the intestines. Strictly enteral administration (directly into the intestines) can be used for systemic administration, as well as local (sometimes termed topical), such as in a contrast enema, whereby contrast media is infused into the intestines for imaging. However, for the purposes of classification based on location of effects, the term enteral is reserved for substances with systemic effects.
Many drugs as tablets, capsules, or drops are taken orally. Administration methods directly into the stomach include those by gastric feeding tube or gastrostomy. Substances may also be placed into the small intestines, as with a duodenal feeding tube and enteral nutrition. Enteric coated tablets are designed to dissolve in the intestine, not the stomach, because the drug present in the tablet causes irritation in the stomach.
The rectal route is an effective route of administration for many medications, especially those used at the end of life. The walls of the rectum absorb many medications quickly and effectively. Medications delivered to the distal one - third of the rectum at least partially avoid the "first pass effect '' through the liver, which allows for greater bio-availability of many medications than that of the oral route. Rectal mucosa is highly vascularized tissue that allows for rapid and effective absorption of medications. A suppository is a solid dosage form that fits for rectal administration. In hospice care, a specialized rectal catheter, designed to provide comfortable and discreet administration of ongoing medications provides a practical way to deliver and retain liquid formulations in the distal rectum, giving health practitioners a way to leverage the established benefits of rectal administration.
The parenteral route is any route that is not enteral (par - + enteral).
Parenteral administration can be performed by injection, that is, using a needle (usually a hypodermic needle) and a syringe, or by the insertion of an indwelling catheter.
Locations of application of parenteral administration include:
The definition of the topical route of administration sometimes states that both the application location and the pharmacodynamic effect thereof is local.
In other cases, topical is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part regardless of the location of the effect. By this definition, topical administration also includes transdermal application, where the substance is administered onto the skin but is absorbed into the body to attain systemic distribution.
If defined strictly as having local effect, the topical route of administration can also include enteral administration of medications that are poorly absorbable by the gastrointestinal tract. One poorly absorbable antibiotic is vancomycin, which is recommended by mouth as a treatment for severe Clostridium difficile colitis.
The reason for choice of routes of drug administration are governing by various factors:
In acute situations, in emergency medicine and intensive care medicine, drugs are most often given intravenously. This is the most reliable route, as in acutely ill patients the absorption of substances from the tissues and from the digestive tract can often be unpredictable due to altered blood flow or bowel motility.
Enteral routes are generally the most convenient for the patient, as no punctures or sterile procedures are necessary. Enteral medications are therefore often preferred in the treatment of chronic disease. However, some drugs can not be used enterally because their absorption in the digestive tract is low or unpredictable. Transdermal administration is a comfortable alternative; there are, however, only a few drug preparations that are suitable for transdermal administration.
Identical drugs can produce different results depending on the route of administration. For example, some drugs are not significantly absorbed into the bloodstream from the gastrointestinal tract and their action after enteral administration is therefore different from that after parenteral administration. This can be illustrated by the action of naloxone (Narcan), an antagonist of opiates such as morphine. Naloxone counteracts opiate action in the central nervous system when given intravenously and is therefore used in the treatment of opiate overdose. The same drug, when swallowed, acts exclusively on the bowels; it is here used to treat constipation under opiate pain therapy and does not affect the pain - reducing effect of the opiate.
The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time - release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended. The oral route is limited to formulations containing small molecules only while biopharmaceuticals (usually proteins) would be digested in the stomach and thereby become ineffective. Biopharmaceuticals have to be given by injection or infusion. Resent research (2018) finds an organic ionic liquid suitable for oral insulin delivery into the blood stream.
By delivering drugs almost directly to the site of action, the risk of systemic side effects is reduced. However, skin irritation may result, and for some forms such as creams or lotions, the dosage is difficult to control.
Inhaled medications can be absorbed quickly and act both locally and systemically. Proper technique with inhaler devices is necessary to achieve the correct dose. Some medications can have an unpleasant taste or irritate the mouth.
Inhalation by smoking a substance is likely the most rapid way to deliver drugs to the brain, as the substance travels directly to the brain without being diluted in the systemic circulation. The severity of dependence on psychoactive drugs tends to increase with more rapid drug delivery.
The term injection encompasses intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC) and intradermal (ID) administration.
Parenteral administration generally acts more rapidly than topical or enteral administration, with onset of action often occurring in 15 -- 30 seconds for IV, 10 -- 20 minutes for IM and 15 -- 30 minutes for SC. They also have essentially 100 % bioavailability and can be used for drugs that are poorly absorbed or ineffective when they are given orally. Some medications, such as certain antipsychotics, can be administered as long - acting intramuscular injections. Ongoing IV infusions can be used to deliver continuous medication or fluids.
Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self - inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin - dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.
Neural drug delivery is the next step beyond the basic addition of growth factors to nerve guidance conduits. Drug delivery systems allow the rate of growth factor release to be regulated over time, which is critical for creating an environment more closely representative of in vivo development environments.
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impact of event scale - revised (ies-r) | Impact of Event scale - Revised (IES - R) - Wikipedia
Impact of Event Scale - Revised (IES - R) is a 22 - item self - report measure that assesses subjective distress caused by traumatic events. The 15 - item IES is the original scale, but is missing hyperarousal symptom. It is a revised version of the older version, the 15 - item IES. The IES - R contains seven additional items related to the hyperarousal symptoms of PTSD, which were not included in the original IES. Items correspond directly to 14 of the 17 DSM - IV symptoms of PTSD. Respondents are asked to identify a specific stressful life event and then indicate how much they were distressed or bothered during the past seven days by each "difficulty '' listed.
Items are rated on a 5 - point scale ranging from 0 ("not at all '') to 4 ("extremely ''). The IES - R yields a total score (ranging from 0 to 88) and subscale scores can also be calculated for the Intrusion, Avoidance, and Hyperarousal subscales. The authors recommend using means instead of raw sums for each of these subscales scores to allow comparison with scores from the Symptom Checklist 90 - Revised (SCL - 90 - R; Derogatis, 1994). In general, the IES - R (and IES) is not used to diagnosis PTSD, however, cutoff scores for a preliminary diagnosis of PTSD have been cited in the literature.
The scale is typically used to assess the severity of post traumatic stress syndrome. It has also been used to assess the presence and degree of trauma associated with miscarriage, induced abortion and other types of pregnancy loss. Post traumatic stress disorder can result in women who have experienced a miscarriage.
An example question is: "Any reminders brought back feelings about it. '' (Respondents rate their degree of distress during the past seven days.)
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where did the union pacific start building the transcontinental railroad | First Transcontinental railroad - wikipedia
The First Transcontinental Railroad (also called the Great Transcontinental Railroad, known originally as the "Pacific Railroad '' and later as the "Overland Route '') was a 1,912 - mile (3,077 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Omaha, Nebraska / Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay. The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants. Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds. The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from Oakland / Alameda to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) eastward from Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory (U.T.). The Union Pacific built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road 's eastern terminus at Council Bluffs near Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.
The railroad opened for through traffic on May 10, 1869 when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially drove the gold "Last Spike '' (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike '') with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit. The coast - to - coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West. It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast - to - coast considerably quicker and less expensive.
Paddle steamers linked Sacramento to the cities and their harbor facilities in the San Francisco Bay until 1869, when the CPRR completed and opened the WP grade (which the CPRR had acquired control of in 1867 -- 68) to Alameda and Oakland.
The first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad 's original western terminus at the Alameda Mole on September 6, 1869 where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road 's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf about a mile to the north. Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry.
The CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles of UPRR - built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, U.T. (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line was popularly known as the Overland Route after the principal passenger rail service that operated over the length of the line until 1962.
Building a railroad line that connected the United States coast - to - coast was advocated in 1832 when Dr. Hartwell Carver published an article in the New York Courier & Enquirer advocating building a transcontinental railroad from Lake Michigan to Oregon. In 1847 he submitted to the U.S. Congress a "Proposal for a Charter to Build a Railroad from Lake Michigan to the Pacific Ocean '', seeking a congressional charter to support his idea.
Congress agreed to support the idea. Under the direction of the Department of War, the Pacific Railroad Surveys were conducted from 1853 through 1855. These included an extensive series of expeditions of the American West seeking possible routes. A report on the explorations described alternative routes and included an immense amount of information about the American West, covering at least 400,000 sq mi (1,000,000 km). It included the region 's natural history and illustrations of reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals.
The report failed however to include detailed topographic maps of potential routes needed to estimate the feasibility, cost and select the best route. The survey was detailed enough to determine that the best southern route lay south of the Gila River boundary with Mexico in mostly vacant desert, through the future territories of Arizona and New Mexico. This in part motivated the United States to complete the Gadsden Purchase.
In 1856 the Select Committee on the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph of the US House of Representatives published a report recommending support for a proposed Pacific railroad bill:
The necessity that now exists for constructing lines of railroad and telegraphic communication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of this continent is no longer a question for argument; it is conceded by every one. In order to maintain our present position on the Pacific, we must have some more speedy and direct means of intercourse than is at present afforded by the route through the possessions of a foreign power.
The U.S. Congress was strongly divided on where the eastern terminus of the railroad should be -- in a southern or northern city. Three routes were considered:
Once the central route was chosen, it was immediately obvious that the western terminus should be Sacramento. But there was considerable difference of opinion about the eastern terminus. Three locations along 250 miles (400 km) of Missouri River were considered:
Council Bluffs had several advantages: It was well north of the Civil War fighting in Missouri; it was the shortest route to South Pass in the Rockies in Wyoming; and it would follow a fertile river that would encourage settlement. Durant had hired the future president Abraham Lincoln in 1857 when he was an attorney to represent him in a business matter about a bridge over the Missouri. Now Lincoln was responsible for choosing the eastern terminus, and he relied on Durant 's counsel. Durant advocated for Omaha, and he was so confident of the choice that he began buying up land in Nebraska.
One of the most prominent champions of the central route railroad was Asa Whitney. He envisioned a route from Chicago and the Great Lakes to northern California, paid for by the sale of land to settlers along the route. Whitney traveled widely to solicit support from businessmen and politicians, printed maps and pamphlets, and submitted several proposals to Congress, all at his own expense. In June 1845, he led a team along part of the proposed route to assess its feasibility.
Legislation to begin construction of the Pacific Railroad (called the Memorial of Asa Whitney) was first introduced to Congress by Representative Zadock Pratt. Congress did not immediately act on Whitney 's proposal.
Theodore Judah was a fervent supporter of the central route railroad. He lobbied vigorously in favor of the project and undertook the survey of the route through the rugged Sierra Nevada, one of the chief obstacles of the project.
In 1852, Judah was chief engineer for the newly formed Sacramento Valley Railroad, the first railroad built west of the Mississippi River. Although the railroad later went bankrupt once the easy placer gold deposits around Placerville, California were depleted, Judah was convinced that a properly financed railroad could pass from Sacramento through the Sierra Nevada mountains to reach the Great Basin and hook up with rail lines coming from the East.
In 1856, Judah wrote a 13,000 - word proposal in support of a Pacific railroad and distributed it to Cabinet secretaries, congressmen and other influential people. In September 1859, Judah was chosen to be the accredited lobbyist for the Pacific Railroad Convention, which indeed approved his plan to survey, finance and engineer the road. Judah returned to Washington in December 1859. He had a lobbying office in the United States Capitol, received an audience with President James Buchanan, and represented the Convention before Congress.
Judah returned to California in 1860. He continued to search for a more practical route through the Sierra suitable for a railroad. In mid-1860, local miner Daniel Strong had surveyed a route over the Sierra for a wagon toll road, which he realized would also suit a railroad. He described his discovery in a letter to Judah. Together, they formed an association to solicit subscriptions from local merchants and businessmen to support their proposed railroad.
From January or February 1861 until July, Judah and Strong led a 10 - person expedition to survey the route for the railroad over the Sierra Nevada through Clipper Gap and Emigrant Gap, over Donner Pass, and south to Truckee. They discovered a way across the Sierras that was gradual enough to be made suitable for a railroad, although it still needed a lot of work.
Four northern California businessmen formed the Central Pacific Railroad: Leland Stanford, (1824 -- 1893), President; Collis Potter Huntington, (1821 -- 1900), Vice President; Mark Hopkins, (1813 -- 1878), Treasurer; Charles Crocker, (1822 -- 1888), Construction Supervisor. All became substantially wealthy from their association with the railroad.
Former ophthalmologist Dr. Thomas Clark "Doc '' Durant was nominally only a vice president of Union Pacific, so he installed a series of respected men like John Adams Dix as president of the railroad. Durant and its financing arrangements were, unlike those of the CPRR, mired in controversy and scandals.
In February 1860, Iowa Representative Samuel Curtis introduced a bill to fund the railroad. It passed the House but died when it could not be reconciled with the Senate version due to opposition from southern states who wanted a southern route near the 42nd parallel. Curtis tried and failed again in 1861. After the southern states seceded from the Union, the House of Representatives approved the bill on May 6, 1862, and the Senate on June 20. Lincoln signed the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 into law on July 1. It authorized creation of two companies, the Central Pacific in the west and the Union Pacific in the mid-west, to build the railroad. The legislation called for building and operating a new railroad from the Missouri River at Council Bluffs, Iowa, west to Sacramento, California, and on to San Francisco Bay. A second law to supplement the first was passed in 1864.
To finance the project, the act authorized the federal government to issue 30 - year U.S. government bonds (at 6 % interest). The railroad companies were paid $16,000 / mile (approximately $436,000 today) for track laid on a level grade, $32,000 / mile (about $872,000 today) for track laid in foothills, and $48,000 / mile (or about $1,307,000 today) for track laid in mountains. The two railroad companies sold similar amounts of company - backed bonds and stock.
While the federal legislation for the Union Pacific required that no partner was to own more than 10 percent of the stock, the UP had problems selling its stock. One of the few subscribers was Mormon leader Brigham Young, who also supplied crews for building much of the railroad through Utah. Durant enticed other investors by offering to front money for the stock they purchased in their names. This scheme enabled Durant to control about half of the railroad stock. The initial construction of UP grade traversed land owned by Durant. Durant 's railroad was paid by the mile, and to further inflate its profits, the UP built oxbows of unneeded track, and by July 4, 1865, it had only reached 40 miles (64 km) from Omaha after 21⁄2 years of construction.
Durant manipulated market prices on his stocks by spreading rumors about which railroads he had an interest in were being considered for connection with the Union Pacific. First he touted rumors that his fledgling M&M Railroad had a deal in the works, while secretly buying stock in the depressed Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad. Then he circulated rumors that the CR&M had plans to connect to the Union Pacific, at which point he began buying back the M&M stock at depressed prices. It 's estimated his scams produced over $5 million in profits for him and his cohorts.
Collis Huntington, a Sacramento hardware merchant, heard Judah 's presentation about the railroad at the St. Charles Hotel in November 1860. He invited Judah to his office to hear his proposal in detail. Huntington persuaded Judah to accept financing from himself and four others: Mark Hopkins, his business partner; James Bailey, a jeweler; Leland Stanford, a grocer; and Charles Crocker, a dry - goods merchant. They initially invested $1,500 each and formed a board of directors. These investors became known as The Big Four, and their railroad was called the Central Pacific Railroad. Each eventually made millions of dollars from their investments and control of the Central Pacific Railroad.
Before major construction could begin, Judah traveled back to New York City to raise funds to buy out The Big Four. However, shortly after arriving in New York, Judah died on November 2, 1863, of yellow fever that he had contracted while traveling over the Panama Railroad 's transit of the Isthmus of Panama. The CPRR Engineering Department was taken over by his successor Samuel S. Montegue, as well as Canadian trained Chief Assistant Engineer (later Acting Chief Engineer) Lewis Metzler Clement who also became Superintendent of Track.
To allow the companies to raise additional capital, Congress granted the railroads a 400 - foot (120 m) right - of - way corridor, lands for additional facilities like sidings and maintenance yards. They were also granted alternate sections of government - owned lands -- 6,400 acres (2,600 ha) per mile (1.6 km) -- for 10 miles (16 km) on both sides of the track, forming a checkerboard pattern. The railroad companies were given the odd - numbered sections while the federal government retained the even - numbered sections. The exception was in cities, at rivers, or on non-government property. The railroads sold bonds based on the value of the lands, and in areas with good land like the Sacramento Valley and Nebraska sold the land to settlers, contributing to a rapid settlement of the West. The total area of the land grants to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific was larger than the area of the state of Texas: federal government land grants totaled about 203,128,500 square miles, and state government land grants totaled about 76,565,000 square miles.
It was far from a given that the railroads operating in the thinly - settled west would make enough money to repay their construction and operation. If the railroad companies failed to sell the land granted them within three years, they were required to sell it at prevailing government price for homesteads: $1.25 per 1 acre (0.40 ha). If they failed to repay the bonds, all remaining railroad property, including trains and tracks, would revert to the U.S. government. To encourage settlement in the west, Congress (1861 -- 1863) passed the Homestead Acts which granted an applicant 160 acres (65 ha) of land with the requirement that the applicant improve the land. This incentive encouraged thousands of settlers to move west.
The federal legislation lacked adequate oversight and accountability. The two companies took advantage of these weaknesses in the legislation to manipulate the project and produce extra profit for themselves. Despite the generous subsidies offered by the federal government, the railroad capitalists knew they would not turn a profit on the railroad business for many months, possibly years. They determined to make a profit on the construction itself. Both groups of financiers formed independent companies to complete the project, and they controlled management of the new companies along with the railroad ventures. This self - dealing allowed them to build in generous profit margins paid out by the railroad companies. In the west, the four men heading the Central Pacific chose a simple name for their company, the "Contract and Finance Company. '' In the east, the Union Pacific selected a foreign name, calling their construction firm "Crédit Mobilier of America. '' The latter company was later implicated in a far - reaching scandal, described later.
Most of the engineers and surveyors who were hired by the Union Pacific had been employed during the American Civil War to repair and operate the over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of railroad line the U.S. Military Railroad controlled by the end of the war. The UP also utilized their experience repairing and building truss bridges during the war. Most of the semi-skilled workers on the Union Pacific were recruited from the many soldiers discharged from the Union and Confederate armies along with emigrant Irishmen.
After 1864, the Central Pacific Railroad received the same Federal financial incentives as the Union Pacific Railroad, along with some construction bonds granted by the state of California and the city of San Francisco. The Central Pacific hired some Canadian and British engineers and surveyors with extensive experience building railroads, but it had a difficult time finding semi-skilled labor. Most Caucasians in California preferred to work in the mines or agriculture. The railroad experimented by hiring local emigrant Chinese as manual laborers, many of whom were escaping the poverty and terrors of the Taiping Rebellion in the Guangdong province in China. When they proved themselves as workers, the CPRR from that point forward preferred to hire Chinese, and even set up recruiting efforts in Canton. Despite their small stature and lack of experience, the Chinese laborers were responsible for most of the heavy manual labor, since only a very limited amount of that work could be done by animals, simple machines, or black powder. The railroad also hired some black people escaping the aftermath of the American Civil War. Most of the black and white workers were paid $30 per month and given food and lodging. Most Chinese were initially paid $31 per month and provided lodging, but they preferred to cook their own meals. In 1867 the CPRR raised their wage to $35 (equivalent to $610 in 2017) per month after a strike.
The Central Pacific broke ground on January 8, 1863. Due to the lack of transportation alternatives from the manufacturing centers on the east coast, virtually all of their tools and machinery including rails, railroad switches, railroad turntables, freight and passenger cars, and steam locomotives were transported first by train to east coast ports. They were then loaded on ships which either sailed around South America 's Cape Horn, or offloaded the cargo at the Isthmus of Panama, where it was sent across via paddle steamer and the Panama Railroad. The Panama Railroad gauge was 5 ft (1524 mm), which was incompatible with the 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 inch (1435mm) gauge used by the CPRR equipment. The latter route was about twice as expensive per pound. Once the machinery and tools reached the San Francisco Bay area, they were put aboard river paddle steamers which transported them up the final 130 miles (210 km) of the Sacramento River to the new state capital in Sacramento. Many of these steam engines, railroad cars, and other machinery were shipped dismantled and had to be reassembled. Wooden timbers for railroad ties, trestles, bridges, firewood, and telegraph poles were harvested in California and transported to the project site.
The Union Pacific Railroad did not start construction for another 18 months until July 1865. They were delayed by difficulties obtaining financial backing and the unavailability of workers and materials due to the Civil War. Their start point in the new city of Omaha, Nebraska was not yet connected via railroad to Council Bluffs, Iowa. Equipment needed to begin work was initially delivered to Omaha and Council Bluffs by paddle steamers on the Missouri River. The Union Pacific was so slow in beginning construction during 1865 that they sold two of the four steam locomotives they had purchased.
After the U.S. Civil War ended on June 22, 1865, the Union Pacific still competed for railroad supplies with companies who were building or repairing railroads in the south, and prices rose.
At that time in the United States, there were two primary standards for track gauge, as defined by the distance between the two rails. In England, the standard gauge was 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 inch (1.435 m), and this had been adopted by the majority of northern railways. But much of the south had adopted a 5 - foot gauge. Transferring railway cars across a break of gauge required changing out the wheel trucks. Alternatively, cargo was offloaded and reloaded, a time - consuming effort that delayed cargo shipments. For the transcontinental railroad, the builders adopted the English standard, what is now called standard gauge.
The Bessemer process and open hearth furnace steel - making were in use by 1865, but the advantages of steel rails which lasted much longer than iron rails had not yet been demonstrated. The rails used initially in building the rail way were nearly all made of iron of a flat - bottomed modified I - beam profile weighing 56 pounds (25 kg) per 1 yard (0.91 m) or 66 pounds (30 kg) per 1 yard (0.91 m). The railroad companies were intent on completing the project as rapidly as possible at a minimum cost. Within a few years, nearly all railroads converted to steel rails.
Time was not standardized across the United States until about 1883. In 1865, each railroad set its own time to minimize scheduling errors. To communicate easily up and down the line, the railroads built telegraph lines alongside the railroad. These lines eventually superseded the original First Transcontinental Telegraph which followed much of the Mormon Trail up the North Platte River and across the very thinly populated Central Nevada Route through central Utah and Nevada. The telegraph lines along the railroad were easier to protect and maintain. Many of the original telegraph lines were abandoned as the telegraph business was consolidated with the railroad telegraph lines.
The Union Pacific 's 1,087 miles (1,749 km) of track started at MP 0.0 in Council Bluffs, Iowa, on the eastern side of the Missouri River. Omaha was chosen by President Abraham Lincoln as the location of its Transfer Depot where up to seven railroads could transfer mail and other goods to Union Pacific trains bound for the west.
Trains were initially transported across the Missouri River by ferry before they could access the western tracks beginning in Omaha, Nebraska Territory. The river froze in the winter, and the ferries were replaced by sleighs. A bridge was not built until 1872, when the 2,750 - foot - long (840 m) Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge was completed.
After the rail line 's initial climb through the Missouri River bluffs west of Omaha and out of the Missouri River Valley, the route bridged the Elkhorn River and then crossed over the new 1,500 feet (460 m) Loup River bridge as it followed the north side of the Platte River valley west through Nebraska along the general path of the Oregon, Mormon and California Trails.
By December 1865, the Union Pacific had only completed 40 miles (64 km) of track, reaching Fremont, Nebraska, and a further 10 miles (16 km) of roadbed.
At the end of 1865, Peter A. Dey, Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific, resigned over a routing dispute with Thomas C. Durant, one of the chief financiers of the Union Pacific.
With the end of the Civil War and increased government supervision in the offing, Durant hired his former M&M engineer Grenville M. Dodge to build the railroad, and the Union Pacific began a mad dash west.
Former Union General John "Jack '' Casement was hired as the new Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific. He equipped several railroad cars to serve as portable bunkhouses for the workers and gathered men and supplies to push the railroad rapidly west. Among the bunkhouses Casement added a galley car to prepare meals, and he even provided for a herd of cows to be moved with the railhead and bunk cars to provide fresh meat. Hunters were hired to provide buffalo meat from the large herds of American bison.
The small survey parties who scouted ahead to locate the roadbed were sometimes attacked and killed by raiding Native Americans. In response, the U.S. Army instituted active cavalry patrols that grew larger as the Native Americans grew more aggressive. Temporary, "Hell on wheels '' towns, made mostly of canvas tents, accompanied the railroad as construction headed west.
The Platte River was too shallow and meandering to provide river transport, but the Platte river valley headed west and sloped up gradually at about 6 feet (1.8 m) per 1 mile (1.6 km), often allowing to lay a mile (1.6 km) of track a day or more in 1866 as the Union Pacific finally started moving rapidly west. Building bridges to cross creeks and rivers was the main source of delays. Near where the Platte River splits into the North Platte River and South Platte River, the railroad bridged the North Platte River over a 2,600 - foot - long (790 m) bridge (nicknamed 1⁄2 mile bridge). It was built across the shallow but wide North Platte resting on piles driven by steam pile drivers. Here they built the "railroad '' town of North Platte, Nebraska in December 1866 after completing about 240 miles (390 km) of track that year. In late 1866, former Major General Grenville M. Dodge was appointed Chief Engineer on the Union Pacific, but hard working General "Jack '' Casement continued to work as chief construction "boss '' and his brother Daniel Casement continued as financial officer.
The original emigrant route across Wyoming of the Oregon, Mormon and California Trails, after progressing up the Platte River valley, went up the North Platte River valley through Casper, Wyoming, along the Sweetwater River and over the Continental Divide at 7,412 feet (2,259 m) South Pass. The original westward travellers in their ox and mule pulled wagons tried to stick to river valleys to avoid as much road building as possible -- gradients and sharp corners were usually of little or no concern to them. The ox and mule pulled wagons were the original off - road vehicles in their day, since nearly all of the Emigrant Trails went cross country over rough, un-improved trails. The route over South Pass 's main advantage for wagons pulled by oxen or mules was a shorter elevation over an "easy '' pass to cross and its "easy '' connection to nearby river valleys on both sides of the continental divide for water and grass. The emigrant trails were closed in winter. The North Platte / South Pass route was far less beneficial for a railroad, as it was about 150 miles (240 km) longer and much more expensive to construct up the narrow, steep and rocky canyons of the North Platte. The route along the North Platte was also further from Denver, Colorado, and went across difficult terrain, while a railroad connection to that City was already being planned for and surveyed.
Efforts to survey a new, shorter, "better '' route had been under way since 1864. By 1867, a new route was found and surveyed that went along part of the South Platte River in western Nebraska and after entering what is now the state of Wyoming, ascended a gradual sloping ridge between Lodgepole Creek and Crow Creek to 8,200 feet (2,500 m) Evans pass (also called Sherman 's Pass) which was discovered by the Union Pacific employed English surveyor and engineer, James Evans, in about 1864. This pass now is marked by the Ames Monument (41.131281, - 105.398045 lat., long.) marking its significance and commemorating two of the main backers of the Union Pacific Railroad. From North Platte, Nebraska (elevation 2,834 feet (864 m)), the railroad proceeded westward and upward along a new path across the Nebraska Territory and Wyoming Territory (then part of the Dakota Territory) along the north bank of the South Platte River and into what would become the state of Wyoming at Lone Pine, Wyoming. Evans Pass was located between what would become the new "railroad '' towns of Cheyenne and Laramie. Connecting to this pass, about 15 miles (24 km) west of Cheyenne, was the one place across the Laramie Mountains that had a narrow "guitar neck '' of land that crossed the mountains without serious erosion at the so - called "gangplank '' (41.099746, - 105.153205 lat., long.) discovered by Major General Grenville Dodge in 1865 when he was in the U.S. Army. The new route surveyed across Wyoming was over 150 miles (240 km) shorter, had a flatter profile, allowed for cheaper and easier railroad construction, and also went closer by Denver and the known coalfields in the Wasatch and Laramie Ranges.
The railroad gained about 3,200 feet (980 m) in the 220 miles (350 km) climb to Cheyenne from North Platte, Nebraska -- about 15 feet (4.6 m) per mile (1.6 km) -- a very gentle slope of less than one degree average. This "new '' route had never become an emigrant route because it lacked the water and grass to feed the emigrants ' oxen and mules. Steam locomotives did not need grass, and the railroad companies could drill wells for water if necessary.
Coal had been discovered in Wyoming and reported on by John C. Frémont in his 1843 expedition across Wyoming, and was already being exploited by Utah residents from towns like Coalville, Utah and later Kemmerer, Wyoming by the time the Transcontinental railroad was built. Union Pacific needed coal to fuel its steam locomotives on the almost treeless plains across Nebraska and Wyoming. Coal shipments by rail were also looked on as a potentially major source of income -- this potential is still being realized.
The Union Pacific reached the new railroad town of Cheyenne in December 1867, having laid about 270 miles (430 km) that year. They paused over the winter, preparing to push the track over Evans (Sherman 's) pass. At 8,247 feet (2,514 m), Evans / Sherman 's pass is the highest point reached on the transcontinental railroad. About 4 miles (6.4 km) beyond Evans / Sherman 's pass, the railroad had to build an extensive bridge over the Dale Creek canyon (41.103803, − 105.454797, lat., long.). The Dale Creek Crossing was one of their more difficult railroad engineering challenges. Dale Creek Bridge was 650 - foot (200 m) long and 125 feet (38 m) above Dale Creek. The bridge components were pre-built of timber in Chicago, Illinois and then shipped on rail cars to Dale Creek for assembly. The eastern and western approaches to the bridge site, near the highest elevation on the transcontinental railroad, required cutting through granite for nearly a mile on each side. The initial Dale Creek bridge had a train speed limit of 4 miles (6.4 km) per hour across the bridge. Beyond Dale Creek, railroad construction paused at what became the town of Laramie, Wyoming to build a bridge across the Laramie River.
Located 35 miles (56 km) from Evans pass, Union Pacific connected the new "railroad '' town of Cheyenne to Denver and its Denver Pacific Railway and Telegraph Company railroad line in 1870. Elevated 6,070 feet (1,850 m) above sea level, and sitting on the new Union Pacific route with a connection to Denver, Cheyenne was chosen to become a major railroad center and was equipped with extensive railroad yards, maintenance facilities and a Union Pacific presence. Its location made it a good base for helper locomotives to couple to trains with snowplows to help clear the tracks of snow or help haul heavy freight over Evans pass. The Union Pacific 's junction with the Denver Railroad with its connection to Kansas City, Kansas, Kansas City, Missouri and the railroads east of the Missouri River again increased Cheyenne 's importance as the junction of two major railroads. Cheyenne later became Wyoming 's largest city and the capital of the new state of Wyoming.
The railroad established many townships along the way: Fremont, Elkhorn, Grand Island, North Platte, Ogallala and Sidney as the railroad followed the Platte River across Nebraska territory. The railroad even dipped into what would become the new state of Colorado after crossing the North Platte River as it followed the South Platte River west into what would become Julesburg before turning northwest along Lodgepole Creek into Wyoming. In the Dakota Territory (Wyoming) the new towns of Cheyenne, Laramie, Rawlins (named for Union General John Aaron Rawlins, who camped in the locality in 1867.), Green River and Evanston (named after James Evans) were established, as well as many more fuel and water stops. The Green River was crossed with a new bridge, and the new "railroad '' town of Green River constructed there after the tracks reached the Green River on October 1, 1868 -- the last big river to cross.
On December 4, 1868, the Union Pacific reached Evanston, having laid almost 360 miles (580 km) of track over the Green River and the Laramie Plains that year. By 1871, Evanston became a significant maintenance shop town equipped to carry out extensive repairs on the cars and steam locomotives.
In the Utah Territory, the railroad once again diverted from the main emigrant trails to cross the Wasatch Mountains and went down the rugged Echo Canyon (Summit County, Utah) and Weber River canyon. To speed up construction as much as possible, Union Pacific contracted several thousand Mormon workers to cut, fill, trestle, bridge, blast and tunnel its way down the rugged Weber River Canyon to Ogden, Utah, ahead of the railroad construction. The Mormon and Union Pacific rail work was joined in the area of the present - day border between Utah and Wyoming. The longest of four tunnels built in Weber Canyon was 757 - foot - long (231 m) Tunnel 2. Work on this tunnel started in October 1868 and was completed six months later. Temporary tracks were laid around it and Tunnels 3 (508 feet (155 m)), 4 (297 feet (91 m)) and 5 (579 feet (176 m)) to continue work on the tracks west of the tunnels.
The tunnels were all made with the new dangerous nitroglycerine explosive, which expedited work but caused some fatal accidents. While building the railroad along the rugged Weber River Canyon, Mormon workers signed the Thousand Mile Tree which was lone tree alongside the track 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from Omaha. A historic marker has been placed there.
The tracks reached Ogden, Utah, on March 27, 1869, although finishing work would continue on the tracks, tunnels and bridges in Weber Canyon for over a year. From Ogden, the railroad went north of the Great Salt Lake to Brigham City and Corinne using Mormon workers, before finally connecting with the Central Pacific Railroad at Promontory Summit in Utah territory on May 10, 1869. Some Union Pacific officers declined to pay the Mormons all of the agreed upon construction costs of the work through Weber Canyon, and beyond, claiming Union Pacific poverty despite the millions they had extracted through the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal. Only partial payment was secured through court actions against Union Pacific. The portion of the original railroad around the north shore of the Great Salt Lake is no longer used. In 1904, the Lucin Cutoff, a causeway across the center of the Great Salt Lake to Promontory Point, bypassed Promontory Summit. The cutoff shortened the rail route by approximately 43 miles (69 km).
The Central Pacific laid 690 miles (1,110 km) of track, starting in Sacramento, California, in 1863 and continuing over the rugged 7,000 - foot (2,100 m) Sierra Nevada mountains at Donner Pass into the new state of Nevada. The elevation change from Sacramento (elev. 40 ft or 12 m) to Donner Summit (elev. 7,000 ft or 2,100 m) had to be accomplished in about 90 miles (140 km) with an average elevation change of 76 feet per mile (14 meters per km), and there were only a few places in the Sierra where this type of "ramp '' existed. The discovery and detailed map survey with profiles and elevations of this route over the Sierra Nevada is credited to Theodore Judah, chief engineer of the Central Pacific Railroad until his death in 1863. This route is up a ridge between the North fork of the American River on the south and Bear River (Feather River) and South Yuba River on the north. As the railroad climbed out of Sacramento up to Donner Summit, there was only one 3 - mile (4.8 km) section near "Cape Horn CPRR '' where the railroad grade slightly exceeded two percent.
In June 1864, the Central Pacific railroad entrepreneurs opened Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road (DFDLWR). Costing about $300,000 and a years worth of work, this toll road wagon route was opened over much of the route the Central Pacific railroad (CPRR) would use over Donner Summit to carry freight and passengers needed by the CPRR and to carry other cargo over their toll road to and from the ever advancing railhead and over the Sierra to the gold and silver mining towns of Nevada. As the railroad advanced, their freight rates with the combined rail and wagon shipments would become much more competitive. The volume of the toll road freight traffic to Nevada was estimated to be about $13,000,000 a year as the Comstock Lode boomed, and getting even part of this freight traffic would help pay for the railroad construction. When the railroad reached Reno, it had the majority of all Nevada freight shipments, and the price of goods in Nevada dropped significantly as the freight charges to Nevada dropped significantly. The rail route over the Sierras followed the general route of the Truckee branch of the California Trail, going east over Donner Pass and down the rugged Truckee River valley.
The route over the Sierra had been plotted out by Judah in preliminary surveys before his death in 1863. Judah 's deputy, Samuel S. Montague was appointed as Central Pacific 's new Chief Engineer, with Lewis M. Clement as Assistant Chief Engineer and Charles Cadwalader as second assistant. To build the new railroad, detailed surveys had to be run that showed where the cuts, fills, trestles, bridges and tunnels would have to be built. Work that was identified as taking a long time was started as soon as its projected track location could be ascertained and work crews, supplies and road work equipment found to be sent ahead. Tunnels, trestles and bridges were nearly all built this way. The spread - out nature of the work resulted in the work being split into two divisions, with L.M. Clement taking the upper division from Blue Cañon to Truckee and Cadwalader taking the lower division from Truckee to the Nevada border. Other assistant engineers were assigned to specific tasks such as building a bridge, tunnel or trestle which was done by the workers under experienced supervisors.
In total, the Central Pacific had eleven tunnel projects (Nos. 3 through 13) under construction in the Sierra from 1865 -- 68, with seven tunnels located in a 2 - mile (3.2 km) stretch on the east side of Donner Summit. The tunnels were usually built by drilling a series of holes in the tunnel face, filling them with black powder and detonating it to break the rock free. The black powder was provided by the California Powder Works near Santa Cruz, California. These works had started production in 1864 after the U.S. Civil War had cut off shipments of black powder from the East to the mining and railroad industry of California and Nevada. The Central Pacific was a prolific user of black powder, often using up to 500 kegs of 25 pounds (11 kg) each per day.
The summit tunnel (Number 6), 1,660 feet (510 m), was started in late 1865, well ahead of the railhead. Through solid granite, the summit tunnel progressed at a rate of only about 0.98 feet (0.30 m) per day per face as it was being worked by three eight - hour shifts of workers, hand drilling holes with a rock drill and hammer, filling them with black powder and trying to blast the granite loose. One crew worked drilling holes on the faces and another crew collected and removed the loosened rock after each explosion. The workers were pulled off the summit tunnel and the track grading east of Donner Pass in the winter of 1865 -- 66 as there was no way to supply them, nor quarters they could have lived in. The crews were transferred to work on bridges and track grading on the Truckee River canyon.
In 1866 they put in a 125 - foot (38 m) vertical shaft in the center of the summit tunnel and started work towards the east and west tunnel faces, giving four working faces on the summit tunnel to speed up progress. A steam engine off an old locomotive was brought up with much effort over the wagon road and used as a winch driver to help remove loosened rock from the vertical shaft and two working faces. By the winter of 1866 -- 67, work had progressed sufficiently and a camp had been built for workers on the summit tunnel which allowed work to continue. The cross section of a tunnel face was a 16 - foot - wide (4.9 m), 16 - foot - high (4.9 m) oval with an 11 - foot (3.4 m) vertical wall. Progress on the tunnel sped up to over 1.5 feet (0.46 m) per day per face when they started using the newly invented nitroglycerin -- manufactured near the tunnel. They used nitroglycerin to deepen the summit tunnel to the required 16 - foot (4.9 m) height after the four tunnel faces met, and made even faster progress. Nearly all other tunnels were worked on both tunnel faces and met in the middle. Depending on the material the tunnels penetrated, they were left unlined or lined with brick, rock walls or timber and post. Some tunnels were designed to bend in the middle to align with the track bed curvature. Despite this potential complication, nearly all the different tunnel center lines met within 2 inches (5.1 cm) or so. The detailed survey work that made these tunnel digs as precise as required were nearly all done by the Canadian born and trained Lewis Clement, the CPRR 's Chief Assistant Engineer and Superintendent of Track, and his assistants.
Hills or ridges in front of the railroad road bed would have to have a flat - bottomed, V shaped "cut '' made to get the railroad through the ridge or hill. The type of material determined the slope of the V and how much material would have to be removed. Ideally, these cuts would be matched with valley fills that could use the dug out material to bring the road bed up to grade -- cut and fill construction. In the 1860s there was no heavy equipment that could be used to make these cuts or haul it away to make the fills. The options were to dig it out by pick and shovel, haul the hillside material by wheelbarrow and / or horse or mule cart or blast it loose. To blast a V shaped cut out, they had to drill several holes up to 20 feet (6.1 m) deep in the material, fill them with black powder, and blast the material away. Since the Central Pacific was in a hurry, they were profligate users of black powder to blast their way though the hills. The only disadvantage came when a nearby valley needed fill to get across it. The explosive technique often blew most of the potential fill material down the hillside, making it unavailable for fill. Initially, many valleys were bridged by "temporary '' trestles that could be rapidly built and were later replaced by much lower maintenance and permanent solid fill. The existing railroad made transporting and putting material in valleys much easier -- load it on railway dump cars, haul where needed and dump it over the side of the trestle.
The route down the eastern Sierras was done on the south side of Donner Lake with a series of switchbacks carved into the mountain. The Truckee River, which drains Lake Tahoe, had already found and scoured out the best route across the Carson Range of mountains east of the Sierras. The route down the rugged Truckee River Canyon, including required bridges, was done ahead of the main summit tunnel completion. To expedite the building of the railroad through the Truckee River canyon, the Central Pacific hauled two small locomotives, railcars, rails and other material on wagons and sleighs to what is now Truckee, California and worked the winter of 1867 -- 68 on their way down Truckee canyon ahead of the tracks being completed to Truckee. In Truckee canyon, five Howe truss bridges had to be built. This gave them a head start on getting to the "easy '' miles across Nevada.
In order to keep the higher portions of the Sierra grade open in the winter, 37 miles (60 km) of timber snow sheds were built between Blue Cañon and Truckee in addition to utilizing snowplows pushed by locomotives, as well as manual shovelling. With the advent of more efficient oil fired steam and later diesel electric power to drive plows, flangers, spreaders, and rotary snow plows, most of the wooden snowsheds have long since been removed as obsolete. Tunnels 1 -- 5 and 13 of the original 1860s tunnels on Track 1 of the Sierra grade remain in use today, while additional new tunnels were later driven when the grade was double tracked over the first quarter of the twentieth century. In 1993, the Southern Pacific Railroad (which operated the CPRR - built Oakland -- Ogden line until its 1996 merger with the UP) closed and pulled up the 6.7 - mile (10.8 km) section of Track # 1 over the summit running between the Norden complex (Shed 26, MP 192.1) and the covered crossovers in Shed # 47 (MP 198.8) about a mile east of the old flyover at Eder, bypassing and abandoning the tunnel 6 -- 8 complex, the concrete snowsheds just beyond them, and tunnels 9 -- 12 ending at MP 195.7, all of which had been located on Track 1 within two miles of the summit. Since then all east - and westbound traffic has been run over the Track # 2 grade crossing the summit about one mile (1.6 km) south of Donner Pass through the 10,322 - foot - long (3,146 m) Tunnel # 41 (aka "The Big Hole '') running under Mt. Judah between Soda Springs and Eder, which was opened in 1925 when the summit section of the grade was double tracked. This routing change was made because the Track 2 and Tunnel 41 Summit crossing is far easier and less expensive to maintain and keep open in the harsh Sierra winters.
On June 18, 1868, the Central Pacific reached Reno, Nevada, after completing 132 miles (212 km) of railroad up and over the Sierras from Sacramento, California. By then the railroad had already been prebuilt down the Truckee River on the much flatter land from Reno to Wadsworth, Nevada, where they bridged the Truckee for the last time. From there, they struggled across a forty mile desert to the end of the Humboldt river at the Humboldt Sink. From the end of the Humboldt, they continued east over the Great Basin Desert bordering the Humboldt River to Wells, Nevada. One of the most troublesome problems found on this route along the Humboldt was at Palisade Canyon (near Carlin, Nevada), where for 12 miles (19 km) the line had to be built between the river and basalt cliffs. From Wells, Nevada to Promontory Summit, the Railroad left the Humboldt and proceeded across the Nevada and Utah desert. Water for the steam locomotives was provided by wells, springs, or pipelines to nearby water sources. Water was often pumped into the water tanks with windmills. Train fuel and water spots on the early trains with steam locomotives may have been as often as every 10 miles (16 km). On one memorable occasion, not far from Promontory, the Central Pacific crews organized an army of workers and five train loads of construction material, and laid 10 miles (16 km) of track on a prepared rail bed in one day -- - a record that still stands today. The Central Pacific and Union Pacific raced to get as much track laid as possible, and the Central Pacific laid about 560 miles (900 km) of track from Reno to Promontory Summit in the one year before the Last Spike was driven on May 10, 1869.
Central Pacific had 1,694 freight cars available by May 1869, with more under construction in their Sacramento yard. Major repairs and maintenance on the Central Pacific rolling stock was done in their Sacramento maintenance yard. Near the end of 1869, Central Pacific had 162 locomotives, of which 2 had two drivers (drive wheels), 110 had four drivers, and 50 had six drivers. The steam locomotives had been purchased in the eastern states and shipped to California by sea. Thirty - six additional locomotives were built and coming west, and twenty - eight more were under construction. There was a shortage of passenger cars and more had to be ordered. The first Central Pacific sleeper, the "Silver Palace Sleeping Car '', arrived at Sacramento on June 8, 1868.
The CPRR route passed through Newcastle and Truckee in California, Reno, Wadsworth, Winnemucca, Battle Mountain, Elko and Wells in Nevada (with many more fuel and water stops), before connecting with the Union Pacific line at Promontory Summit in the Utah Territory. When the eastern end of the CPRR was extended to Ogden by purchasing the Union Pacific Railroad line from Promontory for about $2.8 million in 1870, it ended the short period of a boom town for Promontory, extended the Central Pacific tracks about 60 miles (97 km) and made Ogden a major terminus on the transcontinental railroad, as passengers and freight switched railroads there.
Subsequent to the railhead 's meeting at Promontory Summit, U.T., the San Joaquin River Bridge at Mossdale Crossing (near present - day Lathrop, California) was completed on September 8, 1869. As a result, the western part of the route was extended from Sacramento to the Alameda Terminal in Alameda, California, and shortly thereafter, to the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point in Oakland, California, and on to San Jose, California. Train ferries transferred some railroad cars to and from the Oakland wharves and tracks to wharves and tracks in San Francisco. Before the CPRR was completed, developers were building other feeder railroads like the Virginia and Truckee Railroad to the Comstock Lode diggings in Virginia City, Nevada, and several different extensions in California and Nevada to reach other cities there. Some of their main cargo was the thousands of cords of firewood needed for the many steam engines and pumps, cooking stoves, heating stoves etc. in Comstock Lode towns and the tons of ice needed by the miners as they worked ever deeper into the "hot '' Comstock Lode ore body. In the mines, temperatures could get above 120 ° F (49 ° C) at the work face and a miner often used over 100 pounds (45 kg) of ice per shift. This new railroad connected to the Central Pacific near Reno, and went through Carson City, the new capital of Nevada.
After the transcontinental railroads were completed, many other railroads were built to connect up to other population centers in Utah, Wyoming, Kansas, Colorado, Oregon, Washington territories, etc. In 1869, the Kansas Pacific Railway started building the Hannibal Bridge, a swing bridge across the Missouri River between Kansas City, Missouri and Kansas City, Kansas which connected railroads on both sides of the Missouri while still allowing passage of paddle steamers on the river. After completion, this became another major east - west railroad. To speed completion of the Kansas Pacific Railroad to Denver, construction started east from Denver in March 1870 to meet the railroad coming west from Kansas city. The two crews met at a point called Comanche Crossing, Kansas Territory, on August 15, 1870. Denver was now firmly on track to becoming the largest city and the future capital of Colorado. The Kansas Pacific Railroad linked with the Denver Pacific Railway via Denver to Cheyenne in 1870.
The original transcontinental railroad route did not pass through the two biggest cities in the so - called Great American Desert -- Denver, Colorado, and Salt Lake City, Utah. Feeder railroad lines were soon built to service these two and other cities and states along the route.
Modern - day Interstate 80 roughly follows the path of the railroad from Sacramento across modern day California, Nevada, Wyoming and Nebraska, with a few exceptions. Most significantly, the two routes are different between Wells, Nevada and Echo, Utah. In this area the freeway passes along the south shore of the Great Salt Lake and passes through Salt Lake City, cresting the Wasatch Mountains at Parley 's Summit. The railroad was originally routed along the north shore, and later with the Lucin Cutoff directly across the center of the Great Salt Lake, passing through the city of Ogden instead of Salt Lake City. The railroad crosses the Wasatch Mountains via a much gentler grade through Weber Canyon. Most of the other deviations are in mountainous areas where interstate highways allow for grades up to six - percent grades, which allows them to go many places the railroads had to go around, since their goal was to hold their grades to less than two percent.
Most of the capital investment needed to build the railroad was generated by selling government - guaranteed bonds (granted per mile of completed track) to interested investors. The Federal donation of right - of - way saved money and time as it did not have to be purchased from others. The financial incentives and bonds would hopefully cover most of the initial capital investment needed to build the railroad. The bonds would be paid back by the sale of government - granted land, as well as prospective passenger and freight income. Most of the engineers and surveyors who figured out how and where to build the railroad on the Union Pacific were engineering college trained. Many of Union Pacific engineers and surveyors were Union Army veterans (including two generals) who had learned their railroad trade keeping the trains running and tracks maintained during the U.S. Civil War. After securing the finances and selecting the engineering team, the next step was to hire the key personnel and prospective supervisors. Nearly all key workers and supervisors were hired because they had previous railroad on - the - job training, knew what needed to be done and how to direct workers to get it done. After the key personnel were hired, the semi-skilled jobs could be filled if there was available labor. The engineering team 's main job was to tell the workers where to go, what to do, how to do it, and provide the construction material they would need to get it done.
Survey teams were put out to produce detailed contour maps of the options on the different routes. The engineering team looked at the available surveys and chose what was the "best '' route. Survey teams under the direction of the engineers closely led the work crews and marked where and by how much hills would have to be cut and depressions filled or bridged. Coordinators made sure that construction and other supplies were provided when and where needed, and additional supplies were ordered as the railroad construction consumed the supplies. Specialized bridging, explosive and tunneling teams were assigned to their specialized jobs. Some jobs like explosive work, tunneling, bridging, heavy cuts or fills were known to take longer than others, so the specialized teams were sent out ahead by wagon trains with the supplies and men to get these jobs done by the time the regular track - laying crews arrived. Finance officers made sure the supplies were paid for and men paid for their work. An army of men had to be coordinated and a seemingly never - ending chain of supplies had to be provided. The Central Pacific road crew set a track - laying record by laying 10 mi (16 km) of track in a single day, commemorating the event with a signpost beside the track for passing trains to see.
In addition to the track - laying crews, other crews were busy setting up stations with provisions for loading fuel, water and often also mail, passengers and freight. Personnel had to be hired to run these stations. Maintenance depots had to be built to keep all of the equipment repaired and operational. Telegraph operators had to be hired to man each station to keep track of where the trains were so that trains could run in each direction on the available single track without interference or accidents. Sidings had to be built to allow trains to pass. Provision had to be made to store and continually pay for coal or wood needed to run the steam locomotives. Water towers had to be built for refilling the water tanks on the engines, and provision made to keep them full.
The majority of the Union Pacific track across the Nebraska and Wyoming territories was built by veterans of the Union and Confederate armies, as well as many recent immigrants. Brigham Young, President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, landed contracts with the Union Pacific that offered jobs for around 2,000 members of the church with the hope that the railroad would support commerce in Utah. Church members built most of the road through Utah. Construction superintendent Durant repeatedly failed to pay the wages agreed upon. The Union Pacific train carrying him to the final spike ceremony was held up by a strike by unpaid workers in Piedmont, Wyoming until he paid them for their work. Representatives of Brigham Young had less success, and failed in court to force him to honor the contract.
The manual labor to build the Central Pacific 's roadbed, bridges and tunnels was done primarily by many thousands of emigrant workers from China under the direction of skilled non-Chinese supervisors. The Chinese were commonly referred to at the time as "Celestials '' and China as the "Celestial Kingdom. '' Labor - saving devices in those days consisted primarily of wheelbarrows, horse or mule pulled carts, and a few railroad pulled gondolas. The construction work involved an immense amount of manual labor. Initially, Central Pacific had a hard time hiring and keeping unskilled workers on its line, as many would leave for the prospect of far more lucrative gold or silver mining options elsewhere. Despite the concerns expressed by Charles Crocker, one of the "big four '' and a general contractor, that the Chinese were too small in stature and lacking previous experience with railroad work, they decided to try them anyway. After the first few days of trial with a few workers, with noticeably positive results, Crocker decided to hire as many as he could, looking primarily at the California labor force, where the majority of Chinese worked as independent gold miners or in the service industries (e.g.: laundries and kitchens). Most of these Chinese workers were represented by a Chinese "boss '' who translated, collected salaries for his crew, kept discipline and relayed orders from an American general supervisor. Most Chinese workers spoke only rudimentary or no English, and the supervisors typically only learned rudimentary Chinese. Many more workers were imported from the Guangdong Province of China, which at the time, beside great poverty, suffered from the violence of the Taiping Rebellion. Most Chinese workers were planning on returning with their new found "wealth '' when the work was completed. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, the same as unskilled white workers; but the workers imported directly from China sometimes received less. A diligent worker could save over $20 per month after paying for food and lodging -- a "fortune '' by Chinese standards. A snapshot of workers in late 1865 showed about 3,000 Chinese and 1,700 white workers employed on the railroad. Nearly all of the white workers were in supervisory or skilled craft positions and made more money than the Chinese.
Most of the early work on the Central Pacific consisted of constructing the railroad track bed, cutting and / or blasting through or around hills, filling in washes, building bridges or trestles, digging and blasting tunnels and then laying the rails over the Sierra Nevada (U.S.) mountains. Once the Central Pacific was out of the Sierras and the Carson Range, progress sped up considerably as the railroad bed could be built over nearly flat ground. In those days, the Central Pacific once did a section of 10 miles (16 km) of track in one day as a "demonstration '' of what they could do on flat ground like most of the Union Pacific had in Wyoming and Nebraska.
The track laying was divided up into various parts. In advance of the track layers, surveyors consulting with engineers determined where the track would go. Workers then built and prepared the roadbed, dug or blasted through hills, filled in washes, built trestles, bridges or culverts across streams or valleys, made tunnels if needed, and laid the ties. The actual track - laying gang would then lay rails on the previously laid ties positioned on the roadbed, drive the spikes, and bolt the fishplate bars to each rail. At the same time, another gang would distribute telegraph poles and wire along the grade, while the cooks prepared dinner and the clerks busied themselves with accounts, records, using the telegraph line to relay requests for more materials and supplies or communicate with supervisors. Usually the workers lived in camps built near their work site. Supplies were ordered by the engineers and hauled by rail, possibly then to be loaded on wagons if they were needed ahead of the railhead. Camps were moved when the railhead moved a significant distance. Later, as the railroad started moving long distances every few days, some railroad cars had bunkhouses built in them that moved with the workers -- the Union Pacific had used this technique since 1866. Almost all of the roadbed work had to be done manually, using shovels, picks, axes, two - wheeled dump carts, wheelbarrows, ropes, scrapers, etc., with initially only black powder available for blasting. Carts pulled by mules, and horses were about the only labor saving devices available then. Lumber and ties were usually provided by independent contractors who cut, hauled and sawed the timber as required.
Tunnels were blasted through hard rock by drilling holes in the rock face by hand and filling them with black powder. Sometimes cracks were found which could be filled with powder and blasted loose. The loosened rock would be collected and hauled out of the tunnel for use in a fill area or as roadbed, or else dumped over the side as waste. A foot or so advance on a tunnel face was a typical day 's work. Some tunnels took almost a year to finish and the Summit Tunnel, the longest, took almost two years. In the final days of working in the Sierras, the recently invented nitroglycerin explosive was introduced and used on the last tunnels including Summit Tunnel.
Supply trains carried all the necessary material for the construction up to the railhead, with mule or horse - drawn wagons carrying it the rest of the ways if required. Ties were typically unloaded from horse - drawn or mule - drawn wagons and then placed on the track ballast and levelled to get ready for the rails. Rails, which weighed the most, were often kicked off the flatcars and carried by gangs of men on each side of the rail to where needed. The rails just in front of the rail car would be placed first, measured for the correct gauge with gauge sticks and then nailed down on the ties with spike mauls. The fishplates connecting the ends of the rails would be bolted on and then the car pushed by hand to the end of the rail and rail installation repeated.
Track ballast was put between the ties as they progressed. Where a proper railbed had already been prepared, the work progressed rapidly. Constantly needed supplies included "food, water, ties, rails, spikes, fishplates, nuts and bolts, track ballast, telegraph poles, wire, fire wood (or coal on the UP) and water for the steam train locomotives, etc. '' After a flatcar was unloaded, it would usually be hooked to a small locomotive and pulled back to a siding, so another flatcar with rails etc. could be advanced to the railhead. Since juggling railroad cars took time on flat ground, where wagon transport was easier, the rail cars would be brought to the end of the line by steam locomotive, unloaded, and the flat car returned immediately to a siding for another loaded car of either ballast or rails. Temporary sidings were often installed where it could be easily done to expedite getting needed supplies to the railhead.
The railroad tracks, spikes, telegraph wire, locomotives, railroad cars, supplies etc. were imported from the east on sailing ships that sailed the about 18,000 miles (29,000 km) and about 200 day trip around Cape Horn. Some freight was put on Clipper ships which could do the trip in about 120 days. Some passengers and high priority freight were shipped over the newly (1855) completed Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Using paddle steamers to and from Panama, this short cut could be done in as little as 40 days. Supplies were normally offloaded at the Sacramento, California docks where the railroad started.
On January 8, 1863, Governor Leland Stanford ceremoniously broke ground in Sacramento, California, to begin construction of the Central Pacific Railroad. After great initial progress along the Sacramento Valley, construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, then by cutting a railroad bed up the mountains themselves. As they progressed higher in the mountains, winter snowstorms and a shortage of reliable labor compounded the problems. Consequently, after a trial crew of Chinese workers was hired and found to work successfully, the Central Pacific expanded its efforts to hire more emigrant laborers -- mostly Chinese. Emigrants from poverty stricken regions of China, many of which suffered from the strife of the Taiping Rebellion, seemed to be more willing to tolerate the living and working conditions on the railroad construction, and progress on the railroad continued. The increasing necessity for tunneling as they proceeded up the mountains then began to slow progress of the line yet again.
The first step of construction was to survey the route and determine the locations where large excavations, tunnels and bridges would be needed. Crews could then start work in advance of the railroad reaching these locations. Supplies and workers were brought up to the work locations by wagon teams and work on several different sections proceeded simultaneously. One advantage of working on tunnels in winter was that tunnel work could often proceed since the work was nearly all "inside ''. Unfortunately, living quarters would have to be built outside and getting new supplies was difficult. Working and living in winter in the presence of snow slides and avalanches caused some deaths.
To carve a tunnel, one worker held a rock drill on the granite face while one to two other workers swung eighteen - pound sledgehammers to sequentially hit the drill which slowly advanced into the rock. Once the hole was about 10 inches (25 cm) deep, it would be filled with black powder, a fuse set and then ignited from a safe distance. Nitroglycerin, which had been invented less than two decades before the construction of the first transcontinental railroad, was used in relatively large quantities during its construction. This was especially true on the Central Pacific Railroad, which owned its own nitroglycerin plant to ensure it had a steady supply of the volatile explosive. This plant was operated by Chinese laborers as they were willing workers even under the most trying and dangerous of conditions.
However, Chinese laborers did far more than mix the volatile ingredients of nitroglycerin for the Central Pacific. Their hard work was also crucial in the construction of 15 tunnels along the railroad 's line through the Sierra Nevada mountains. These tunnels were about 32 feet (10 m) high and 16 feet (5 m) wide. When tunnels with vertical shafts were dug to increase construction speed, and tunneling began in the middle of the tunnel, at first hand - powered derricks were used to help remove loose rocks up the vertical shafts. These derricks were later replaced with steam hoists as work progressed. By using vertical shafts, four faces of the tunnel could be worked at the same time, two in the middle and one at each end. The average daily progress in some tunnels was only 0.85 feet (26 cm) a day per face, which was very slow, or 1.18 feet (36 cm) daily according to historian George Kraus. J.O. Wilder, a Central Pacific - Southern Pacific employee, commented that "The Chinese were as steady, hard - working a set of men as could be found. With the exception of a few whites at the west end of Tunnel No. 6, the laboring force was entirely composed of Chinamen with white foremen and a "boss / translator ''. A single foreman (often Irish) with a gang of 30 to 40 Chinese men generally constituted the force at work at each end of a tunnel; of these, 12 to 15 men worked on the heading, and the rest on the bottom, removing blasted material. When a gang was small or the men were needed elsewhere, the bottoms were worked with fewer men or stopped so as to keep the headings going. '' The laborers usually worked three shifts of 8 hours each per day, while the foremen worked in two shifts of 12 hours each, managing the laborers. Once out of the Sierras, construction was much easier and faster. Horace Hamilton Minkler, track foreman for the Central Pacific, laid the last rail and tie before the Last Spike was driven.
In order to keep the CPRR 's Sierra grade open during the winter months, beginning in 1867, 37 miles of massive wooden snow sheds and galleries were built between Blue Cañon and Truckee, covering cuts and other points where there was danger of avalanches. 2,500 men and six material trains were employed in this work, which was completed in 1869. The sheds were built with two sides and a steep peaked roof, mostly of locally cut hewn timber and round logs. Snow galleries had one side and a roof that sloped upward until it met the mountain side, thus permitting avalanches to slide over the galleries, some of which extended up the mountainside as much as two hundred feet (60 m). Masonry walls such as the "Chinese Walls '' at Donner Summit were built across canyons to prevent avalanches from striking the side of the vulnerable wooden construction. A few concrete sheds (mostly at crossovers) are still in use today.
The major investor in the Union Pacific was Thomas Clark Durant, who had made his stake money by smuggling Confederate cotton with the aid of Grenville M. Dodge. Durant chose routes that would favor places where he held land, and he announced connections to other lines at times that suited his share dealings. He paid an associate to submit the construction bid to another company he controlled, Crédit Mobilier, manipulating the finances and government subsidies and making himself another fortune. Durant hired Dodge as chief engineer and Jack Casement as construction boss.
In the East, the progress started in Omaha, Nebraska, by the Union Pacific Railroad which initially proceeded very quickly because of the open terrain of the Great Plains. This changed, however, as the work entered Indian - held lands. The Native Americans saw the railroad as a violation of their treaties with the United States. War parties began to raid the moving labor camps that followed the progress of the line. Union Pacific responded by increasing security and hiring marksmen to kill American Bison, which were both a physical threat to trains and the primary food source for many of the Plains Indians. The Native Americans then began killing laborers when they realized that the so - called "Iron Horse '' threatened their existence. Security measures were further strengthened, and progress on the railroad continued.
Six years after the groundbreaking, laborers of the Central Pacific Railroad from the west and the Union Pacific Railroad from the east met at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. It was here on May 10, 1869, that Leland Stanford drove The Last Spike (or golden spike) that joined the rails of the transcontinental railroad. The spike is now on display at the Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University, while a second "Last '' Golden Spike is also on display at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento. In perhaps the world 's first live mass - media event, the hammers and spike were wired to the telegraph line so that each hammer stroke would be heard as a click at telegraph stations nationwide -- the hammer strokes were missed, so the clicks were sent by the telegraph operator. As soon as the ceremonial "Last Spike '' had been replaced by an ordinary iron spike, a message was transmitted to both the East Coast and West Coast that simply read, "DONE. '' Travel from coast to coast was reduced from six months or more to just one week.
When the last spike was driven, the rail network was not yet connected to the Atlantic or Pacific but merely connected Omaha to Sacramento. To get from Sacramento to the Pacific, the Central Pacific purchased the struggling Western Pacific Railroad (unrelated to the railroad of the same name that would later parallel its route) and resumed construction on it, which had halted in 1866 due to funding troubles. In November 1869, the Central Pacific finally connected Sacramento to the east side of San Francisco Bay by rail at Oakland, California, where freight and passengers completed their transcontinental link to the city by ferry.
The original route from the Central Valley to the Bay skirted the Delta by heading south out of Sacramento through Stockton and crossing the San Joaquin River at Mossdale, then climbed over the Altamont Pass and reached the East Bay through Niles Canyon. The Western Pacific was originally chartered to go to San Jose, but the Central Pacific decided to build along the East Bay instead, as going from San Jose up the Peninsula to San Francisco itself would have brought it into conflict with competing interests. The railroad entered Alameda and Oakland from the south, roughly paralleling what would later become U.S. Route 50 and later still Interstates 5, 205, and 580. A more direct route was obtained with the purchase of the California Pacific Railroad, crossing the Sacramento River and proceeding southwest through Davis to Benicia, where it crossed the Carquinez Strait by means of an enormous train ferry, then followed the shores of the San Pablo and San Francisco bays to Richmond and the Port of Oakland (paralleling U.S. Route 40 which ultimately became Interstate 80). In 1930, a rail bridge across the Carquinez replaced the Benicia ferries.
Very early on, the Central Pacific learned that it would have trouble maintaining an open track in winter across the Sierras. At first they tried plowing the road with special snowplows mounted on their steam engines. When this was only partially successful, an extensive process of building snow sheds over some of the track was instituted to protect it from deep snows and avalanches. These eventually succeeded at keeping the tracks clear for all but a few days of the year.
Both railroads soon instituted extensive upgrade projects to build better bridges, viaducts and dugways as well as install heavier duty rails, stronger ties, better road beds etc. The original track had often been laid as fast as possible with only secondary attention to maintenance and durability. The primary incentive had been getting the subsidies, which meant that upgrades of all kinds were routinely required in the following years.
The Union Pacific would not connect Omaha to Council Bluffs until completing the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge in 1872.
Several years after the end of the Civil War, the competing railroads coming from Missouri finally realized their initial strategic advantage and a building boom ensued. In July 1869, the H&SJ finished the Hannibal Bridge in Kansas City which was the first bridge to cross the Missouri River. This in turn connected to Kansas Pacific trains going from Kansas City to Denver, which in turn had built the Denver Pacific Railway connecting to the Union Pacific. In August 1870, the Kansas Pacific drove the last spike connecting to the Denver Pacific line at Strasburg, Colorado and the first true Atlantic to Pacific United States railroad was completed.
Kansas City 's head start in connecting to a true transcontinental railroad contributed to it rather than Omaha becoming the dominant rail center west of Chicago.
The Kansas Pacific became part of the Union Pacific in 1880.
On June 4, 1876, an express train called the Transcontinental Express arrived in San Francisco via the First Transcontinental Railroad only 83 hours and 39 minutes after it had left New York City. Only ten years before, the same journey would have taken months over land or weeks on ship, possibly all the way around South America.
The Central Pacific got a direct route to San Francisco when it was merged with the Southern Pacific Railroad to create the Southern Pacific Company in 1885. The Union Pacific initially took over the Southern Pacific in 1901 but was forced by the U.S. Supreme Court to divest it because of monopoly concerns. The two railroads would once again unite in 1996 when the Southern Pacific was sold to the Union Pacific.
Having been bypassed with the completion of the Lucin Cutoff in 1904, the Promontory Summit rails were pulled up in 1942 to be recycled for the World War II effort. This process began with a ceremonial "undriving '' at the Last Spike location. In 1957, Congress authorized the Golden Spike National Historic Site. On May 10, 2006, on the anniversary of the driving of the spike, Utah announced that its state quarter design would be a representation of the driving of the Last (Golden) Spike.
Despite the transcontinental success and millions in government subsidies, the Union Pacific faced bankruptcy less than three years after the Last Spike as details surfaced about overcharges that Crédit Mobilier had billed Union Pacific for the formal building of the railroad. The scandal hit epic proportions in the United States presidential election, 1872, which saw the re-election of Ulysses S. Grant and became the biggest scandal of the Gilded Age. It would not be resolved until the death of the congressman who was supposed to have reined in its excesses but instead wound up profiting from it.
Durant had initially come up with the scheme to have Crédit Mobilier subcontract to do the actual track work. Durant gained control of the company after buying out employee Herbert Hoxie for $10,000. Under Durant 's guidance, Crédit Mobilier was charging Union Pacific often twice or more the customary cost for track work (thus in effect paying himself to build the railroad). The process mired down Union Pacific work.
Lincoln asked Massachusetts Congressman Oakes Ames, who was on the railroad committee, to clean things up and get the railroad moving. Ames got his brother Oliver Ames Jr. named president of the Union Pacific, while he himself became president of Crédit Mobilier.
Ames then in turn gave stock options to other politicians while at the same time continuing the lucrative overcharges. The scandal was to implicate Vice President Schuyler Colfax (who was cleared) and future President James Garfield among others.
The scandal broke in 1872 when the New York Sun published correspondence detailing the scheme between Henry S. McComb and Ames. In the ensuing Congressional investigation, it was recommended that Ames be expelled from Congress, but this was reduced to a censure and Ames died within three months.
Durant later left the Union Pacific and a new rail baron Jay Gould became the dominant stockholder. As a result of the Panic of 1873, Gould was able to pick up bargains, among them the control of the Union Pacific Railroad and Western Union.
Visible remains of the historic line are still easily located -- hundreds of miles are still in service today, especially through the Sierra Nevada Mountains and canyons in Utah and Wyoming. While the original rail has long since been replaced because of age and wear, and the roadbed upgraded and repaired, the lines generally run on top of the original, handmade grade. Vista points on Interstate 80 through California 's Truckee Canyon provide a panoramic view of many miles of the original Central Pacific line and of the snow sheds which made winter train travel safe and practical.
In areas where the original line has been bypassed and abandoned, primarily in Utah, the road grade is still obvious, as are numerous cuts and fills, especially the Big Fill a few miles east of Promontory. The sweeping curve which connected to the east end of the Big Fill now passes a Thiokol rocket research and development facility.
The Last Spike site is preserved as a National Historical Site, with replica engines of Union Pacific No. 119 and Central Pacific Jupiter having been built by O'Connor Engineering Laboratories. The engines are fired up periodically by the National Park Service for the public.
Amtrak 's California Zephyr, a daily passenger service from Emeryville, California (San Francisco Bay Area) to Chicago, uses the First Transcontinental Railroad from Sacramento to central Nevada. Because this rail line currently operates in a directional running setup across most of Nevada, the California Zephyr will switch to the Central Corridor at either Winnemucca or Wells.
The joining of the Union Pacific line with the Central Pacific line in May 1869 at Promontory Summit, Utah, was one of the major inspirations for French writer Jules Verne 's book entitled Around the World in Eighty Days, published in 1873.
While not exactly accurate, John Ford 's 1924 silent movie The Iron Horse captures the fervent nationalism that drove public support for the project. Among the cooks serving the film 's cast and crew between shots were some of the Chinese laborers who worked on the Central Pacific section of the railroad.
The feat is depicted in various movies, including the 1939 film Union Pacific, starring Joel McCrea and Barbara Stanwyck and directed by Cecil B. DeMille, which depicts the fictional Central Pacific investor Asa Barrows obstructing attempts of the Union Pacific to reach Ogden, Utah.
The 1939 movie is said to have inspired the Union Pacific Western television series starring Jeff Morrow, Judson Pratt and Susan Cummings which aired in syndication from 1958 until 1959.
The 1962 film How the West Was Won has a whole segment devoted to the construction; one of the movie 's most famous scenes, filmed in Cinerama, is of a buffalo stampede over the railroad.
The construction of what presumably is -- or is suggested to be -- the Transcontinental Railroad provides the backdrop of the 1968 epic spaghetti western Once Upon a Time in the West, directed by Italian director Sergio Leone.
Kristiana Gregory 's book The Great Railroad Race (part of the "Dear America '' series) is written as the fictional diary of Libby West, who chronicles the end of the railroad construction and the excitement which engulfed the country at the time.
Graham Masterton 's 1981 novel A Man of Destiny (published in the UK as Railroad) is a fictionalized account of the line 's construction.
In the 1999 Will Smith film, Wild Wild West, the joining ceremony is the setting of an assassination attempt on then U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant by the film 's antagonist Dr. Arliss Loveless.
The building of the railway is covered by the 2004 BBC documentary series Seven Wonders of the Industrial World in episode 6, "The Line ''.
The series American Experience also documents the railway in the episode titled "Transcontinental Railroad ''.
The main character in The Claim (2000) is a surveyor for the Central Pacific Railroad, and the film is partially about the efforts of a frontier mayor to have the railroad routed through his town.
The popular British television show Doctor Who featured the Transcontinental Railroad in a BBC audio book entitled The Runaway Train, read by Matt Smith and written for audio by Oli Smith.
The children 's book Ten Mile Day by Mary Ann Fraser tells the story of the record setting push by the Central Pacific in which they set a record by laying 10 miles (16 km) of track in a single day on April 28, 1869, to settle a $10,000 bet.
The construction of the Transcontinental Railroad provides the setting for the AMC television series Hell on Wheels. Thomas Durant is a regular character in the series and is portrayed by actor Colm Meaney.
In 2015, a Lego model depicting the Golden Spike Ceremony, the event that symbolically marked the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad, was submitted to the Lego Ideas website.
In the 2002 DreamWorks Animation movie, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, the main character, the horse Spirit, is delivered with other horses to pull a steam locomotive at a work site for the Transcontinental Railroad.
For maps and railroad pictures of this era shortly after the advent of photography see:
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where did the ancient israelite god yhwh live | Yahweh - wikipedia
Yahweh (/ ˈjɑːhweɪ /, or often / ˈjɑːweɪ / in English; Hebrew: יַהְוֶה (jahˈweh)) was the national god of the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel (Samaria) and Judah. His exact origins are disputed, although they reach back to the early Iron Age and even the Late Bronze: his name may have begun as an epithet of El, head of the Bronze Age Canaanite pantheon, but the earliest plausible mentions are in Egyptian texts that place him among the nomads of the southern Transjordan.
In the oldest biblical literature, Yahweh is a typical ancient Near Eastern "divine warrior '', who leads the heavenly army against Israel 's enemies; he later became the main god of the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and of Judah, and over time the royal court and temple promoted Yahweh as the god of the entire cosmos, possessing all the positive qualities previously attributed to the other gods and goddesses. By the end of the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), the very existence of foreign gods was denied, and Yahweh was proclaimed as the creator of the cosmos and the true god of all the world.
There is almost no agreement on the origins and meaning of Yahweh 's name; it is not attested other than among the Israelites, and seems not to have any reasonable etymology. (Ehyeh ašer ehyeh, or "I Am that I Am '', the explanation presented in Exodus 3: 14, appears to be a late theological gloss invented to explain Yahweh 's name at a time when the meaning had been lost.)
The Israelites were originally Canaanites, but Yahweh does not appear to have been a Canaanite god. The head of the Canaanite pantheon was El, and one theory holds that the word Yahweh is based on the Hebrew root HYH / HWH, meaning "cause to exist, '' as a shortened form of the phrase el dū yahwī ṣaba'ôt, (Phoenician: 𐤏𐤋 𐤃𐤅 𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄 𐤑𐤁𐤀𐤅𐤕) "El who creates the hosts '', meaning the heavenly host accompanying El as he marched beside the earthly armies of Israel. The argument has numerous weaknesses, including, inter alia, the dissimilar characters of the two gods, and the fact that el dū yahwī ṣaba'ôt is nowhere attested either inside or outside the Bible.
The oldest plausible recorded occurrence of Yahweh is as a place - name, "land of Shasu of YHW '', in an Egyptian inscription from the time of Amenhotep III (1402 -- 1363 BCE), the Shasu being nomads from Midian and Edom in northern Arabia. In this case a plausible etymology for the name could be from the root HWY, which would yield the meaning "he blows '', appropriate to a weather divinity. There is considerable but not universal support for this view, but it raises the question of how he made his way to the north. The widely accepted Kenite hypothesis holds that traders brought Yahweh to Israel along the caravan routes between Egypt and Canaan. The strength of the Kenite hypothesis is that it ties together various points of data, such as the absence of Yahweh from Canaan, his links with Edom and Midian in the biblical stories, and the Kenite or Midianite ties of Moses. However, while it is entirely plausible that the Kenites and others may have introduced Yahweh to Israel, it is unlikely that they did so outside the borders of Israel or under the aegis of Moses, as the Exodus story has it.
Israel emerges into the historical record in the last decades of the 13th century BCE, at the very end of the Late Bronze Age when the Canaanite city - state system was ending. The milieu from which Israelite religion emerged was accordingly Canaanite. El, "the kind, the compassionate, '' "the creator of creatures, '' was the chief of the Canaanite gods, and he, not Yahweh, was the original "God of Israel '' -- the word "Israel '' is based on the name El rather than Yahweh. He lived in a tent on a mountain from whose base originated all the fresh waters of the world, with the goddess Asherah as his consort. This pair made up the top tier of the Canaanite pantheon; the second tier was made up of their children, the "seventy sons of Athirat '' (a variant of the name Asherah). Prominent in this group was Baal, who had his home on Mount Zaphon; over time Baal became the dominant Canaanite deity, so that El became the executive power and Baal the military power in the cosmos. Baal 's sphere was the thunderstorm with its life - giving rains, so that he was also a fertility god, although not quite the fertility god. Below the seventy second - tier gods was a third tier made up of comparatively minor craftsman and trader deities, with a fourth and final tier of divine messengers and the like. El and his sons made up the Assembly of the Gods, each member of which had a human nation under his care, and a textual variant of Deuteronomy 32: 8 -- 9 describes El dividing the nations of the world among his sons, with Yahweh receiving Israel:
When the Most High (' elyôn) gave to the nations their inheritance, when he separated humanity, he fixed the boundaries of the peoples according to the number of divine beings. For Yahweh 's portion is his people, Jacob his allotted heritage.
The Israelites initially worshipped Yahweh alongside a variety of Canaanite gods and goddesses, including El, Asherah and Baal. In the period of the Judges and the first half of the monarchy, El and Yahweh became conflated in a process of religious syncretism. As a result, ' el (Hebrew: אל ) became a generic term meaning "god '', as opposed to the name of a worshipped deity, and epithets such as El Shaddai came to be applied to Yahweh alone, diminishing the worship of El and strengthening the position of Yahweh. Features of Baal, El and Asherah were absorbed into the Yahweh religion, Asherah possibly becoming embodied in the feminine aspects of the Shekinah or divine presence, and Baal 's nature as a storm and weather god becoming assimilated into Yahweh 's own identification with the storm. In the next stage the Yahweh religion separated itself from its Canaanite heritage, first by rejecting Baal - worship in the 9th century, then through the 8th to 6th centuries with prophetic condemnation of Baal, the asherim, sun - worship, worship on the "high places '', practices pertaining to the dead, and other matters.
In the earliest literature such as the Song of the Sea (Exodus 15: 1 -- 18, celebrating Yahweh 's victory over Egypt at the exodus), Yahweh is a warrior for his people, a storm - god typical of ancient Near Eastern myths, marching out from a region to the south or south - east of Israel with the heavenly host of stars and planets that make up his army. Israel 's battles are Yahweh 's battles, Israel 's victories are his victories, and while other peoples have other gods, Israel 's god is Yahweh, who will procure a fertile resting - place for them:
There is none like God, O Jeshurun (i.e., Israel) who rides through the heavens to your help... he subdues the ancient gods, shatters the forces of old... so Israel lives in safety, untroubled is Jacob 's abode... Your enemies shall come fawning to you, and you shall tread on their backs. (Deuteronomy 33: 26 -- 29)
Iron Age Yahweh was the national god of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and appears to have been worshipped only in these two kingdoms; this was unusual in the Ancient Near East but not unknown -- the god Ashur, for example, was worshiped only by the Assyrians.
After the 9th century BCE the tribes and chiefdoms of Iron Age I were replaced by ethnic nation states, Israel, Judah, Moab, Ammon and others, each with its national god, and all more or less equal. Thus Chemosh was the god of the Moabites, Milcom the god of the Ammonites, Qaus the god of the Edomites, and Yahweh the "God of Israel '' (no "God of Judah '' is mentioned anywhere in the Bible). In each kingdom the king was also the head of the national religion and thus the viceroy on Earth of the national god; in Jerusalem this was reflected each year when the king presided over a ceremony at which Yahweh was enthroned in the Temple.
The centre of Yahweh 's worship lay in three great annual festivals coinciding with major events in rural life: Passover with the birthing of lambs, Shavuot with the cereal harvest, and Sukkot with the fruit harvest. These probably pre-dated the arrival of the Yahweh religion, but they became linked to events in the national mythos of Israel: Passover with the exodus from Egypt, Shavuot with the law - giving at Sinai, and Sukkot with the wilderness wanderings. The festivals thus celebrated Yahweh 's salvation of Israel and Israel 's status as his holy people, although the earlier agricultural meaning was not entirely lost. His worship presumably involved sacrifice, but many scholars have concluded that the rituals detailed in Leviticus 1 -- 16, with their stress on purity and atonement, were introduced only after the Babylonian exile, and that in reality any head of a family was able to offer sacrifice as occasion demanded. (A number of scholars have also drawn the conclusion that infant sacrifice, whether to the underworld deity Molech or to Yahweh himself, was a part of Israelite / Judahite religion until the reforms of King Josiah in the late 7th century BCE). Sacrifice was presumably complemented by the singing or recital of psalms, but again the details are scant. Prayer played little role in official worship.
The Hebrew Bible gives the impression that the Jerusalem temple was always meant to be the central or even sole temple of Yahweh, but this was not the case: the earliest known Israelite place of worship is a 12th - century open - air altar in the hills of Samaria featuring a bronze bull reminiscent of Canaanite "Bull - El '' (El in the form of a bull), and the archaeological remains of further temples have been found at Dan on Israel 's northern border and at Arad in the Negev and Beersheba, both in the territory of Judah. Shiloh, Bethel, Gilgal, Mizpah, Ramah and Dan were also major sites for festivals, sacrifices, the making of vows, private rituals, and the adjudication of legal disputes.
Yahweh - worship was famously aniconic, meaning that the god was not depicted by a statue or other image. This is not to say that he was not represented in some symbolic form, and early Israelite worship probably focused on standing stones, but according to the Biblical texts the temple in Jerusalem featured Yahweh 's throne in the form of two cherubim, their inner wings forming the seat and a box (the Ark of the Covenant) as a footstool, while the throne itself was empty. No satisfactory explanation of Israelite aniconism has been advanced, and a number of recent scholars have argued that Yahweh was in fact represented prior to the reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah late in the monarchic period: to quote one recent study, "(a) n early aniconism, de facto or otherwise, is purely a projection of the post-exilic imagination '' (MacDonald, 2007).
Pre-exilic Israel, like its neighbours, was polytheistic, and Israelite monotheism was the result of unique historical circumstances. The original god of Israel was El, as the name demonstrates -- its probable meaning is "may El rule '' or some other sentence - form involving the name of El. In the early tribal period, each tribe would have had its own patron god; when kingship emerged, the state promoted Yahweh as the national god of Israel, supreme over the other gods, and gradually Yahweh absorbed all the positive traits of the other gods and goddesses. Yahweh and El merged at religious centres such as Shechem, Shiloh and Jerusalem, with El 's name becoming a generic term for "god '' and Yahweh, the national god, appropriating many of the older supreme god 's titles such as El Shaddai (Almighty) and Elyon (Most High).
Asherah, formerly the wife of El, was worshipped as Yahweh 's consort or mother; potsherds discovered at Khirbet el - Kôm and Kuntillet Ajrûd make reference to "Yahweh and his Asherah '', and various biblical passages indicate that her statues were kept in his temples in Jerusalem, Bethel, and Samaria. Yahweh may also have appropriated Anat, the wife of Baal, as his consort, as Anat - Yahu ("Anat of Yahu, '' i.e., Yahweh) is mentioned in 5th century BCE records from the Jewish colony at Elephantine in Egypt. A goddess called the Queen of Heaven was also worshipped, probably a fusion of Astarte and the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar, possibly a title of Asherah. Worship of Baal and Yahweh coexisted in the early period of Israel 's history, but they were considered irreconcilable after the 9th century BCE, following the efforts of King Ahab and his queen Jezebel to elevate Baal to the status of national god, although the cult of Baal did continue for some time.
The worship of Yahweh alone began at the earliest with Elijah in the 9th century BCE, but more likely with the prophet Hosea in the 8th; even then it remained the concern of a small party before gaining ascendancy in the exilic and early post-exilic period. The early supporters of this faction are widely regarded as being monolatrists rather than true monotheists; they did not believe that Yahweh was the only god in existence, but instead believed that he was the only god the people of Israel should worship. Finally, in the national crisis of the exile, the followers of Yahweh went a step further and outright denied that the other deities aside from Yahweh even existed, thus marking the transition from monolatrism to true monotheism.
In 539 BCE Babylon itself fell to the Persian conqueror Cyrus, and in 538 BCE the exiles were permitted to return to Yehud medinata, as the Persian province of Judah was known. The Temple is commonly said to have been rebuilt in the period 520 -- 515 BCE, but it seems probable that this is an artificial date chosen so that 70 years could be said to have passed between the destruction and the rebuilding, fulfilling a prophecy of Jeremiah.
In recent decades, it has become increasingly common among scholars to assume that much of the Hebrew bible was assembled, revised and edited in the 5th century BCE to reflect the realities and challenges of the Persian era. The returnees had a particular interest in the history of Israel: the written Torah (the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy), for example, may have existed in various forms during the Monarchy (the period of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah), but it was in the Second Temple that it was edited and revised into something like its current form, and the Chronicles, a new history written at this time, reflects the concerns of the Persian Yehud in its almost - exclusive focus on Judah and the Temple.
Prophetic works were also of particular interest to the Persian - era authors, with some works being composed at this time (the last ten chapters of Isaiah and the books of Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and perhaps Joel) and the older prophets edited and reinterpreted. The corpus of Wisdom books saw the composition of Job, parts of Proverbs, and possibly Ecclesiastes, while the book of Psalms was possibly given its modern shape and division into five parts at this time (although the collection continued to be revised and expanded well into Hellenistic and even Roman times).
Second Temple Judaism was centered not on synagogues, which began to appear only in the 3rd century BCE, and the reading and study of scripture, but on the Temple itself, and on a cycle of continual blood sacrifice (meaning the sacrifice of live animals). Torah, or ritual law, was also important, and the Temple priests were responsible for teaching it, but the concept of scripture developed only slowly. While the written Torah (the Pentateuch) and the Prophets were accepted as authoritative by the 1st century CE, beyond this core the different Jewish groups continued to accept different groups of books as authoritative.
During the Second Temple period, speaking the name of Yahweh in public became regarded as taboo. When reading from the scriptures, Jews began to substitute the divine name with the word adonai (אֲדֹנָי ), meaning "Lord ''. The High Priest was permitted to speak the name once in the Temple during the Day of Atonement, but at no other time and in no other place. During the Hellenistic period, the scriptures were translated into Greek by the Jews of the Egyptian diaspora. Greek translations of the Hebrew scriptures render both the tetragrammaton and adonai as kyrios (κύριος), meaning "the Lord ''. After the Temple was destroyed in 70 CE, the original pronunciation of the tetragrammaton was forgotten.
The period of Persian rule saw the development of expectation in a future human king who would rule purified Israel as Yahweh 's representative at the end of time -- that is, a messiah. The first to mention this were Haggai and Zechariah, both prophets of the early Persian period. They saw the messiah in Zerubbabel, a descendant of the House of David who seemed, briefly, to be about to re-establish the ancient royal line, or in Zerubbabel and the first High Priest, Joshua (Zechariah writes of two messiahs, one royal and the other priestly). These early hopes were dashed (Zerubabbel disappeared from the historical record, although the High Priests continued to be descended from Joshua), and thereafter there are merely general references to a Messiah of (meaning descended from) David. From these ideas, Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam would later emerge.
Yahweh is frequently invoked in Graeco - Roman magical texts dating from the second century BCE to the fifth century CE, most notably in the Greek Magical Papyri, under the names Iao, Adonai, Sabaoth, and Eloai. In these texts, he is often mentioned alongside traditional Graeco - Roman deities and also Egyptian deities. The archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Ouriel and Jewish cultural heroes such as Abraham, Jacob, and Moses are also invoked frequently as well. The frequent occurrence of Yahweh 's name is probably due to Greek and Roman folk magicians seeking to make their spells more powerful through the invocation of a prestigious foreign deity. In his Quaestiones Convivales, the Greek writer Plutarch of Chaeronea writes that Yahweh was equivalent to the Greek god Dionysus.
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who promised the new deal program during his campaign for the presidency | New Deal - wikipedia
The New Deal was a series of federal programs, public works projects, and financial reforms and regulations enacted in the United States during the 1930s in response to the Great Depression. These programs included support for farmers, the unemployed, youth, and the elderly, as well as new constraints and safeguards on the banking industry and changes to the monetary system.
Most programs were enacted at different stages between 1933 -- 38, though some later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders, most during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs focused on what historians refer to as the "3 Rs '', Relief, Recovery, and Reform: relief for the unemployed and poor, recovery of the economy to normal levels, and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression.
The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority (as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of nine Presidential terms from 1933 to 1969), with its base in liberal ideas, the South, traditional Democrats, big city machines, and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities. The Republicans were split, with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as an alleged enemy of business and growth, and liberals accepting some of it and promising to make it more efficient.
The realignment crystallized into the New Deal Coalition that dominated most presidential elections into the 1960s, while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress from 1939 to 1964. By 1936 the term "liberal '' typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, and "conservative '' for its opponents. From 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a "pro-spender '' majority in Congress (drawn from two - party, competitive, non-machine, Progressive, and Left party districts). In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his liberal supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition.
Many historians distinguish between a "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 34) and a "Second New Deal '' (1935 -- 38), with the second one more liberal and more controversial. The "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 34) dealt with the pressing banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act and the 1933 Banking Act. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration provided $500 million ($9.25 billion today) for relief operations by states and cities, while the short - lived Civil Works Administration (CWA) gave localities money to operate make - work projects in 1933 -- 34. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash. The controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal.
The "Second New Deal '' in 1935 -- 38 included the Wagner Act to protect labor organizing, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation), the Social Security Act, and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and Farm Security Administration (FSA), both in 1937, and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers. The FSA was also one of the oversight authorities of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration which administered relief efforts to Puerto Rican citizens affected by the Great Depression.
The economic downturn of 1937 -- 38, and the bitter split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition. By 1942 -- 43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944.
The Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration (NRA) and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 61) left the New Deal largely intact, even expanding it in some areas. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support. The New Deal regulation of banking (Glass -- Steagall Act) was suspended in the 1990s.
Many New Deal programs remain active, with some still operating under the original names, including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
The phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. although the term was originally used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court.
From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third. Prices fell by 20 %, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U.S. increased from 4 % to 25 %. Additionally, one - third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part - time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50 % of the nation 's human work - power was going unused.
Before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks. When thousands of banks closed, depositors lost their savings. At that time there was no national safety net, no public unemployment insurance, and no Social Security. Relief for the poor was the responsibility of families, private charity, and local governments, but as conditions worsened year by year, demand skyrocketed and their combined resources increasingly fell far short of demand.
The depression had devastated the nation. As Roosevelt took the oath of office at noon on March 4, 1933, all state governors had authorized bank holidays or restricted withdrawals; many Americans had little or no access to their bank accounts. The unemployment rate was about 25 % and higher in major industrial and mining centers. Farm income had fallen by over 50 % since 1929. 844,000 nonfarm mortgages had been foreclosed, 1930 -- 33, out of five million in all. Political and business leaders feared revolution and anarchy. Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., who remained wealthy during the Depression, stated years later that "in those days I felt and said I would be willing to part with half of what I had if I could be sure of keeping, under law and order, the other half ''.
Upon accepting the 1932 Democratic nomination for president, Franklin Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people ''.
Roosevelt entered office without a specific set of plans for dealing with the Great Depression; so he improvised as Congress listened to a very wide variety of voices. Among Roosevelt 's more famous advisers was an informal "Brain Trust '': a group that tended to view pragmatic government intervention in the economy positively. His choice for Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, greatly influenced his initiatives. Her list of what her priorities would be if she took the job illustrates: "a forty - hour workweek, a minimum wage, worker 's compensation, unemployment compensation, a federal law banning child labor, direct federal aid for unemployment relief, Social Security, a revitalized public employment service and health insurance. ''
The New Deal policies drew from many different ideas proposed earlier in the 20th century. Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold led efforts that hearkened back to an anti-monopoly tradition rooted in American politics by figures such as Andrew Jackson and Thomas Jefferson. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, an influential adviser to many New Dealers, argued that "bigness '' (referring, presumably, to corporations) was a negative economic force, producing waste and inefficiency. However, the anti-monopoly group never had a major impact on New Deal policy.
Other leaders such as Hugh S. Johnson of the NRA took ideas from the Woodrow Wilson Administration, advocating techniques used to mobilize the economy for World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917 -- 18. Other New Deal planners revived experiments suggested in the 1920s, such as the TVA.
The "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 34) encompassed the proposals offered by a wide spectrum of groups. (Not included was the Socialist Party, whose influence was all but destroyed.) This first phase of the New Deal was also characterized by fiscal conservatism (see Economy Act, below) and experimentation with several different, sometimes contradictory, cures for economic ills.
The consequences were uneven. Some programs, especially the National Recovery Administration (NRA) and the silver program, have been widely seen as failures. Other programs lasted about a decade; some became permanent. The economy shot upward, with Roosevelt 's first term marking one of the fastest periods of GDP growth in history, though there was a short downturn in 1937 -- 38.
The New Deal faced some vocal conservative opposition. The first organized opposition in 1934 came from the American Liberty League led by conservative Democrats such as 1924 and 1928 presidential candidates John W. Davis and Al Smith. There was also a large but loosely affiliated group of New Deal opponents, who are commonly called the Old Right. This group included politicians, intellectuals, writers, and newspaper editors of various philosophical persuasions including classical liberals and conservatives, both Democrats and Republicans.
A number of leading Democrats, who were progressives of the Woodrow Wilson era, were also critical of Roosevelt 's New Deal policies. According to James T. Patterson, these leaders "were essentially progressives of the New Freedom vintage. They continued to believe that their party stood for Wilsonian ideals: regulated competition, states ' rights, and individual freedom where it did not impinge upon the liberty of others, '' and saw themselves as "the true progressives and as the bulwarks of a party which they felt would have collapsed without them in the 1920 's. ''
The New Deal represented a significant shift in politics and domestic policy. It especially led to greatly increased federal regulation of the economy. It also marked the beginning of complex social programs and growing power of labor unions. The effects of the New Deal remain a source of controversy and debate among economists and historians.
There were dozens of new agencies created by Roosevelt through Executive Orders. They are typically known by their alphabetical initials.
The American people were generally extremely dissatisfied with the crumbling economy, mass unemployment, declining wages and profits and especially Hoover 's policies such as the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act and the Revenue Act of 1932. Roosevelt entered office with enormous political capital. Americans of all political persuasions were demanding immediate action, and Roosevelt responded with a remarkable series of new programs in the "first hundred days '' of the administration, in which he met with Congress for 100 days. During those 100 days of lawmaking, Congress granted every request Roosevelt asked, and passed a few programs (such as the FDIC to insure bank accounts) that he opposed. Ever since, presidents have been judged against Franklin D. Roosevelt for what they accomplished in their first 100 days. Walter Lippmann famously noted:
At the end of February we were a congeries of disorderly panic - stricken mobs and factions. In the hundred days from March to June we became again an organized nation confident of our power to provide for our own security and to control our own destiny.
The economy had hit bottom in March 1933 and then started to expand. Economic indicators show the economy reached nadir in the first days of March, then began a steady, sharp upward recovery. Thus the Federal Reserve Index of Industrial Production sank to its lowest point of 52.8 in July 1932 (with 1935 -- 39 = 100) and was practically unchanged at 54.3 in March 1933; however by July 1933, it reached 85.5, a dramatic rebound of 57 % in four months. Recovery was steady and strong until 1937. Except for employment, the economy by 1937 surpassed the levels of the late 1920s. The Recession of 1937 was a temporary downturn. Private sector employment, especially in manufacturing, recovered to the level of the 1920s but failed to advance further until the war. The U.S. population was 124,840,471 in 1932 and 128,824,829 in 1937, an increase of 3,984,468. The ratio of these numbers, times the number of jobs in 1932, means there was a need for 938,000 more 1937 jobs to maintain the same employment level.
The Economy Act, drafted by Budget Director Lewis Williams Douglas, was passed on March 14, 1933. The act proposed to balance the "regular '' (non-emergency) federal budget by cutting the salaries of government employees and cutting pensions to veterans by fifteen percent. It saved $500 million per year and reassured deficit hawks, such as Douglas, that the new President was fiscally conservative. Roosevelt argued there were two budgets: the "regular '' federal budget, which he balanced, and the emergency budget, which was needed to defeat the depression. It was imbalanced on a temporary basis.
Roosevelt initially favored balancing the budget, but soon found himself running spending deficits to fund his numerous programs. Douglas, however -- rejecting the distinction between a regular and emergency budget -- resigned in 1934 and became an outspoken critic of the New Deal. Roosevelt strenuously opposed the Bonus Bill that would give World War I veterans a cash bonus. Congress finally passed it over his veto in 1936, and the Treasury distributed $1.5 billion in cash as bonus welfare benefits to 4 million veterans just before the 1936 election.
New Dealers never accepted the Keynesian argument for government spending as a vehicle for recovery. Most economists of the era, along with Henry Morgenthau of the Treasury Department, rejected Keynesian solutions and favored balanced budgets.
At the beginning of the Great Depression the economy was destabilized by bank failures followed by credit crunches. The initial reasons were substantial losses in investment banking, followed by bank runs. (Bank runs occurred when a large number of customers withdrew their deposits because they believed the bank might become insolvent. As the bank run progressed, it generated a self - fulfilling prophecy: as more people withdrew their deposits, the likelihood of default increased, and this encouraged further withdrawals.)
Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz have argued that the drain of money out of the banking system caused the monetary supply to shrink, forcing the economy to likewise shrink. As credit and economic activity diminished, price deflation followed, causing further economic contraction with disastrous impact on banks. Between 1929 and 1933 40 % of all banks (9,490 out of 23,697 banks) failed. Much of the Great Depression 's economic damage was caused directly by bank runs.
Herbert Hoover had already considered a bank holiday to prevent further bank runs, but rejected the idea because he was afraid to trip a panic. Roosevelt, however, gave a radio address, held in the atmosphere of a Fireside Chat, and explained to the public in simple terms the causes of the banking crisis, what the government will do and how the population could help. He closed all the banks in the country and kept them all closed until he could pass new legislation.
On March 9, 1933, Roosevelt sent to Congress the Emergency Banking Act, drafted in large part by Hoover 's top advisors. The act was passed and signed into law the same day. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under Treasury supervision, with federal loans available if needed. Three - quarters of the banks in the Federal Reserve System reopened within the next three days. Billions of dollars in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into them within a month, thus stabilizing the banking system. By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger banks. Their deposits totalled $3.6 billion; depositors lost a total of $540 million, and eventually received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their deposits; it is a common myth that they received nothing back.
The Glass -- Steagall Act limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms to regulate speculations. It also established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits for up to $2,500, ending the risk of runs on banks. This banking reform offered unprecedented stability: While throughout the 1920s more than five hundred banks failed per year; it was less than ten banks per year after 1933.
Under the gold standard, the United States kept the Dollar convertible to gold. The Federal Reserve would have had to execute an expansionary monetary policy to fight the deflation and to inject liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling -- but lower interest rates would have led to a gold outflow. Under the gold standards price -- specie flow mechanism countries that lost gold but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation). As long as the Federal Reserve had to defend the gold parity of the Dollar it had to sit idle while the banking system crumbled.
In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the government suspended the gold standard. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by forbidding the export of gold except under license from the Treasury. Anyone holding significant amounts of gold coinage was mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price of US dollars. The Treasury no longer paid out gold in exchange for dollars, and gold would no longer be considered valid legal tender for debts in private and public contracts.
The dollar was allowed to float freely on foreign exchange markets with no guaranteed price in gold. With the passage of the Gold Reserve Act in 1934 the nominal price of gold was changed from $20.67 per troy ounce to $35. These measures enabled the Federal Reserve to increase the amount of money in circulation to the level the economy needed. Markets immediately responded well to the suspension, in the hope that the decline in prices would finally end. In her essay "What ended the Great Depression? '' (1992) Christina Romer argued that this policy raised industrial production by 25 % until 1937 and by 50 % until 1942.
Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, there was no regulation of securities at the federal level. Even firms whose securities were publicly traded published no regular reports or even worse rather misleading reports based on arbitrarily selected data. To avoid another Wall Street Crash the Securities Act of 1933 was enacted. It required the disclosure of the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, the names and compensations of corporate officers, about firms whose securities were traded. Additionally those reports had to be verified by independent auditors. In 1934 the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission was established to regulate the stock market and prevent corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting.
In a measure that garnered substantial popular support for his New Deal, Roosevelt moved to put to rest one of the most divisive cultural issues of the 1920s. He signed the bill to legalize the manufacture and sale of alcohol, an interim measure pending the repeal of Prohibition, for which a constitutional amendment of repeal (the 21st) was already in process. The repeal amendment was ratified later in 1933. States and cities gained additional new revenue, and Roosevelt secured his popularity especially in the cities and ethnic areas by helping the beer start flowing.
Relief was the immediate effort to help the one - third of the population that was hardest hit by the depression. Also, relief was aimed at providing temporary help to suffering and unemployed Americans.
To prime the pump and cut unemployment, the NIRA created the Public Works Administration (PWA), a major program of public works, which organized and provided funds for the building of useful works such as government buildings, airports, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges, and dams. From 1933 to 1935 PWA spent $3.3 billion with private companies to build 34,599 projects, many of them quite large.
Under Roosevelt, many unemployed persons were put to work on a wide range of government financed public works projects, building bridges, airports, dams, post offices, courthouses, and thousands of miles of road. Through reforestation and flood control, they reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. As noted by one authority, Roosevelt 's New Deal "was literally stamped on the American landscape ''.
Rural America was a high priority for Roosevelt and his energetic Secretary of Agriculture, Henry A. Wallace. Roosevelt believed that full economic recovery depended upon the recovery of agriculture, and raising farm prices was a major tool, even though it meant higher food prices for the poor living in cities.
Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the Resettlement Administration (RA), the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, National Youth Administration (NYA), Forest Service and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests.
In 1933, the Administration launched the Tennessee Valley Authority, a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale to curb flooding, generate electricity, and modernize poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region of the Southern United States. Under the Farmers ' Relief Act of 1933, the government paid compensation to farmers who reduced output, thereby rising prices. As a result of this legislation, the average income of farmers almost doubled by 1937.
In the 1920s farm production had increased dramatically thanks to mechanization, more potent insecticides and increased use of fertilizer. Due to an overproduction of agricultural products farmers faced a severe and chronic agricultural depression throughout the 1920s. The Great Depression even worsened the agricultural crises. At the beginning of 1933 agricultural markets nearly faced collapse. Farm prices were so low that, as an example, in Montana wheat was rotting in the fields because it could not be profitably harvested. In Oregon sheep were slaughtered and left to the buzzards because meat prices were not sufficient to warrant transportation to markets.
Roosevelt was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous. Many different programs were directed at farmers. The first 100 days produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. The Agricultural Adjustment Act created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) in May 1933. The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations, especially the Farm Bureau, and reflected debates among Roosevelt 's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, M.L. Wilson, Rexford Tugwell, and George Peek.
The AAA aimed to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of domestic allotments, setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. To force up farm prices to the point of "parity, '' 10 million acres (40,000 km) of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot, and six million piglets were killed and discarded.
The idea was to give farmers a "fair exchange value '' for their products in relation to the general economy ("parity level ''). Farm incomes and the income for the general population recovered fast since the beginning of 1933. Still, food prices remained well below the 1929 peak.
The AAA established an important and long - lasting federal role in the planning on the entire agricultural sector of the economy and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any sharecroppers or tenants or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them.
A Gallup Poll printed in the Washington Post revealed that a majority of the American public opposed the AAA. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, (is) a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government ''. The AAA was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, this program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies is still in effect today.
The Farm Tenancy Act in 1937 was the last major New Deal legislation that concerned farming. It, in turn, created the Farm Security Administration (FSA), which replaced the Resettlement Administration.
The Food Stamp Plan -- a major new welfare program for urban poor -- was established in 1939 to provide stamps to poor people who could use them to purchase food at retail outlets. The program ended during wartime prosperity in 1943, but was restored in 1961. It survived into the 21st century with little controversy because it was seen to benefit the urban poor, food producers, grocers and wholesalers, as well as farmers. Thus it gained support from both liberal and conservative Congressmen. In 2013, however, Tea Party activists in the House tried to end the program, now known as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, while the Senate fought to preserve it.
Recovery was the effort in numerous programs to restore the economy to normal health. By most economic indicators this was achieved by 1937 -- except for unemployment, which remained stubbornly high until World War II began. Recovery was designed to help the economy bounce back from depression.
Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929 -- 1937. They estimated that every additional $153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $1.95 million in year 2000 dollars) was associated with a reduction of one infant death, one suicide, and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease.
Roosevelt 's advisers believed that excessive competition and technical progress had led to overproduction and lowered wages and prices, which they believed lowered demand and employment (Deflation). He argued that government economic planning was necessary to remedy this:
... A mere builder of more industrial plants, a creator of more railroad systems, an organizer of more corporations, is as likely to be a danger as a help. Our task is not... necessarily producing more goods. It is the soberer, less dramatic business of administering resources and plants already in hand.
From 1929 to 1933, the industrial economy had been suffering from a vicious cycle of deflation. Since 1931, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the voice of the nation 's organized business, promoted an anti-deflationary scheme that would permit trade associations to cooperate in government - instigated cartels to stabilize prices within their industries. While existing antitrust laws clearly forbade such practices, organized business found a receptive ear in the Roosevelt Administration.
New Deal economists argued that cut - throat competition had hurt many businesses and that with prices having fallen 20 % and more, "deflation '' exacerbated the burden of debt and would delay recovery. They rejected a strong move in Congress to limit the workweek to 30 hours. Instead their remedy, designed in cooperation with big business, was the NIRA. It included stimulus funds for the WPA to spend, and sought to raise prices, give more bargaining power for unions (so the workers could purchase more) and reduce harmful competition.
At the center of the NIRA was the National Recovery Administration (NRA), headed by former General Hugh S. Johnson, who had been a senior economic official in World War I. Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code '': a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35 -- 45 hours, and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code '' would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment.
To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle '' publicity campaign to boost what he called "industrial self - government ''. The NRA brought together leaders in each industry to design specific sets of codes for that industry; the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages, and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA announced agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. By March 1934, industrial production was 45 % higher than in March 1933. Donald Richberg, who soon replaced Johnson as the head of the NRA, said:
There is no choice presented to American business between intelligently planned and uncontrolled industrial operations and a return to the gold - plated anarchy that masqueraded as "rugged individualism ''... Unless industry is sufficiently socialized by its private owners and managers so that great essential industries are operated under public obligation appropriate to the public interest in them, the advance of political control over private industry is inevitable.
By the time NRA ended in May 1935, industrial production was 55 % higher than in May 1933. In addition, well over 2 million employers accepted the new standards laid down by the NRA, which had introduced a minimum wage and an eight - hour workday, together with abolishing child labor. On May 27, 1935, the NRA was found to be unconstitutional by a unanimous decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Schechter v. United States. On that same day, the Court unanimously struck down the Frazier - Lemke Act portion of the New Deal as unconstitutional. After the end of the NRA quotas in the oil industry were fixed by the Railroad Commission of Texas with Tom Connally 's federal Hot Oil Act of 1935, which guaranteed that illegal "hot oil '' would not be sold.
Employment in private sector factories recovered to the level of the late 1920s by 1937 but did not grow much bigger until the war came and manufacturing employment leaped from 11 million in 1940 to 18 million in 1943.
The New Deal had an important impact in the housing field. The New Deal followed and increased President Hoover 's lead and seek measures. The New Deal sought to stimulate the private home building industry and increase the number of individuals who owned homes. The New Deal implemented two new housing agencies; Home Owners ' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). HOLC set uniform national appraisal methods and simplified the mortgage process. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) created national standards for home construction.
Reform was based on the assumption that the depression was caused by the inherent instability of the market and that government intervention was necessary to rationalize and stabilize the economy, and to balance the interests of farmers, business and labor. Reforms targeted the causes of the depression and sought to prevent a crisis like it from happening again. In other words, financially rebuilding the U.S. while ensuring not to repeat history.
There is consensus amongst economic historians that protectionist policies, culminating in the Smoot - Hawley Act of 1930, worsened the Depression. Franklin D. Roosevelt already spoke against the act while campaigning for president during 1932. In 1934 the Reciprocal Tariff Act was drafted by Cordell Hull. It gave the president power to negotiate bilateral, reciprocal trade agreements with other countries. The act enabled Roosevelt to liberalize American trade policy around the globe. It is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal trade policy that persists to this day.
A separate set of programs operated in Puerto Rico, headed by the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. It promoted land reform and helped small farms; it set up farm cooperatives, promoted crop diversification, and helped local industry. The Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration was directed by Juan Pablo Montoya Sr. from 1935 to 1937.
In the spring of 1935, responding to the setbacks in the Court, a new skepticism in Congress, and the growing popular clamor for more dramatic action, the Administration proposed or endorsed several important new initiatives. Historians refer to them as the "Second New Deal '' and note that it was more liberal and more controversial than the "First New Deal '' of 1933 -- 34.
Until 1935 there were just a dozen states that had old age insurance laws but these programs were woefully underfunded and therefore almost worthless. Just one state (Wisconsin) had an insurance program. The United States was the only modern industrial country where people faced the Depression without any national system of social security. Even the work programs of the "First New Deal '' were just meant as immediate relief, destined to run less than a decade.
The most important program of 1935, and perhaps the New Deal as a whole, was the Social Security Act, drafted by Frances Perkins. It established a permanent system of universal retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment insurance, and welfare benefits for the handicapped and needy children in families without a father present. It established the framework for the U.S. welfare system. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund; he said, "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program. ''
Compared to the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative. But for the first time the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children and the handicapped.
The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the Wagner Act, finally guaranteed workers the rights to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice. The Act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and to suppress the repeated labor disturbances. The Wagner Act did not compel employers to reach agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor. The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass - production sector, composing the American Federation of Labor. Labor thus became a major component of the New Deal political coalition.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set maximum hours (44 per week) and minimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories of workers. Child labour of children under the age of 16 was forbidden, children under 18 years were forbidden to work in hazardous employment. As a result, the wages of 300,000 people were increased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced. It was the last major New Deal legislation that Roosevelt succeeded in enacting into law before the Conservative Coalition of Republicans and conservative Democrats won control of Congress that year. While he could usually use the veto to restrain Congress, it could block any Roosevelt legislation it disliked.
Roosevelt nationalized unemployment relief through the Works Progress Administration (WPA), headed by close friend Harry Hopkins. Roosevelt had insisted that the projects had to be costly in terms of labor, long - term beneficial, and the WPA was forbidden to compete with private enterprises (therefore the workers had to be paid smaller wages). The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was created to return the unemployed to the work force. The WPA financed a variety of projects such as hospitals, schools, and roads, and employed more than 8.5 million workers who built 650,000 miles of highways and roads, 125,000 public buildings, as well as bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems, parks, playgrounds and so on.
Prominent projects were the Lincoln Tunnel, the Triborough Bridge, the LaGuardia Airport, the Overseas Highway and the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge. The Rural Electrification Administration used co-ops to bring electricity to rural areas, many of which still operate. The National Youth Administration was another the semi-autonomous WPA program for youth. Its Texas director, Lyndon Baines Johnson, later used the NYA as a model for some of his Great Society programs in the 1960s. The WPA was organized by states, but New York City had its own branch Federal One, which created jobs for writers, musicians, artists, and theater personnel. It became a hunting ground for conservatives searching for Communist employees.
The Federal Writers ' Project operated in every state, where it created a famous guide book; it also catalogued local archives and hired many writers, including Margaret Walker, Zora Neale Hurston, and Anzia Yezierska, to document folklore. Other writers interviewed elderly ex-slaves and recorded their stories. Under the Federal Theater Project, headed by charismatic Hallie Flanagan, actresses and actors, technicians, writers, and directors put on stage productions. The tickets were inexpensive or sometimes free, making theater available to audiences unaccustomed to attending plays.
One Federal Art Project paid 162 trained woman artists on relief to paint murals or create statues for newly built post offices and courthouses. Many of these works of art can still be seen in public buildings around the country, along with murals sponsored by the Treasury Relief Art Project of the Treasury Department. During its existence, the Federal Theatre Project provided jobs for circus people, musicians, actors, artists, and playwrights, together with increasing public appreciation of the arts.
In 1935, Roosevelt called for a tax program called the Wealth Tax Act (Revenue Act of 1935) to redistribute wealth. The bill imposed an income tax of 79 % on incomes over $5 million. Since that was an extraordinary high income in the 1930s, the highest tax rate actually covered just one individual -- John D. Rockefeller. The bill was expected to raise only about $250 million in additional funds, so revenue was not the primary goal. Morgenthau called it "more or less a campaign document ''. In a private conversation with Raymond Moley, Roosevelt admitted that the purpose of the bill was "stealing Huey Long 's thunder '' by making Long 's supporters his own. At the same time, it raised the bitterness of the rich who called Roosevelt "a traitor to his class '' and the wealth tax act a "soak the rich tax ''.
A tax called the undistributed profits tax was enacted in 1936. This time the primary purpose was revenue, since Congress had enacted the Adjusted Compensation Payment Act, calling for payments of $2 billion to World War I veterans. The bill established the persisting principle that retained corporate earnings could be taxed. Paid dividends were tax deductible by corporations. Its proponents intended the bill to replace all other corporation taxes -- believing this would stimulate corporations to distribute earnings and thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals. In the end, Congress watered down the bill, setting the tax rates at 7 to 27 % and largely exempting small enterprises. Facing widespread and fierce criticism, the tax deduction of paid dividends was repealed in 1938.
The United States Housing Act of 1937 created the United States Housing Authority within the U.S. Department of the Interior. It was one of the last New Deal agencies created. The bill passed in 1937 with some Republican support to abolish slums.
When Roosevelt took office a majority of the nine judges of the Supreme Court were appointed by Republican Party Presidents. Four especially conservative judges (nicknamed the Four Horsemen) often managed to convince the fifth judge Owen Roberts to strike down progressive legislation.
Roosevelt increasingly saw the issue of the Supreme Court as one of unelected officials stifling the work of a democratically elected government. Early in the year 1937, he asked Congress to pass the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. That proposal would have given the president the power to appoint a new justice whenever an existing judge reached the age of 70 and failed to retire within six months. In that way Roosevelt hoped to preserve the New Deal legislation. But he had stirred up a hornet 's nest since many congressmen feared he might start to retire them at 70 next. Many congressmen considered the proposal unconstitutional. In the end the proposal failed.
In one sense, however, it succeeded: Justice Owen Roberts switched positions and began voting to uphold New Deal measures, effectively creating a liberal majority in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish and National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation, thus departing from the Lochner v. New York era and giving the government more power in questions of economic policies. Journalists called this change "the switch in time that saved nine ''. Recent scholars have noted that since the vote in Parrish took place several months before the court - packing plan was announced, other factors, like evolving jurisprudence, must have contributed to the Court 's swing. The opinions handed down in the spring of 1937, favorable to the government, also contributed to the downfall of the plan. In any case, the "court packing plan '', as it was known, did lasting political damage to Roosevelt.
With the retirement of Justice Willis Van Devanter, the Court 's composition began to move solidly in support of Roosevelt 's legislative agenda. In the end Roosevelt had lost the battle for the Judiciary Reorganization Bill but won the war for control of the Supreme Court in a constitutional way. Since he managed to serve in office for more than twelve years he got the chance to appoint eight of the nine Justices of the Court. Former Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist noted that in this way the Constitution provides for ultimate responsibility of the Court to the political branches of government.
The Roosevelt Administration was under assault during Roosevelt 's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued until most of 1938. Production and profits declined sharply. Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in 1937 to 19.0 % in 1938. The downturn was perhaps due to nothing more than the familiar rhythms of the business cycle. But until 1937 Roosevelt had claimed responsibility for the excellent economic performance. That backfired in the recession and the heated political atmosphere of 1937.
Business - oriented conservatives explained the recession by arguing that the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935 -- 37, had threatened massive anti-trust legal attacks on big corporations and by the huge strikes caused by the organizing activities of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The recovery was explained by the conservatives in terms of the diminishing of those threats sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long - term growth.
"When The Gallup Organization 's poll in 1939 asked, ' Do you think the attitude of the Roosevelt administration toward business is delaying business recovery? ' the American people responded ' yes ' by a margin of more than two - to - one. The business community felt even more strongly so. '' Fortune 's Roper poll found in May 1939 that 39 % of Americans thought the administration had been delaying recovery by undermining business confidence, while 37 % thought it had not. But it also found that opinions on the issue were highly polarized by economic status and occupation. In addition, AIPO found in the same time that 57 % believed that business attitudes toward the administration were delaying recovery, while 26 % thought they were not, emphasizing that fairly subtle differences in wording can evoke substantially different polling responses.
Keynesian economists stated that the recession of 1937 was a result of a premature effort to curb government spending and balance the budget. Roosevelt had been cautious not to run large deficits. In 1937 he actually achieved a balanced budget. Therefore, he did not fully utilize deficit spending. Between 1933 and 1941 the average federal budget deficit was 3 % per year.
In November 1937 Roosevelt decided that big business were trying to ruin the New Deal by causing another depression that voters would react against by voting Republican. It was a "capital strike '' said Roosevelt, and he ordered the Federal Bureau of Investigation to look for a criminal conspiracy (they found none). Roosevelt moved left and unleashed a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the new crisis. Ickes attacked automaker Henry Ford, steelmaker Tom Girdler, and the super rich "Sixty Families '' who supposedly comprised "the living center of the modern industrial oligarchy which dominates the United States ''.
Left unchecked, Ickes warned, they would create "big - business Fascist America -- an enslaved America ''. The President appointed Robert Jackson as the aggressive new director of the antitrust division of the Justice Department, but this effort lost its effectiveness once World War II began and big business was urgently needed to produce war supplies. But the Administration 's other response to the 1937 dip that stalled recovery from the Great Depression had more tangible results.
Ignoring the requests of the Treasury Department and responding to the urgings of the converts to Keynesian economics and others in his Administration, Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938, an effort to increase mass purchasing power. Roosevelt explained his program in a fireside chat in which he told the American people that it was up to the government to "create an economic upturn '' by making "additions to the purchasing power of the nation ''.
The U.S. reached full employment after entering World War II in December 1941. Under the special circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled the GNP (Gross National Product). Military Keynesianism brought full employment. Federal contracts were cost - plus. Instead of competitive bidding to get lower prices, the government gave out contracts that promised to pay all the expenses plus a modest profit. Factories hired everyone they could find regardless of their lack of skills; they simplified work tasks and trained the workers, with the federal government paying all the costs. Millions of farmers left marginal operations, students quit school, and housewives joined the labor force.
The emphasis was for war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of cost and inefficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the labor force, and the tables turned such that employers needed to actively and aggressively recruit workers. As the military grew, new labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million men serving in the military. Propaganda campaigns started pleading for people to work in the war factories. The barriers for married women, the old, the unskilled -- and (in the North and West) the barriers for racial minorities -- were lowered.
In 1929, federal expenditures accounted for only 3 % of GNP. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditures tripled, but the national debt as a percent of GNP showed little change. Spending on the war effort quickly eclipsed spending on New Deal programs. In 1944 government spending on the war effort exceeded 40 % of GNP. The US economy experienced dramatic growth during the Second World War mostly due to the deemphasis of free enterprise in favor of the imposition of strict controls on prices and wages. These controls shared broad support among Labor and Business, resulting in cooperation between the two groups and the Federal Government. This cooperation resulted in the government subsidizing business and labor through both direct and indirect methods.
Conservative domination of Congress during the war meant that all welfare projects and reforms had to have their approval, which was given when business supported the project. For example, the Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941 significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal - mining industry, saving workers ' lives and company money. In terms of welfare the New Dealers wanted benefits for everyone according to need. Conservatives, however, proposed benefits based on national service -- especially tied to military service or working in war industries -- and their approach won out.
The Community Facilities Act of 1940 (the Lanham Act) provided federal funds to defense - impacted communities where the population had soared and local facilities were overwhelmed. It provided money for the building of housing for war workers as well as recreational facilities, water and sanitation plants, hospitals, day care centers, and schools.
The Servicemen 's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided family allowances for dependents of enlisted men. Emergency grants to States were authorized in 1942 for programs for day care for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized for all physically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans regardless of the age of the child at the date the claim was filed or at the time of the veteran 's death, provided the child was disabled at the age of sixteen and that the disability continued to the date of the claim. The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year, expanded Federal - State public health programs, and increased the annual amount for grants for public health services.
The Emergency Maternity and Infant Care Program (EMIC), introduced in March 1943 by the Children 's Bureau, provided free maternity care and medical treatment during an infant 's first year for the wives and children of military personnel in the four lowest enlisted pay grades. One out of seven births was covered during its operation. EMIC paid $127 million to state health departments to cover the care of 1.2 million new mothers and their babies. The average cost of EMIC maternity cases completed was $92.49 for medical and hospital care. A striking effect was the sudden rapid decline in home births, as most mothers now had paid hospital maternity care.
Under the 1943 Disabled Veterans Rehabilitation Act, vocational rehabilitation services were offered to wounded World War II veterans, and some 621,000 veterans would go on to receive assistance under this program. The G.I. Bill (Servicemen 's Readjustment Act of 1944) was a landmark piece of legislation, providing 16 million returning veterans with benefits such as housing, educational, and unemployment assistance, and played a major role in the postwar expansion of the American middle class.
In response to the March on Washington Movement led by A. Philip Randolph, Roosevelt promulgated Executive Order 8802 in June 1941, which established the President 's Committee on Fair Employment Practices (FEPC) "to receive and investigate complaints of discrimination '' so that "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin. ''
A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp, long lasting decrease in the level of income inequality (Great Compression). The gap between rich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of nutrition, because food rationing and price controls provided a reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collar workers did not typically receive overtime and therefore the gap between white collar and blue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor during the 1930s had four or more wage earners, and these families shot to the top one - third income bracket. Overtime provided large paychecks in war industries, and average living standards rose steadily, with real wages rising by 44 % in the four years of war, while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than $2,000 fell from 75 % to 25 % of the population.
In 1941, 40 % of all American families lived on less than the $1,500 per year defined as necessary by the Works Progress Administration for a modest standard of living. The median income stood at $2,000 a year, while 8 million workers earnt below the legal minimum. From 1939 to 1944, however, wages and salaries more than doubled, with overtime pay and the expansion of jobs leading to a 70 % rise in average weekly earnings during the course of the war. Membership in organized labor increased by 50 % between 1941 and 1945, and because the War Labor Board sought labor - management peace, new workers were encouraged to participate in the existing labor organizations, thereby receiving all the benefits of union membership such as improved working conditions, better fringe benefits, and higher wages. As noted by William H. Chafe,
"with full employment, higher wages and social welfare benefits provided under government regulations, American workers experienced a level of well - being that, for many, had never occurred before. ''
As a result of the new prosperity, consumer expenditures rose by nearly 50 %, from $61.7 billion at the start of the war to $98.5 billion by 1944. Individual savings accounts climbed almost sevenfold during the course of the war. The share of total income held by the top 5 % of wage earners fell from 22 % to 17 %, while the bottom 40 % increased their share of the economic pie. In addition, during the course of the war, the proportion of the American population earning less than $3,000 (in 1968 dollars) fell by half.
Analysts agree the New Deal produced a new political coalition that sustained the Democratic Party as the majority party in national politics into the 1960s. A 2013 study found that "an average increase in New Deal relief and public works spending resulted in a 5.4 percentage point increase in the 1936 Democratic voting share, and a smaller amount in 1940. The estimated persistence of this shift suggests that New Deal spending increased long - term Democratic support by 2 to 2.5 percentage points. Thus, it appears that Roosevelt 's early, decisive actions created long - lasting positive benefits for the Democratic party... The New Deal did play an important role in consolidating Democratic gains for at least two decades. ''
However, there is disagreement about whether it marked a permanent change in values. Cowie and Salvatore in 2008 argued that it was a response to depression and did not mark a commitment to a welfare state because America has always been too individualistic. MacLean rejected the idea of a definitive political culture. She says they overemphasized individualism and ignored the enormous power that big capital wields, the Constitutional restraints on radicalism, and the role of racism, antifeminism, and homophobia. She warns that accepting Cowie and Salvatore 's argument that conservatism 's ascendancy is inevitable would dismay and discourage activists on the left. Klein responds that the New Deal did not die a natural death; it was killed off in the 1970s by a business coalition mobilized by such groups as the Business Roundtable, the Chamber of Commerce, trade organizations, conservative think tanks, and decades of sustained legal and political attacks.
Historians generally agree that during Roosevelt 's 12 years in office, there was a dramatic increase in the power of the federal government as a whole. Roosevelt also established the presidency as the prominent center of authority within the federal government. Roosevelt created a large array of agencies protecting various groups of citizens -- workers, farmers, and others -- who suffered from the crisis, and thus enabled them to challenge the powers of the corporations. In this way, the Roosevelt Administration generated a set of political ideas -- known as New Deal liberalism -- that remained a source of inspiration and controversy for decades. New Deal liberalism lay the foundation of a new consensus. Between 1940 and 1980 there was the liberal consensus about the prospects for the widespread distribution of prosperity within an expanding capitalist economy. Especially Harry S. Truman 's Fair Deal and in the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs.
The New Deal 's enduring appeal on voters fostered its acceptance by moderate and liberal Republicans.
As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 61) built on the New Deal in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency and cost - effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self - financed program. He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wage and public housing; he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built the Interstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than jobs program). In a private letter Eisenhower wrote:
Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes you can do these things... Their number is negligible and they are stupid.
In 1964 Barry Goldwater, an unreconstructed anti-New Dealer, was the Republican presidential candidate on a platform that attacked the New Deal. The Democrats under Lyndon B. Johnson won a massive landslide and Johnson 's Great Society programs extended the New Deal. However the supporters of Goldwater formed the New Right which helped to bring Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980 presidential election. Reagan, once an ardent supporter of the New Deal, turned against it, now viewing government as the problem rather than solution, and as president moved the nation away from the New Deal model of government activism, shifting greater emphasis to the private sector.
Historians debating the New Deal have generally divided between liberals who support it, conservatives who oppose it, and some New Left historians who complain it was too favorable to capitalism and did too little for minorities. There is consensus on only a few points, with most commentators favorable toward the CCC and hostile toward the NRA.
Consensus historians of the 1950s, such as Richard Hofstadter, according to Lary May:
Liberal historians argue that Roosevelt restored hope and self - respect to tens of millions of desperate people, built labor unions, upgraded the national infrastructure and saved capitalism in his first term when he could have destroyed it and easily nationalized the banks and the railroads. Historians generally agree that, apart from building up labor unions, the New Deal did not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism. "The New Deal brought about limited change in the nation 's power structure. '' The New Deal preserved democracy in the United States in a historic period of uncertainty and crises when in many other countries democracy failed.
The most common arguments can be summarized as follows:
Julian Zelizer (2000) has argued that fiscal conservatism was a key component of the New Deal. A fiscally conservative approach was supported by Wall Street and local investors and most of the business community; mainstream academic economists believed in it, as apparently did the majority of the public. Conservative southern Democrats, who favored balanced budgets and opposed new taxes, controlled Congress and its major committees. Even liberal Democrats at the time regarded balanced budgets as essential to economic stability in the long run, although they were more willing to accept short - term deficits. As Zelizer notes, public opinion polls consistently showed public opposition to deficits and debt. Throughout his terms, Roosevelt recruited fiscal conservatives to serve in his Administration, most notably Lewis Douglas the Director of Budget in 1933 -- 1934, and Henry Morgenthau Jr., Secretary of the Treasury from 1934 to 1945. They defined policy in terms of budgetary cost and tax burdens rather than needs, rights, obligations, or political benefits. Personally the President embraced their fiscal conservatism. Politically, he realized that fiscal conservatism enjoyed a strong wide base of support among voters, leading Democrats, and businessmen. On the other hand, there was enormous pressure to act -- and spending money on high visibility work programs with millions of paychecks a week.
Douglas proved too inflexible, and he quit in 1934. Morgenthau made it his highest priority to stay close to Roosevelt, no matter what. Douglas 's position, like many of the Old Right, was grounded in a basic distrust of politicians and the deeply ingrained fear that government spending always involved a degree of patronage and corruption that offended his Progressive sense of efficiency. The Economy Act of 1933, passed early in the Hundred Days, was Douglas 's great achievement. It reduced federal expenditures by $500 million, to be achieved by reducing veterans ' payments and federal salaries. Douglas cut government spending through executive orders that cut the military budget by $125 million, $75 million from the Post Office, $12 million from Commerce, $75 million from government salaries, and $100 million from staff layoffs. As Freidel concludes, "The economy program was not a minor aberration of the spring of 1933, or a hypocritical concession to delighted conservatives. Rather it was an integral part of Roosevelt 's overall New Deal. ''
Revenues were so low that borrowing was necessary (only the richest 3 % paid any income tax between 1926 and 1940). Douglas therefore hated the relief programs, which he said reduced business confidence, threatened the government 's future credit, and had the "destructive psychological effects of making mendicants of self - respecting American citizens ''. Roosevelt was pulled toward greater spending by Hopkins and Ickes, and as the 1936 election approached he decided to gain votes by attacking big business.
Morgenthau shifted with Roosevelt, but at all times tried to inject fiscal responsibility; he deeply believed in balanced budgets, stable currency, reduction of the national debt, and the need for more private investment. The Wagner Act met Morgenthau 's requirement because it strengthened the party 's political base and involved no new spending. In contrast to Douglas, Morgenthau accepted Roosevelt 's double budget as legitimate -- that is a balanced regular budget, and an "emergency '' budget for agencies, like the WPA, PWA and CCC, that would be temporary until full recovery was at hand. He fought against the veterans ' bonus until Congress finally overrode Roosevelt 's veto and gave out $2.2 billion in 1936. His biggest success was the new Social Security program; he managed to reverse the proposals to fund it from general revenue and insisted it be funded by new taxes on employees. It was Morgenthau who insisted on excluding farm workers and domestic servants from Social Security because workers outside industry would not be paying their way.
The New Deal expanded the role of the federal government, particularly to help the poor, the unemployed, youth, the elderly, and stranded rural communities. The Hoover administration started the system of funding state relief programs, whereby the states hired people on relief. With the CCC in 1933 and the WPA in 1935 the federal government now became involved in directly hiring people on relief. in granting direct relief or benefits. Total federal, state and local spending on relief rose from 3.9 % of GNP in 1929, to 6.4 % in 1932, and 9.7 % in 1934; the return of prosperity in 1944 lowered the rate to 4.1 %. In 1935 -- 40, welfare spending accounted for 49 % of the federal, state and local government budgets. In his memoirs, Milton Friedman said that the New Deal relief programs were an appropriate response. He and his wife were not on relief but they were employed by the WPA as statisticians. Friedman said that programs like the CCC and WPA were justified as temporary responses to an emergency. Friedman said that Roosevelt deserved considerable credit for relieving immediate distress and restoring confidence.
In 1933 to 1941 the economy expanded at an average rate of 7.7 % per year. Despite high economic growth, unemployment rates fell slowly.
John Maynard Keynes explained that situation as an underemployment equilibrium where skeptic business prospects prevent companies from hiring new employees. It was seen as a form of cyclical unemployment.
There are different assumptions as well. According to Richard L. Jensen, cyclical unemployment was a grave matter primarily until 1935. Between 1935 and 1941 structural unemployment became the bigger problem. Especially the unions successes in demanding higher wages pushed management into introducing new efficiency - oriented hiring standards. It ended inefficient labor such as child labor, casual unskilled work for subminimum wages, and sweatshop conditions. In the long term the shift to efficiency wages led to high productivity, high wages and a high standard of living. But it necessitated a well - educated, well - trained, hard - working labor force. It was not before war time brought full employment that the supply of unskilled labor (that caused structural unemployment) downsized.
Lowell E. Gallaway and Richard K. Vedder argue on the basis of libertarian theories that the Great Depression was caused by too high wages which they say had caused a loss of depositor confidence which caused the bank runs. They further conclude that the "Great Depression was very significantly prolonged in both its duration and its magnitude by the impact of New Deal programs. '' They suggest that without Social Security, work relief, unemployment insurance, mandatory minimum wages, and without special government - granted privileges for labor unions, business would have hired more workers and the unemployment rate during the New Deal years would have been 6.7 % instead of 17.2 %. Amity Shlaes wrote that "from 1929 to 1940, from Hoover to Roosevelt, government intervention helped to make the Depression Great. '' Shlaes said that the NRA was misguided because it used price setting to fix monetary problems. According to Shlaes, Roosevelt 's experimentation frightened business into inaction and prevented recovery. Eric Rauchway showed that Shlaes tried to diminish the economic growth by referring to the unrepresentative Dow Jones Industrial Average. He continued that usually a historian or economist would have referred to the gross domestic product which, according to the Historical Statistics of the United States, grew impressively by 9 % annually during Roosevelt 's first term and by 11 % annually after the short recession of 1937 -- 38.
In a survey of economic historians conducted by Robert Whaples, Professor of Economics at Wake Forest University, anonymous questionnaires were sent to members of the Economic History Association. Members were asked to disagree, agree, or agree with provisos with the statement that read: "Taken as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression. '' While only 6 % of economic historians who worked in the history department of their universities agreed with the statement, 27 % of those that work in the economics department agreed. Almost an identical percent of the two groups (21 % and 22 %) agreed with the statement "with provisos '' (a conditional stipulation), while 74 % of those who worked in the history department, and 51 % in the economic department, disagreed with the statement outright.
Followers of the real business - cycle theory believe that the New Deal caused the depression to persist longer than it would otherwise have. Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian say Roosevelt 's policies prolonged the depression by seven years. According to their study, the "New Deal labor and industrial policies did not lift the economy out of the Depression but that the "New Deal policies are an important contributing factor to the persistence of the Great Depression. '' They claim that the New Deal "cartelization policies are a key factor behind the weak recovery ''. They say that the "abandonment of these policies coincided with the strong economic recovery of the 1940s ''. The study by Cole and Ohanian is based on a real business cycle theory model. The underlying assumptions of this theory are subject to numerous criticisms and the theory is unable to posit any convincing explanations for the initial causes of the Great Depression. Laurence Seidman noted that according to the assumptions of Cole and Ohanian the labor market clears instantaneously, which leads to the incredible conclusion that the surge in unemployment between 1929 and 1932 (before the New Deal) was, in their opinion, both optimal and solely based on voluntary unemployment. Additionally, Cole and Ohanian 's argument does not count workers employed through New Deal programs. Such programs built or renovated 2,500 hospitals, 45,000 schools, 13,000 parks and playgrounds, 7,800 bridges, 700,000 miles (1,100,000 km) of roads, 1,000 airfields and employed 50,000 teachers through programs that rebuilt the country 's entire rural school system.
At the beginning of the Great Depression many economists traditionally argued against deficit spending. The fear was that government spending would "crowd out '' private investment and would thus not have any effect on the economy, a proposition known as the Treasury view. Keynesian economics rejected that view. They argued that by spending vastly more money -- using fiscal policy -- the government could provide the needed stimulus through the multiplier effect. Without that stimulus business simply would not hire more people, especially the low skilled and supposedly "untrainable '' men who had been unemployed for years and lost any job skill they once had. Keynes visited the White House in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to increase deficit spending. Roosevelt afterwards complained that, "he left a whole rigmarole of figures -- he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist. ''
The New Deal tried public works, farm subsidies, and other devices to reduce unemployment, but Roosevelt never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. Between 1933 and 1941 the average federal budget deficit was 3 % per year. Roosevelt did not fully utilize deficit spending. The effects of federal public works spending were largely offset by Herbert Hoover 's large tax increase in 1932, whose full effects for the first time were felt in 1933, and it was undercut by spending cuts, especially the Economy Act. According to Keynesians like Paul Krugman the New Deal therefore was not as successful in the short run as it was in the long run.
Following the Keynesian consensus (that lasted until the 1970s) the traditional view was that federal deficit spending associated with the war brought full - employment output while monetary policy was just aiding the process. In this view the New Deal did not end the Great Depression but halted the economic collapse and ameliorated the worst of the crises.
In recent years more influential among economists has been the monetarist interpretation of Milton Friedman, which includes a full - scale monetary history of what he calls the "Great Contraction ''. Friedman concentrated on the failures before 1933. He points out that between 1929 and 1932, the Federal Reserve allowed the money supply to fall by a third which is seen as the major cause that turned a normal recession into a Great Depression. Friedman especially criticized the decisions of Hoover and the Fed not to save banks going bankrupt. Monetarists state that the banking and monetary reforms were a necessary and sufficient response to the crises. They reject the approach of Keynesian deficit spending.
You have to distinguish between two classes of New Deal policies. One class of New Deal policies was reform: wage and price control, the Blue Eagle, the national industrial recovery movement. I did not support those. The other part of the new deal policy was relief and recovery... providing relief for the unemployed, providing jobs for the unemployed, and motivating the economy to expand... an expansive monetary policy. Those parts of the New Deal I did support.
Ben Bernanke and Martin Parkinson declared in "Unemployment, Inflation, and Wages in the American Depression '' (1989) that "the New Deal is better characterized as having cleared the way for a natural recovery (for example, by ending deflation and rehabilitating the financial system) rather than as being the engine of recovery itself. ''
Challenging the traditional view monetarists and New Keynesians like J. Bradford DeLong, Lawrence Summers and Christina Romer argued that recovery was essentially complete prior to 1942 and that monetary policy was the crucial source of pre-1942 recovery. The extraordinary growth in money supply beginning in 1933 lowered real interest rates and stimulated investment spending. According to Bernanke there was also a debt - deflation effect of the depression which was clearly offset by a reflation through the growth in money supply. But before 1992 scholars did not realize that the New Deal provided for a huge aggregate demand stimulus through a de facto easing of monetary policy. While Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz argued in "Monetary History of the United States '' (1963) that the Federal Reserve System had made no attempt to increase the quantity in high - powered money and thus failed to foster recovery they somehow did not investigate the impact of the monetary policy of the New Deal. In 1992 Christina Romer explained in "What Ended the Great Depression? '' that the rapid growth in money supply beginning in 1933 can be traced back to a large unsterilized gold inflow to the US which was partly due to political instability in Europe but to a larger degree to the revaluation of gold through the Gold Reserve Act. The Roosevelt administration had chosen not to sterilize the gold inflow precisely because they hoped that the growth of money supply would stimulate the economy.
Replying to DeLong et al. in the Journal of Economic History, J.R. Vernon argues that deficit spending leading up to and during World War II still played a large part in the overall recovery, according to his study "half or more of the recovery occurred during 1941 and 1942. ''
According to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romer the biggest primary impact of the New Deal on the economy and the key to recovery and to end the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management of public expectations. The thesis is based on the observation that after years of deflation and a very severe recession important economic indicators turned positive just in March 1933 when Roosevelt took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turnaround. Money supply was still falling and short - term interest rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933 people expected a further deflation and recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. But when Roosevelt announced major regime changes people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With those expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment just as they were expected to do. Roosevelt 's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crises and small government led endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70 -- 80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free - fall in 1933, and output would have been 30 percent lower in 1937 than in 1933.
The economic reforms were mainly intended to rescue the capitalist system by providing a more rational framework in which it could operate. The banking system was made less vulnerable. The regulation of the stock market and the prevention of some corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting addressed the worst excesses. Roosevelt allowed trade unions to take their place in labor relations and created the triangular partnership between employers, employees and government.
David M. Kennedy wrote that "the achievements of the New Deal years surely played a role in determining the degree and the duration of the postwar prosperity ''.
Paul Krugman stated that the institutions built by the New Deal remain the bedrock of the United States economic stability. Against the background of the 2007 -- 2012 global financial crisis he explained that the financial crises would have been much worse if the New Deals Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation had not insured most bank deposits and older Americans would have felt much more insecure without Social Security. Libertarian economist Milton Friedman after 1960 attacked Social Security from a free market view stating that it had created welfare dependency.
The New Deal banking reform was weakened since the 1980s. The repeal of the Glass - Steagall Act in 1999 allowed the shadow banking system to grow rapidly. Since it was neither regulated nor covered by a financial safety net the shadow banking system was central to the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 and the subsequent Great Recession.
While it is essentially consensus among historians and academics that the New Deal brought about a large increase in the power of the federal government, there has been some scholarly debate concerning the results of this federal expansion. Historians like Arthur M. Schlesinger and James T. Patterson have argued that the augmentation of the federal government exacerbated tensions between the federal and state governments. However, contemporaries such as Ira Katznelson have suggested that, due to certain conditions on the allocation of federal funds, namely that the individual states get to control them, the federal government managed to avoid any tension with states over their rights. This is a prominent debate concerning the historiography of federalism in the United States and, as Schlesinger and Patterson have observed, the New Deal marked an era when the federal - state power balance shifted further in favor of the federal government, which heightened tensions between the two levels of government in the United States.
Ira Katznelson has argued that although the federal government expanded its power and began providing welfare benefits on a scale previously unknown in the United States, it often allowed individual states to control the allocation of the funds provided for such welfare. This meant that the states controlled who had access to these funds, which in turn meant many southern states were able to racially segregate -- or in some cases, like a number of counties in Georgia, completely exclude African - Americans -- the allocation of federal funds. This enabled these states to continue to relatively exercise their rights and also to preserve the institutionalization of the racist order of their societies. While Katznelson has conceded that the expansion of the federal government had the potential to lead to federal - state tension, he has argued it was avoided as these states managed to retain some control. As Katznelson has observed, "furthermore, they (state governments in the South) had to manage the strain that potentially might be placed on local practices by investing authority in federal bureaucracies... To guard against this outcome, they key mechanism deployed was a separation of the source of funding from decisions about how to spend the new monies. ''
However, Schlesinger has disputed Katznelson 's claim and has argued that the increase in the power of the federal government was perceived to come at the cost of states ' rights, thereby aggravating state governments, which exacerbated federal - state tensions. Schlesinger has utilized quotes from the time to highlight this point, for example, Schlesinger has observed, "the actions of the New Deal, (Ogden L.) Mills said, "abolish the sovereignty of the States. They make of a government of limited powers one of unlimited authority over the lives of us all. ''
Moreover, Schlesinger has argued that this federal - state tension was not a one - way street, and that the federal government became just as aggravated with the state governments, as they did with it. State governments were often guilty of inhibiting or delaying federal policies. Whether through intentional methods, like sabotage, or unintentional ones, like simple administrative overload; either way these problems aggravated the federal government and thus heightened federal - state tensions. As Schlesinger has also noted, "students of public administration have never taken sufficient account of the capacity of lower levels of government to sabotage or defy even a masterful President. ''
James T. Patterson has reiterated this argument, however he observes that this increased tension can be accounted for not just from a political perspective, but from an economic one, too. Patterson has argued that the tension between the federal and state governments also, at least partly, resulted from the economic strain under which the states had been put by the federal government 's various policies and agencies. Some states were either simply unable to cope with the federal government 's demand, and thus refused to work with them, or admonished the economic restraints and actively decided to sabotage federal policies. This was demonstrated, Patterson has noted, with the handling of federal relief money by Ohio governor, Martin L. Davey. The case in Ohio became so detrimental to the federal government that Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, had to federalize Ohio relief. Although this argument differs somewhat from Schlesinger 's, the source of federal - state tension remained the growth of the federal government. As Patterson has asserted, "though the record of the FERA was remarkably good -- almost revolutionary -- in these respects, it was inevitable, given the financial requirements imposed on deficit - ridden states, that friction would develop between governors and federal officials. ''
In this dispute it can be inferred that Katznelson and, Schlesinger and Patterson, have only disagreed on their inference of the historical evidence. While both parties have agreed that the federal government expanded and, even, that states had a degree of control over the allocation of federal funds, they have disputed the consequences of these claims. Katznelson has asserted that it created mutual acquiescence between the levels of government, while Schlesinger and Patterson have suggested that it provoked contempt for the state governments on the part of the federal government, and vice versa, thus exacerbating their relations. In short, irrespective of the interpretation this era marked an important time in the historiography of federalism and also nevertheless provided some narrative on the legacy of federal - state relations.
While many Americans suffered economically during the Great Depression, African Americans also had to deal with social ills, such as racism, discrimination, and segregation. Black workers were especially vulnerable to the economic downturn since most of them worked the most marginal jobs such as unskilled or service - oriented work. Therefore, they were the first to be discharged. Additionally many employers preferred white workers. When jobs were scarce some employers even dismissed blacks to create jobs for whites. In the end there were three times more African American workers on public assistance or relief than white workers.
The WPA, NYA, and CCC relief programs allocated 10 % of their budgets to blacks (who comprised about 10 % of the total population, and 20 % of the poor). They operated separate all - black units with the same pay and conditions as white units. Some leading white New Dealers, especially Eleanor Roosevelt, Harold Ickes, and Aubrey Williams worked to ensure blacks received at least 10 % of welfare assistance payments. However, these benefits were small in comparison to the economic and political advantages that whites received. Most unions excluded blacks from joining. Enforcement of anti-discrimination laws in the South was virtually impossible, especially since most blacks worked in hospitality and agricultural sectors.
The New Deal programs put millions of Americans immediately back to work or at least helped them to survive. The programs were not specifically targeted to alleviate the much higher unemployment rate of blacks. Some aspects of the programs were even unfavorable to blacks. The Agricultural Adjustment Acts for example helped farmers which were predominantly white but reduced the need of farmers to hire tenant farmers or sharecroppers which were predominantely black. While the AAA stipulated that a farmer had to share the payments with those who worked the land this policy was never enforced. The Farm Service Agency (FSA), a government relief agency for tenant farmers, created in 1937, made efforts to empower African Americans by appointing them to agency committees in the South. Senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina raised opposition to the appointments because he stood for white farmers who were threatened by an agency that could organize and empower tenant farmers. Initially, the FSA stood behind their appointments, but after feeling national pressure FSA was forced to release the African Americans of their positions. The goals of the FSA were notoriously liberal and not cohesive with the southern voting elite. Some New Deal measures inadvertently discriminated against harmed blacks. Thousands of blacks were thrown out of work and replaced by whites on jobs where they were paid less than the NRA 's wage minimums because some white employers considered the NRA 's minimum wage "too much money for Negroes. '' By August 1933, blacks called the NRA the "Negro Removal Act. '' An NRA study found that the NIRA put 500,000 African Americans out of work.
But since blacks felt the sting of the depression _́ s wrath even more severely than whites they welcomed any help. Until 1936 almost all African Americans (and many whites) shifted from the "Party of Lincoln '' to the Democratic Party. This was a sharp realignment from 1932, when most African Americans voted the Republican ticket. New Deal policies helped establish a political alliance between blacks and the Democratic Party that survives into the 21st century.
There was no attempt whatsoever to end segregation, or to increase black rights in the South. Roosevelt appointed an unprecedented number of blacks to second - level positions in his administration; these appointees were collectively called the Black Cabinet.
The wartime FEPC executive orders that forbade job discrimination against African Americans, women, and ethnic groups was a major breakthrough that brought better jobs and pay to millions of minority Americans. Historians usually treat FEPC as part of the war effort and not part of the New Deal itself.
The New Deal was racially segregated; blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the WPA; it operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate the NYA. Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; however of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black. Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation. In its first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, however, practically all the camps in the United States were segregated, and blacks were strictly limited in the supervisory roles they were assigned. Kinker and Smith argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow. ''
Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes was one of the Roosevelt Administration 's most prominent supporters of blacks and former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP. In 1937 when Senator Josiah Bailey Democrat of North Carolina accused him of trying to break down segregation laws, Ickes wrote him to deny that:
The New Deal 's record came under attack by New Left historians in the 1960s for its pusillanimity in not attacking capitalism more vigorously, nor helping blacks achieve equality. The critics emphasize the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They demonstrate the New Deal 's commitment to save capitalism and its refusal to strip away private property. They detect a remoteness from the people and indifference to participatory democracy, and call instead for more emphasis on conflict and exploitation.
At first the New Deal created programs primarily for men. It was assumed that the husband was the "breadwinner '' (the provider) and if they had jobs, whole families would benefit. It was the social norm for women to give up jobs when they married; in many states there were laws that prevented both husband and wife holding regular jobs with the government. So too in the relief world, it was rare for both husband and wife to have a relief job on FERA or the WPA. This prevailing social norm of the breadwinner failed to take into account the numerous households headed by women, but it soon became clear that the government needed to help women as well.
Many women were employed on FERA projects run by the states with federal funds. The first New Deal program to directly assist women was the Works Progress Administration (WPA), begun in 1935. It hired single women, widows, or women with disabled or absent husbands. While men were given unskilled manual labor jobs, usually on construction projects, women were assigned mostly to sewing projects. They made clothing and bedding to be given away to charities and hospitals. Women also were hired for the WPA 's school lunch program.
Both men and women were hired for the arts programs (such as music, theater and writing). The Social Security program was designed to help retired workers and widows, but did not include domestic workers, farmers or farm laborers, the jobs most often held by blacks. Social Security however was not a relief program and it was not designed for short - term needs, as very few people received benefits before 1942.
Worldwide, the Great Depression had the most profound impact in the German Reich and the United States. In both countries the pressure to reform and the perception of the economic crisis were strikingly similar. When Hitler came to power he was faced with exactly the same task that faced Roosevelt, overcoming mass unemployment and the global Depression. The political responses to the crises were essentially different: while American democracy remained strong, Germany replaced democracy with fascism, a Nazi dictatorship.
The initial perception of the New Deal was mixed. On the one hand the eyes of the world were upon America, because many democrats in Europe and the United States saw in Roosevelt _́ s reform program a positive counterweight to the seductive powers of the two great alternative systems, communism and fascism. As the historian Isaiah Berlin wrote in 1955, "The only light in the darkness was the administration of Mr. Roosevelt and the New Deal in the United States. ''
By contrast, enemies of the New Deal sometimes called it "fascist '', but they meant very different things. Communists denounced the New Deal in 1933 and 1934 as fascist, meaning it was under the control of big business. They dropped that line of thought when Stalin switched to the "Popular Front '' plan of cooperation with liberals.
In 1934, Roosevelt defended himself against those critics in a "fireside chat ''. Some people, he said:
(Some) will try to give you new and strange names for what we are doing. Sometimes they will call it ' Fascism ', sometimes ' Communism ', sometimes ' Regimentation ', sometimes ' Socialism '. But, in so doing, they are trying to make very complex and theoretical something that is really very simple and very practical... Plausible self - seekers and theoretical die - hards will tell you of the loss of individual liberty. Answer this question out of the facts of your own life. Have you lost any of your rights or liberty or constitutional freedom of action and choice?
After 1945 only few observers continued to see similarities. Later on some scholars such as Kiran Klaus Patel, Heinrich August Winkler and John Garraty came to the conclusion that comparisons of the alternative systems don _́ t have to end in an apology for Nazism since comparisons rely on the examination of both similarities and differences. Their preliminary studies on the origins of the fascist dictatorships and the American (reformed) democracy came to the conclusion that besides essential differences "the crises led to a limited degree of convergence '' on the level of economic and social policy. The most important cause was the growth of state interventionism since in the face of the catastrophic economic situation both societies no longer counted on the power of the market to heal itself.
John Garraty wrote that the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was based on economic experiments in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, without establishing a totalitarian dictatorship. Contrary to that historians such as Hawley have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration came from Senators Hugo Black and Robert F. Wagner and from American business leaders such as the Chamber of Commerce. The model for the NRA was Woodrow Wilson 's War Industries Board, in which Johnson had been involved too. Historians argue that direct comparisons between Fascism and New Deal are invalid since there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization. Gerald Feldman wrote that fascism has not contributed anything to economic thought and had no original vision of a new economic order replacing capitalism. His argument correlates with Mason _́ s that economic factors alone are an insufficient approach to understand fascism and that decisions taken by fascists in power can not be explained within a logical economic framework. In economic terms both ideas were within the general tendency of the 1930s to intervene in the free - market capitalist economy, at the price of its laissez - faire character, "to protect the capitalist structure endangered by endogenous crises tendencies and processes of impaired self - regulation ''.
Stanley Payne, a historian of fascism, examined possible fascist influences in the United States by looking at the KKK and its offshoots, and movements led by Father Coughlin and Huey Long. He concluded that "the various populist, nativist, and rightist movements in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s fell distinctly short of fascism. '' According to Kevin Passmore, lecturer in History at Cardiff University, the failure of fascism in the United States was due to the social policies of the New Deal that channelled anti-establishment populism into the left rather than the extreme right.
For decades the New Deal was generally held in very high regard in the scholarship and the textbooks. That changed in the 1960s when New Left historians began a revisionist critique that said the New Deal was a bandaid for a patient that needed radical surgery to reform capitalism, put private property in its place, and lift up workers, women and minorities. The New Left believed in participatory democracy and therefore rejected the autocratic machine politics typical of the big city Democratic organizations.
In the 1960s, "New Left '' historians have been among the New Deal 's harsh critics. Barton J. Bernstein, in a 1968 essay, compiled a chronicle of missed opportunities and inadequate responses to problems. The New Deal may have saved capitalism from itself, Bernstein charged, but it had failed to help -- and in many cases actually harmed -- those groups most in need of assistance. Paul K. Conkin in The New Deal (1967) similarly chastised the government of the 1930s for its weak policies toward marginal farmers, for its failure to institute sufficiently progressive tax reform, and its excessive generosity toward select business interests. Howard Zinn, in 1966, criticized the New Deal for working actively to actually preserve the worst evils of capitalism.
By the 1970s liberal historians were responding with a defense of the New Deal based on numerous local and microscopic studies. Praise increasingly focused on Eleanor Roosevelt, seen as a more appropriate crusading reformer than her husband. Since then research on the New Deal has been less interested in the question of whether the New Deal was a "conservative '', "liberal '', or "revolutionary '' phenomenon than in the question of constraints within which it was operating.
Political sociologist Theda Skocpol, in a series of articles, has emphasized the issue of "state capacity '' as an often - crippling constraint. Ambitious reform ideas often failed, she argued, because of the absence of a government bureaucracy with significant strength and expertise to administer them. Other more recent works have stressed the political constraints that the New Deal encountered. Conservative skepticism about the efficacy of government was strong both in Congress and among many citizens. Thus some scholars have stressed that the New Deal was not just a product of its liberal backers, but also a product of the pressures of its conservative opponents.
During the New Deal the Communists established a network of a dozen or so members working for the government. Harold Ware led the largest group which worked in the Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA). Secretary of Agriculture Wallace got rid of them all in a famous purge in 1935. Ware died in 1935 and some individuals such as Alger Hiss moved to other government jobs. Other Communists worked for the National Labor Relations Board, the National Youth Administration, the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Theater Project, the Treasury, and the Department of State.
The issue of Communists in government became a favorite conservative attacking point in the late 1930s. In 1938 Congressman Martin Dies, a Texas Democrat, and his newly created House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Communist subversion of labor unions and gained national headlines. In 1935 -- 39, American Communist followed Stalin 's "Popular front '' approach and supported the New Deal. The Party 's membership grew as it exercised greater influence and achieved new acceptance; it operated as a pressure group on the New Deal political coalition. The most important Party base in the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), but by 1937 the CIO was spending much of its energy battling the older, more conservative American Federation of Labor (AFL). Klehr (1984) argues that the American Communist Party of the 1930s obediently followed directives from Moscow and suppressed individual initiative. In 1939 the Communists suddenly reversed course within days of the agreement between Hitler and Stalin in August that signaled friendship between the two bitter enemies. The Communists now denounced all enemies of Hitler and especially attacked President Roosevelt as a war - monger for his support for Britain in its war against Germany. Many members quit the Party in disgust.
Since 1933, politicians and pundits have often called for a "new deal '' regarding an object. That is, they demand a completely new, large - scale approach to a project. As Arthur A. Ekirch Jr. (1971) has shown, the New Deal stimulated utopianism in American political and social thought on a wide range of issues. In Canada, Conservative Prime Minister Richard B. Bennett in 1935 proposed a "new deal '' of regulation, taxation, and social insurance that was a copy of the American program; Bennett 's proposals were not enacted, and he was defeated for reelection in October 1935. In accordance with the rise of the use of U.S. political phraseology in Britain, the Labour Government of Tony Blair termed some of its employment programs "new deal '', in contrast to the Conservative Party 's promise of the ' British Dream '.
The Works Progress Administration subsidized artists, musicians, painters and writers on relief with a group of projects called Federal One. While the WPA program was by far the most widespread, it was preceded by three programs administered by the US Treasury which hired commercial artists at usual commissions to add murals and sculptures to federal buildings. The first of these efforts was the short - lived Public Works of Art Project, organized by Edward Bruce, an American businessman and artist. Bruce also led the Treasury Department 's Section of Painting and Sculpture (later renamed the Section of Fine Arts) and the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP). The Resettlement Administration (RA) and Farm Security Administration (FSA) had major photography programs. The New Deal arts programs emphasized regionalism, social realism, class conflict, proletarian interpretations, and audience participation. The unstoppable collective powers of common man, contrasted to the failure of individualism, was a favorite theme.
Post Office murals and other public art, painted by artists in this time, can still be found at many locations around the U.S. The New Deal particularly helped American novelists. For journalists, and the novelists who wrote non-fiction, the agencies and programs that the New Deal provided, allowed these writers to describe about what they really saw around the country.
Many writers chose to write about the New Deal, and whether they were for or against it, and if it was helping the country out. Some of these writers were Ruth McKenney, Edmund Wilson, and Scott Fitzgerald. Another subject that was very popular for novelists was the condition of labor. They ranged from subjects on social protest, to strikes.
Under the WPA, the Federal Theatre project flourished. Countless theatre productions around the country were staged. This allowed thousands of actors and directors to be employed, among them were Orson Welles, and John Huston.
The FSA photography project is most responsible for creating the image of the Depression in the U.S. Many of the images appeared in popular magazines. The photographers were under instruction from Washington as to what overall impression the New Deal wanted to give out. Director Roy Stryker 's agenda focused on his faith in social engineering, the poor conditions among cotton tenant farmers, and the very poor conditions among migrant farm workers; above all he was committed to social reform through New Deal intervention in people 's lives. Stryker demanded photographs that "related people to the land and vice versa '' because these photographs reinforced the RA 's position that poverty could be controlled by "changing land practices ''. Though Stryker did not dictate to his photographers how they should compose the shots, he did send them lists of desirable themes, such as "church '', "court day '', "barns ''.
Films of the late New Deal era such as Citizen Kane (1941) ridiculed so - called "great men '', while the heroism of the common man appeared in numerous movies, such as The Grapes of Wrath (1940). Thus in Frank Capra 's famous films, including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939), Meet John Doe (1941) and It 's a Wonderful Life (1946), the common people come together to battle and overcome villains who are corrupt politicians controlled by very rich, greedy capitalists.
By contrast there was also a smaller but influential stream of anti-New Deal art. Gutzon Borglum 's sculptures on Mount Rushmore emphasized great men in history (his designs had the approval of Calvin Coolidge). Gertrude Stein and Ernest Hemingway disliked the New Deal and celebrated the autonomy of perfected written work as opposed to the New Deal idea of writing as performative labor. The Southern Agrarians celebrated a premodern regionalism and opposed the TVA as a modernizing, disruptive force. Cass Gilbert, a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order, designed the new Supreme Court building (1935). Its classical lines and small size contrasted sharply with the gargantuan modernistic federal buildings going up in the Washington Mall that he detested. Hollywood managed to synthesize liberal and conservative streams, as in Busby Berkeley 's Gold Digger musicals, where the storylines exalt individual autonomy while the spectacular musical numbers show abstract populations of interchangeable dancers securely contained within patterns beyond their control.
The New Deal had many programs and new agencies, most of which were universally known by their initials. Most were abolished during World War II; others remain in operation today. They included the following:
"Most indexes worsened until the summer of 1932, which may be called the low point of the depression economically and psychologically. '' Economic indicators show the American economy reached nadir in summer 1932 to February 1933, then began recovering until the recession of 1937 -- 1938. Thus the Federal Reserve Industrial Production Index hit its low of 52.8 on 1932 - 07 - 01 and was practically unchanged at 54.3 on 1933 - 03 - 01; however by 1933 - 07 - 01, it reached 85.5 (with 1935 -- 39 = 100, and for comparison 2005 = 1,342). In Roosevelt 's 12 years in office, the economy had an 8.5 % compound annual growth of GDP, the highest growth rate in the history of any industrial country, however, recovery was slow; by 1939, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per adult was still 27 % below trend.
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who won the oscar for the movie fences | List of accolades received by Fences (Film) - wikipedia
Fences is a 2016 American drama film directed by Denzel Washington and written by August Wilson. Starring Washington, Viola Davis, Jovan Adepo and Stephen McKinley Henderson, the film focuses on a man and his life, family, and job. The film began a limited release on December 16, 2016, before opening wide on December 25. The film was released to universal acclaim, with Rotten Tomatoes listing an approval rating of 93 %, based on 207 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7 / 10, and Metacritic listing a score of 79 out of 100, based on 48 reviews.
Fences won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and the British Academy Film Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Davis. The film won Best Supporting Actress for Davis and was nominated for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor for Washington, Best Acting Ensemble and Best Adapted Screenplay at Critics ' Choice Awards. The film won Best Supporting Actress -- Motion Picture for Davis and was nominated for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama for Washington at Golden Globe Awards. The film received four nominations at Satellite Awards, including Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor for Washington and Best Supporting Actress for Davis.
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how many pairs of yeezy 2 were made | Adidas Yeezy - wikipedia
Adidas Yeezy Boost is the official collaboration sneaker by Kanye West and Adidas. The Adidas Yeezy 750 Boost "Light Brown '' was the first sneaker to release from this collaboration on February 14, 2015. The second shoe to release was the Adidas Yeezy Boost 350 "Turtle Dove ''. "Yeezy Season 1 '' was the first and only apparel collection to release from this collaboration. It was officially released on October 29, 2015. The Adidas Yeezy 950 Boost was also part of this collection and it was released in four different colorways.
Kanye West originally designed a shoe for Adidas in 2006, but it never came out. The first brand to officially collaborate with Kanye West and have a shoe line was Nike. This collaboration lasted for five years and a total of three sneaker styles were released. In 2013, after the release of the "Red Octobers '' Kanye West left Nike. Kanye West wanted Nike to grant him royalties, but they denied his request. Kanye West reached out to Adidas and they agreed to give him royalties. A year after the confirmation of the Adidas and Kanye West collaboration, there was still no product. February 2015 was when the collaboration officially debuted. "Yeezy Season 1 '' had been very anticipated and celebrities such as Rihanna, Diddy, and Kim Kardashian were at the showing.
"Yeezy Season 1 '' officially released on October 29, 2015. This collection was noted for its stripped down, ready - to - wear style, which drew on military clothing and flesh - toned colors. Prices ranged from $600 sweatpants to $3,000 jackets. Although, the footwear sold out quickly, the apparel collection did not. After the "Yeezy Season 1 '' show, Adidas announced they would no longer be a part of Yeezy apparel. Instead, they will only be collaborating on footwear.
As of 11 December, 2017, a total of 19 colorways and 6 designs have been released between the Adidas and Yeezy collaboration. Through a combination of factors including popularization by celebrities, Adidas Yeezy sneakers have come to be extremely influential and highly coveted.
Kanye 's business venture in the fashion industry is reflection of his background shaping his artistic identity. The clothes are a representation of what he grew up as, but targetting a white demographic. The expense and exclusivity of the brand allow West to remain authentic to his identity while contributing to the music culture fanbase. His release of styles in seasons maintain and shape his image, but at the same time validate his celebrity in the music industry. Although he has had collaborations with other fine brands, his independent market was important to mark his personal identity and tie it with his music.
On December 3, 2013, Adidas confirmed a new shoe collaboration deal with West. On February 8, 2015, the name and design for the Kanye West and Adidas collaboration shoe was revealed. On February 10 Adidas revealed posters of the Yeezy Boost 750 "Light Brown '' all throughout their flagship stores. The Yeezy boost 750 "Light Brown '' was initially released on February 14, 2015, exclusively for those who confirmed a reservation through the Adidas mobile app. This initial release of the Adidas Yeezy Boost 750 "Light Brown '' was limited to 9000 pairs to be available only in New York City via the Adidas smartphone app; the Adidas Yeezy Boosts were sold out within 10 minutes. Between February 21 and February 28 the Yeezy Boost 750 "Light Brown '' was available through a wider range of retailers and boutiques. The shoe retailed for $350.
On June 11, 2016, Yeezy Season 2 began with the second set of releases of the Yeezy Boost 750 "Glow in the Dark ''. The shoe was sold in an all - grey color scheme with a phosphorescent (glow - in - the - dark) gum outsole. This was the first time a glow - in - the - dark sole has been featured since the (Nike Air Yeezy) line. The shoe features improved materials such as higher quality suede and leather. Like the previous 750s, this was sold for a retail price of $350.
The next Yeezy Boost 750 featured a brown suede and leather upper with the same fluorescent sole as the previous model. This colorway was dubbed "Chocolate '' and retailed for $350 like all previous 750 models. There have been no further releases of the sneaker.
On June 27, 2015, the second shoe from the collaboration, the Yeezy Boost 350 was made available through a worldwide release. The shoe was first released in a white and grey "Turtle Dove '' Color scheme. On August 22, 2015, an all - black version of the Yeezy Boost 350 released, known as the "Pirate Black. '' An olivine variant, the "Moonrock, '' was released exclusively to stores who were vendors for the Yeezy Season 1 clothing line. The fourth and final version of Season 1 's 350 Boost was the "Oxford Tan, '' which featured a light - brown color scheme. In early 2016, a revised version of the Pirate Black colorway was released. Revisions included additional support and padding to the heel. However, both iterations are relatively identical in appearance. All variants of the shoe retailed for $200.
On August 27, 2016, the Yeezy Boost 350 re-released in infant sizes. The shoe was released in the "Turtle Dove '' and "Pirate Black '' color scheme. There have been no further releases or restocks of the sneaker.
The Yeezy 950 Boost was first released on October 29, 2015 at select retail stores and online. It was part of the Yeezy season 1 collection and came in three different colorways: Peyote, Moonrock, Chocolate, and Pirate black. Each shoe was retailed at $585 USD. "The adidas Yeezy 950 extended the Kanye West and adidas partnership outside of the sneaker space with its military duckboot inspired design. '' There have been no further releases of the sneaker.
The Adidas Yeezy 350 Football Boost "Turtle dove '' colorway was originally released on September 15, 2016. The Yeezy 350 cleat "Turtle Dove '' is the first athletic footwear product from the Adidas and Yeezy collaboration. "The shoe took the overall look and feel of the adidas Yeezy Boost 350 however they installed a Primeknit upper reinforced with SprintSkin sitting on a 5 - star cleat frame. '' The cleat was designed for football and it had made its first appearance in a 2016 NFL kickoff game. Texans wide receiver DeAndre Hopkins was fined $6,000 for wearing the cleats because they broke the NFL uniform policy by not having a solid base color.
There have been no further releases of this cleat
The Yeezy Boost 350 V2 "Beluga '' was revealed at the Yeezy Season 3 show and was released on September 24, 2016. It is considered a remake of the previous Yeezy Boost 350 and features several outer changes, such as a different pattern, removed heel tab, and a large stripe running around the outer side of the shoe with the characters "SPLY - 350 ''. The sole also has been updated to be transparent and features full - length visibility of the boost material midsole through a grid - pattern opening on the outsole. September 24, 2016, was the release date of the Yeezy Boost V2 "Beluga ''. It featured an all Grey outsole and primeknit, with a large colored orange stripe with the words "SPLY - 350 ''. On November 23, 2016, three new colorways released, "Copper '', "Green '', and "Red '', featuring an all black outsole and primeknit, with a large colored stripe with the words "SPLY - 350 ''. A Core Black / Core White colorway, dubbed "Oreo '', was released December 17, 2016, which also featured a black outsole and prime knit, as well as a white stripe across the shoe.
A notable adaption to the Yeezy Boost 350 V2 line was made when a black and red "Bred '' colorway released February 11, 2017. The colorway possesses a "triple black '' colorway, with the "SPLY - 350 '' displayed in a red tint. Additionally, it officially became the first to opt out the prominent stripe on previous models. A "Zebra '' colorway was released on February 25, 2017 and later restocked online and in various adidas stores and retailers on June 24, 2017. The colorway featured prominent black stripes over a never before seen white overlay, prompting a surge of value and hype from the sneaker community. On April 29, 2017, a long - awaited model labeled as "Cream White '' was released to the public. All shoe colorways have been released for a retail price of $220.
Three new colorways of the Yeezy 350 V2 model have surfaced. A "Semi-Frozen Yellow '' colorway featuring a bright yellow prime knit upper and unique "gum soles '' released on November 18, 2017 in limited quantity. Additionally, a colorway with a strikingly familiar pattern to the first release of the Yeezy 350 V2, dubbed the "Beluga 2.0, '' released at various retailers in large quantity seven days after the "Semi-Frozen Yellow '' on November 25, 2017. It subsequently restocked on the 30th of November. The third colorway, "Blue Tint, '' will be releasing on the 16th of December. All colorways have opted to possess consistent prime knit patterns without a prominent stripe on the sides, however, the iconic "SPLY - 350 '' will still be retained on all three pairs with prices being set at $220.
Another iteration of the shoe has been rumored to make its return in 2018; featuring a displaced "SPLY - 350 '' and a dull grey primeknit pattern.
The Adidas Powerphase "Calabasas '' was released on March 28, 2017. "The retro sneakers are an update of an Adidas trainer from the ' 80s. They feature a premium white leather upper with perforated striped, green Adidas branding and a red Trefoil logo. '' A tonal grey colorway released globally on the 9th of December for a retail price of $120.
The adidas Yeezy Boost 700 is the official name for Kanye West 's new adidas YEEZY running shoe. It debuted during the Yeezy Season 5 fashion show in 2017. The shoe released on August 12, 2017 for $300 exclusively via the Yeezy Supply online store. Two colorways of white / gum and black are also expected to release in 2018. The shoe itself has faced large amounts of controversy due to its appearance.
This Adidas Yeezy 500 was released in December 2017, as a pre-order with delivery slated for March 2018, It was only available in a Super Moon Yellow colourway, and only available in a bundle with a hoodie and sweat shorts.
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who sang never felt more like singing the blues | Singing the Blues - wikipedia
"Singing the Blues '' is a popular song written by Melvin Endsley and published in 1956. The song was first recorded and released by Marty Robbins in 1956. (It is not related to the 1920 jazz song "Singin ' the Blues '' recorded by Frank Trumbauer and Bix Beiderbecke in 1927.)
The best - known recording was released in October 1956 by Guy Mitchell and spent ten weeks at number 1 on the U.S. Billboard chart from December 8, 1956, to February 2, 1957. An example of the U.S. recording is on Columbia # 40769, dated 1956, with the Ray Conniff Orchestra. Mitchell 's version was also number 1 in the UK Singles Chart for three (non-consecutive) weeks in early 1957, one of only four singles to return to number 1 on three separate occasions, with the other three being "I Believe '' by Frankie Laine, "Happy '' by Pharrell Williams and "What Do You Mean? '' by Justin Bieber.
Two other charting versions of the song were released almost simultaneously with Mitchell 's, one by the English singer Tommy Steele (with the Steelmen) and the other (recorded before Mitchell covered it) by US country singer Marty Robbins.
Tommy Steele 's version of "Singing the Blues '' made number 1 in the UK Singles Chart for one week on 11 January 1957, sandwiched by two of the weeks that Guy Mitchell 's version of the same song topped the charts. Steele 's recording of the song was not a chart success in the US.
The Marty Robbins version made it to number one on the Billboard C&W Best Sellers chart for 13 weeks in late 1956 and early 1957 and peaked at number seventeen on the US pop chart. In 1983, Gail Davies recorded a cover version, taking her version into the top 20 of the Hot Country Singles chart in the spring of 1983.
The song is often revived, and on three occasions new recordings of "Singing the Blues '' have become UK Top 40 hits. These latter - day hit versions were by Dave Edmunds (1980), Gail Davies (1983), Daniel O'Donnell (1994), and Cliff Richard & the Shadows (2009).
Trumpeter Bob Scobey and banjoist / vocalist Clancy Hayes recorded a trad jazz version in 1958 for the LP "Scobey and Clancy raid the Jukebox '' on the Good Time Jazz label. Other notable cover versions include a 1960 recording by Bill Haley & his Comets, a 1963 version by Dean Martin, and a 1971 version by Black Oak Arkansas. It was recorded by Marie Osmond for her 1975 album In My Little Corner of the World, by Gene Summers on his 1981 French album Gene Summers in Nashville, and by The Kentucky Headhunters for their album Stompin ' Grounds (1997). A version by Bert Jansch appears on his 2000 release Crimson Moon.
"Singing the Blues '' was performed live by Paul McCartney on the MTV show Unplugged in 1991 and included on the subsequent soundtrack, Unplugged (The Official Bootleg).
The great Hank Snow did it on his 1969 album on RCA "I Went To Your Wedding ''.
The song was also performed by Albert Lee.
The tune was also sung by Vivian Vance and William Frawley (Ethel and Fred of I Love Lucy fame) for a Ford Motor Company television commercial promoting the Edsel.
The Californian pop punk band Groovie Ghoulies covered the song on their third album World Contact Day in 1996.
The first line of this song is famously the last line of "London Calling '' by the Clash, cut short and echoed in the final mix of the song ("I never felt so much a-like, a-like, a-like... '').
Birmingham City - supporting radio presenters Tom Ross and Ian Danter released a version to celebrate Birmingham 's promotion to the Premier League, and has been sung since at least the 1969 season by fans of the Midlands club.
Blackburn Rovers fans have been known to sing a version of the song: "Never felt more like singing the blues, the Rovers win and Burnley lose, oh Rovers, you 've got me singing the blues. ''
Everton fans sing a version of this song; "I 've never felt more like singing the blues, when Everton win and Liverpool lose, oh Everton you 've got me singing the blues. ''
Also this song is commonly used at Manchester City F.C. football matches, where the fans sing: "Never felt more like singing the blues, City win, United lose. ''
This song has also been used by Sheffield Wednesday fans. Their lyrics are: "Never felt more like singing the blues, When Wednesday win, United lose. '' Former Wednesday player Terry Curran recorded a version of the song that is still used at Hillsborough to this day.
Hugues Aufray and his Skiffle Group recorded a French version of the song, "Tout le long du chemin '', in 1964.
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how many episodes are in the first season of house of cards | House of Cards (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of the American television drama series House of Cards premiered exclusively via Netflix 's web streaming service on February 1, 2013. The season was produced by Media Rights Capital, and the executive producers are David Fincher, Kevin Spacey, Eric Roth, Joshua Donen, Dana Brunetti, Andrew Davies, Michael Dobbs, John Melfi, and Beau Willimon.
House of Cards was created for television by Beau Willimon. It is an adaptation of a previous BBC miniseries of the same name by Andrew Davies, which was based on the novel by Michael Dobbs. Set in present - day Washington, D.C., House of Cards is the story of Frank Underwood (Kevin Spacey), a Democrat from South Carolina 's 5th congressional district and the House Majority Whip, who, after getting passed over for appointment as Secretary of State, decides to exact his revenge on those who betrayed him. The series also stars Robin Wright, Kate Mara, and Corey Stoll in lead roles.
The first season received positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, the season received a weighted mean score of 76 out of 100 based on 25 reviews, which translates to "generally positive reception. '' On Rotten Tomatoes, the season received a score of 84 % with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10 based on 32 reviews; the site 's consensus reads, "Bolstered by strong performances -- especially from Kevin Spacey -- and surehanded direction, House of Cards is a slick, engrossing drama that may redefine how television is produced. '' USA Today critic Robert Bianco praised the series, particularly Spacey and Wright 's lead performances, stating "If you think network executives are nervous, imagine the actors who have to go up against that pair in the Emmys. '' Tom Gilatto of People Weekly lauded the first two episodes, calling them "cinematically rich, full of sleek, oily pools of darkness. '' In her review for The Denver Post, Joanne Ostrow said the series is "Deeply cynical about human beings as well as politics and almost gleeful in its portrayal of limitless ambition. '' She added: "House of Cards is a wonderfully sour take on power and corruption. ''
On July 18, 2013, House of Cards became the first Primetime Emmy Award nominated series for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards. Among those nine nominations were Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for Kevin Spacey, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for Robin Wright, and Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for David Fincher. The first season was also nominated for Casting, Cinematography, Editing, Music, and Main Title Music at the 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. On September 15, the series became the first web television series and the first web television webisode to be Primetime Emmy Awarded with two wins at the 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards: Eigil Bryld for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series and Laray Mayfield and Julie Schubert for Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series. On September 22, Netflix made history with a total three wins including Fincher 's Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for directing the pilot episode "Chapter 1 '' in addition to the pair of Creative Arts Emmy Awards, making "Chapter 1 '' the first Primetime Emmy - awarded webisode. None of the Emmy awards were considered to be in major categories, however.
Spacey received best actor nominations at the 20th Screen Actors Guild Awards, 71st Golden Globe Awards, and 18th Satellite Awards. Wright won best actress at both the 71st Golden Globe Awards and 18th Satellite Awards, while Stoll was nominated at both for supporting actor and the series was nominated at both for best drama. Wright 's Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Television Series Drama for her portrayal of Claire Underwood made her the first actress to win a Golden Globe Award for an online - only web television series. The show won a 2013 Peabody Award for Area of Excellence.
At the 3rd Critics ' Choice Television Awards, Kevin Spacey and Corey Stoll were nominated for Best Drama Actor and Best Drama Supporting Actor, respectively. The show has also been nominated at the 29th TCA Awards for the Outstanding New Program and the Program of the Year. The show was also nominated at the 40th People 's Choice Awards for Favorite Streaming Series, at the Producers Guild of America Awards 2013 for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama, at the 66th Directors Guild of America Awards for Outstanding Directing -- Drama Series, at the Writers Guild of America Awards 2013 for Television: Dramatic Series, Television: New Series and Television: Episodic Drama, winning new series.
In addition, the success of House of Cards and popularity of Breaking Bad, both of which are only available in the United Kingdom online has caused a rule change for the British Academy Television Awards and British Academy Television Craft Awards beginning with the ceremonies for the 2013 calendar year on May 18, 2014 and April 27, 2014, respectively. At the 2014 British Academy Television Awards the show was nominated for Best International Programme.
The first season was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on June 11, 2013, in region 2 on June 10, 2013, and in region 4 on June 27, 2013.
Director 's commentaries for all of the first season episodes premiered on Netflix on January 3, 2014. They had not been included on the home video release.
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who introduced mass production of cotton cloth to the us | History of cotton - wikipedia
The history of cotton can be traced to domestication. Cotton played an important role in the history of India, the British Empire, and the United States, and continues to be an important crop and commodity.
The history of the domestication of cotton is very complex and is not known exactly. Several isolated civilizations in both the Old and New World independently domesticated and converted cotton into fabric. All the same tools were invented, including combs, bows, hand spindles, and primitive looms.
The oldest cotton textiles were found in graves and city ruins of civilizations from dry climates, where the fabrics did not decay completely.
Some of the oldest cotton bolls were discovered in a cave in Tehuacán Valley, Mexico, and were dated to approximately 5500 BCE, but some doubt has been cast on these estimates. Seeds and cordage dating to about 2500 BCE have been found in Peru. By 3000 BCE cotton was being grown and processed in Mexico, and Arizona. Pre-Incan cotton grave cloths were found in Huaca Prieta in Peru, and date back to 2500 BCE.
The Indus Valley civilization started cultivating cotton by 2500 BCE. Cotton was mentioned in Hindu hymns in 1500 BCE.
Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, mentions Indian cotton in the 5th century BCE as "a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep. '' When Alexander the Great invaded India, his troops started wearing cotton clothes that were more comfortable than their previous woolen ones. Strabo, another Greek historian, mentioned the vividness of Indian fabrics, and Arrian told of Indian -- Arab trade of cotton fabrics in 130 CE.
Egyptians grew and spun cotton from 6 -- 700 CE.
Handheld roller cotton gins had been used in India since the 6th century, and was then introduced to other countries from there. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, dual - roller gins appeared in India and China. The Indian version of the dual - roller gin was prevalent throughout the Mediterranean cotton trade by the 16th century. This mechanical device was, in some areas, driven by water power.
The spinning wheel was invented in India, between 500 and 1000 AD. The earliest clear illustrations of the spinning wheel come from the Islamic world in the eleventh century.
Cotton was a common fabric during the Middle Ages, and was hand - woven on a loom. Cotton manufacture was introduced to Europe during the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily. The knowledge of cotton weaving was spread to northern Italy in the 12th century, when Sicily was conquered by the Normans, and consequently to the rest of Europe. The spinning wheel, introduced to Europe circa 1350, improved the speed of cotton spinning. By the 15th century, Venice, Antwerp, and Haarlem were important ports for cotton trade, and the sale and transportation of cotton fabrics had become very profitable.
Christopher Columbus, in his explorations of the Bahamas and Cuba, found natives wearing cotton ("the costliest and handsomest... cotton mantles and sleeveless shirts embroidered and painted in different designs and colours ''), a fact that may have contributed to his incorrect belief that he had landed on the coast of India.
Under the Mughal Empire, which ruled in the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th century to the early 18th century, Indian cotton production increased, in terms of both raw cotton and cotton textiles. The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms such as a new revenue system that was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton and indigo, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.
The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire 's international trade. India had a 25 % share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century. Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan. The most important center of cotton production was the Bengal Subah province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.
Bengal accounted for more than 50 % of textiles imported by the Dutch from Asia, Bengali cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "daka '' textiles. Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38 % share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20 % of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.
The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th -- 14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire some time around the 16th century, and is still used in India through to the present day. Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire. The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin, led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.
It was reported that, with an Indian cotton gin, which is half machine and half tool, one man and one woman could clean 28 pounds of cotton per day. With a modified Forbes version, one man and a boy could produce 250 pounds per day. If oxen were used to power 16 of these machines, and a few people 's labour was used to feed them, they could produce as much work as 750 people did formerly.
Cotton cloth started to become highly sought - after for the European urban markets during the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Vasco da Gama (d. 1524), a Portuguese explorer, opened Asian sea trade, which replaced caravans and allowed for heavier cargo. Indian craftspeople had long protected the secret of how to create colourful patterns. However, some converted to Christianity and their secret was revealed by a French Catholic priest, Father Coeurdoux (1691 -- 1779). He revealed the process of creating the fabrics in France, which assisted the European textile industry.
In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for cotton textiles from Mughal India. European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95 % of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40 % of Dutch imports from Asia. In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self - sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some woolens, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India in order to pay for South Asian imports.
Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century had the fifth most productive cotton industry in the world, in terms of the number of spindles per capita. The industry was initially driven by machinery that relied on traditional energy sources, such as animal power, water wheels, and windmills, which were also the principle energy sources in Western Europe up until around 1870. It was under Muhammad Ali of Egypt in the early 19th century that steam engines were introduced to the Egyptian cotton industry.
Cotton 's rise to global importance came about as a result of the cultural transformation of Europe and Britain 's trading empire. Calico and chintz, types of cotton fabrics, became popular in Europe, and by 1664 the East India Company was importing a quarter of a million pieces into Britain. By the 18th century, the middle class had become more concerned with cleanliness and fashion, and there was a demand for easily washable and colourful fabric. Wool continued to dominate the European markets, but cotton prints were introduced to Britain by the East India Company in the 1690s. Imports of calicoes, cheap cotton fabrics from Kozhikode, then known as Calicut, in India, found a mass market among the poor. By 1721 these calicoes threatened British manufacturers, and Parliament passed the Calico Act that banned calicoes for clothing or domestic purposes. In 1774 the act was repealed with the invention of machines that allowed for British manufacturers to compete with Eastern fabrics.
Indian cotton textiles, particularly those from Bengal, continued to maintain a competitive advantage up until the 19th century. In order to compete with India, Britain invested in labour - saving technical progress, while implementing protectionist policies such as bans and tariffs to restrict Indian imports. At the same time, the East India Company 's rule in India contributed to its deindustrialization, opening up a new market for British goods, while the capital amassed from Bengal after its 1757 conquest was used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacturing and greatly increase British wealth. British colonization also forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton, giving Britain a monopoly over India 's large market and cotton resources. India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods. Britain eventually surpassed India as the world 's leading cotton textile manufacturer in the 19th century.
The cotton industry grew under the British commercial empire. British cotton products were successful in European markets, constituting 40.5 % of exports in 1784 -- 1786. Britain 's success was also due to its trade with its own colonies, whose settlers maintained British identities, and thus, fashions. With the growth of the cotton industry, manufacturers had to find new sources of raw cotton, and cultivation was expanded to West India. High tariffs against Indian textile workshops, British power in India through the East India Company, and British restrictions on Indian cotton imports transformed India from the source of textiles to a source of raw cotton. Cultivation was also attempted in the Caribbean and West Africa, but these attempts failed due to bad weather and poor soil. The Indian subcontinent was looked to as a possible source of raw cotton, but intra-imperial conflicts and economic rivalries prevented the area from producing the necessary supply.
Cotton 's versatility allowed it to be combined with linen and be made into velvet. It was cheaper than silk and could be imprinted more easily than wool, allowing for patterned dresses for women. It became the standard fashion and, because of its price, was accessible to the general public. New inventions in the 1770s -- such as the spinning jenny, the water frame, and the spinning mule -- made the British Midlands into a very profitable manufacturing centre. In 1794 -- 1796, British cotton goods accounted for 15.6 % of Britain 's exports, and in 1804 -- 1806 grew to 42.3 %.
The Lancashire textile mills were major parts of the British industrial revolution. Their workers had poor working conditions: low wages, child labour, and 18 - hour work days. Richard Arkwright created a textile empire by building a factory system powered by water, which was occasionally raided by the Luddites, weavers put out of business by the mechanization of textile production. In the 1790s, James Watt 's steam power was applied to textile production, and by 1839 200,000 children worked in Manchester 's cotton mills. Karl Marx, who frequently visited Lancashire, may have been influenced by the conditions of workers in these mills in writing Das Kapital.
Anglo - French warfare in the early 1790s restricted access to continental Europe, causing the United States to become an important -- and temporarily the largest -- consumer for British cotton goods. In 1791, U.S. cotton production was small, at only 900,000 kilograms. Several factors contributed to the growth of the cotton industry in the U.S.: the increasing British demand; innovations in spinning, weaving, and steam power; inexpensive land; and a slave labour force. The modern cotton gin, invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney, enormously grew the American cotton industry, which was previously limited by the speed of manual removal of seeds from the fibre, and helped cotton to surpass tobacco as the primary cash crop of the South. By 1801 the annual production of cotton had reached over 22 million kilograms, and by the early 1830s the United States produced the majority of the world 's cotton. Cotton also exceeded the value of all other United States exports combined. The need for fertile land conducive to its cultivation lead to the expansion of slavery in the United States and an early 19th - century land rush known as Alabama Fever.
Cultivation of cotton using black slaves brought huge profits to the owners of large plantations, making them some of the wealthiest men in the U.S. prior to the Civil War. In the non-slave - owning states, farms rarely grew larger than what could be cultivated by one family due to scarcity of farm workers. In the slave states, owners of farms could buy many slaves and thus cultivate large areas of land. By the 1850s, slaves made up 50 % of the population of the main cotton states: Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Slaves were the most important asset in cotton cultivation, and their sale brought profits to slaveowners outside of cotton - cultivating areas. Thus, the cotton industry contributed significantly to the Southern upper class 's support of slavery. Although the Southern small - farm owners did not grow cotton due to its lack of short - term profitability, they were still supportive of the system in the hopes of one day owning slaves.
Cotton 's central place in the national economy and its international importance led Senator James Henry Hammond of South Carolina to make a famous boast in 1858:
Without firing a gun, without drawing a sword, should they make war on us, we could bring the whole world to our feet... What would happen if no cotton was furnished for three years?... England would topple headlong and carry the whole civilized world with her save the South. No, you dare not to make war on cotton. No power on the earth dares to make war upon it. Cotton is king.
Cotton diplomacy, the idea that cotton would cause Britain and France to intervene in the Civil War, was unsuccessful. It was thought that the Civil War caused the Lancashire Cotton Famine, a period between 1861 -- 1865 of depression in the British cotton industry, by blocking off American raw cotton. Some, however, suggest that the Cotton Famine was mostly due to overproduction and price inflation caused by an expectation of future shortage.
Prior to the Civil War, Lancashire companies issued surveys to find new cotton - growing countries if the Civil War were to occur and reduce American exports. India was deemed to be the country capable of growing the necessary amounts. Indeed, it helped fill the gap during the war, making up only 31 % of British cotton imports in 1861, but 90 % in 1862 and 67 % in 1864.
Additionally, the main purchasers of cotton, Britain and France, began to turn to Egyptian cotton. The Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton and returned to cheap American exports, sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt 's occupation by the British Empire in 1882.
The South continued to be a one - crop economy until the 20th century, when the New Deal and World War II encouraged diversification. Many ex-slaves as well as poor whites worked in the sharecropping system in serf - like conditions.
The farmer said to the merchant I need some meat and meal. Get away from here, you son - of - a-gun, You got boll weevils in your field. Going to get your home, going to get your home.
Boll weevils, insects that entered the United States from Mexico in 1892, created 100 years of problems for the U.S. cotton industry. Many consider the boll weevil almost as important as the Civil War as an agent of change in the South, forcing economic and social changes. In total, the boll weevil is estimated to have caused $22 billion in damages. In the late 1950s, the U.S. cotton industry faced economic problems, and eradication of the boll weevil was prioritized. The Agricultural Research Service built the Boll Weevil Research Laboratory, which came up with detection traps and pheromone lures. The program was successful, and pesticide use reduced significantly while the boll weevil was eradicated in some areas.
After the Cotton Famine, the European textile industry looked to new sources of raw cotton. The African colonies of West Africa and Mozambique provided a cheap supply. Taxes and extra-market means again discouraged local textile production. Working conditions were brutal, especially in the Congo, Angola, and Mozambique. Several revolts occurred, and a cotton black market created a local textile industry. In recent history, United States agricultural subsidies have depressed world prices, making it difficult for African farmers to compete.
India 's cotton industry struggled in the late 19th century because of unmechanized production and American dominance of raw cotton export. India, ceasing to be a major exporter of cotton goods, became the largest importer of British cotton textiles. Mohandas Gandhi believed that cotton was closely tied to Indian self - determination. In the 1920s he launched the Khadi Movement, a massive boycott of British cotton goods. He urged Indians to use simple homespun cotton textiles, khadi. Cotton became an important symbol in Indian independence. During World War II, shortages created a high demand for khadi, and 16 million yards of cloth were produced in nine months. The British Raj declared khadi subversive; damaging to the British imperial rule. Confiscation, burning of stocks, and jailing of workers resulted, which intensified resistance. In the second half of the 20th century, a downturn in the European cotton industry led to a resurgence of the Indian cotton industry. India began to mechanize and was able to compete in the world market.
In 1912, the British cotton industry was at its peak, producing eight billion yards of cloth. In World War I, cotton could n't be exported to foreign markets, and some countries built their own factories, particularly Japan. By 1933 Japan introduced 24 - hour cotton production and became the world 's largest cotton manufacturer. Demand for British cotton slumped, and during the interwar period 345,000 workers left the industry and 800 mills closed.
India 's boycott of British cotton products devastated Lancashire, and in Blackburn 74 mills closed in under four years.
In World War II, the British cotton industry saw an upturn and an increase in workers, with Lancashire mills being tasked with creating parachutes and uniforms for the war.
In the 1950s and ' 60s, many workers came from the Indian sub-continent and were encouraged to look for work in Lancashire. An increase in the work force allowed mill owners to introduce third (night) shifts. This resurgence in the textile industry did not last long, and by 1958, Britain had become a net importer of cotton cloth.
Modernization of the industry was attempted in 1959 with the Cotton Industry Act.
Mill closures occurred in Lancashire, and it was failing to compete with foreign industry. During the 1960s and ' 70s, a mill closed in Lancashire almost once a week. By the 1980s, the textile industry of North West Britain had almost disappeared.
Textile mills have moved from Western Europe to, more recently, lower - wage areas. Industrial production is currently mostly located in countries like India, Bangladesh, China, and in Latin America. In these regions labour is much less expensive than in the first world, and attracts poor workers. Biotechnology plays an important role in cotton agriculture as genetically modified cotton that can resist Roundup, a herbicide made by the company Monsanto, as well as repel insects. Organically grown cotton is becoming less prevalent in favour of synthetic fibres made from petroleum products.
The demand for cotton has doubled since the 1980s. The main producer of cotton, as of December 2016, is India, at 26 %, past China at 20 % and the United States at 16 %. The leading cotton exporter is the United States, whose production is subsidized by the government, with subsidies estimated at $14 billion between 1995 and 2003. The value of cotton lint has been decreasing for sixty years, and the value of cotton has decreased by 50 % in 1997 -- 2007. The global textile and clothing industry employs 23.6 million workers, of which 75 % are women.
Max Havelaar, a fair trade association, launched a fair trade label for cotton in 2005, the first for a non-food commodity. Working with small producers from Cameroon, Mali, and Senegal, the fair trade agreement increases substantially the price paid for goods and increases adherence to World Labour Organization conventions. A two - year period in Mali has allowed farmers to buy new agricultural supplies and cattle, and enroll their children in school.
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knight grand cross (first class) of the most noble order of the crown of thailand | Order of the Crown of Thailand - wikipedia
The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Thailand (Thai: เครื่องราชอิสริยาภรณ์ อัน มี เกียรติยศ ยิ่ง มงกุฎไทย; RTGS: Khrueang Ratcha Itsariyaphon An Mi Kiatti Yot Ying Mongkut Thai) is a Thai order, established in 1869 by King Rama V of The Kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) for Thais, the royal family, governmental employees, and foreign dignitaries for their outstanding services to the Kingdom of Thailand. The order originally had seven classes. The special class was added by King Rama VI in 1918.
The Sovereign Grand Master (King Chulalongkorn) was exclusive his Knight Grand Cross by added collar for this class exclusively for him. The order had four classes and name The Most Noble Order of the Crown of Siam
The Orders has been awarded with Order of the White Elephant.
The Order consists of eight classes:
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what is the name of the tree in hell | Zaqqum - wikipedia
According to the Quran, Zaqqum (Arabic: زقوم ) is a tree that "springs out of the bottom of hell - fire '' or Jahannam. It is mentioned in verses 17: 60 (as the "cursed tree ''), 37: 62 - 68, 44: 43, and 56: 52, of the Quran.
The Qur'an says:
The fruits of Zaqquum are shaped like devils ' heads (Qur'an 37: 62 - 68). Some Islamic scholars believe in a literal meaning of this tree grown in fire, showing the inverted flora of hell. The inhabitants of hell are forced to eat the tree 's fruits, which tears their bodies apart and releases bodily fluids as a punishment. According to Shaykh Umar Sulayman Al - Ashqar, a professor at the University of Jordan, once the palate of the sinners is satiated, the fruit in their bellies churns like burning oil. Other scholars suggest the tree is grown by the seeds of the evils deeds of the sinners, therefore the devilish fruits are the fruits of their bad actions during lifetime. Ibn Arabi stated, the tree stands for the arrogant self.
-- Events --
The name zaqqum has been applied to the species Euphorbia abyssinica by the Beja people in eastern Sudan. In Jordan, it is applied to the species Balanites aegyptiaca. In Turkey, zaqqum (zakkum) is Nerium oleander.
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who is the first education minister in west bengal | Pannalal Bose - Wikipedia
Pannalal Bose was an eminent jurist and a judge who delivered famous "Bhawal 's Case '' which rocked the Privy Council by storm setting aside the Full Bench Judgment of the Calcutta High Court. He was the Education and Land Revenue Minister of West Bengal from 1952 - 1956.
He was educated at the University of Calcutta.
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is there going to be another season of britannia | Britannia (tv series) - wikipedia
Britannia is a British - American historical fantasy series written by Jez Butterworth. The nine - part series is the first co-production between Sky and Amazon Prime Video, and stars Kelly Reilly, David Morrissey, Zoë Wanamaker, Liana Cornell and Stanley Weber. It airs on Sky Atlantic in the UK (all 9 episodes available on "Sky On Demand '' in the UK from 18 January 2018) and on Amazon Prime Video in the US (streaming began 26 January 2018).
Set in AD 43, the series follows the Roman conquest of Britain -- "a mysterious land ruled by wild warrior women and powerful druids who can channel the powerful forces of the underworld. '' Celtic rivals Kerra and Antedia must work together to fight off the Roman invasion led by Aulus Plautius.
The series was produced by Rick McCallum and shot on location in the Czech Republic and Wales. Most dialogue in the series is spoken in English, which is used mostly to represent Vulgar Latin spoken by the Romans and Brythonic spoken by the Celts. Latin and Welsh are also used to represent Vulgar Latin and Brythonic, respectively.
In March 2018, is was announced that Sky Atlantic had renewed the show for a second season.
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who sang you can have my private number | Private Number (Judy Clay and William Bell song) - wikipedia
"Private Number '' is a song recorded by American soul singers Judy Clay and William Bell. The song was included on Bell 's album Private Numbers (1968). Released as a single, it peaked at # 8 in the UK and # 75 in the US Billboard Hot 100.
In 2000, Bell performed a live version of "Private Number '' with Scottish rock band Texas. In 1999, the song was covered by English boy band 911 for their third studio album There It Is. In 2011, Jon Stevens covered the song for his album Testify! and in 2016 Beverley Knight recorded a version with Jamie Cullum for her album Soulsville. Knight performed the song with Bell at a 2017 Prom celebrating Stax Records.
The opening seconds of Clay and Bell 's original version of the song were prominently featured as a recurring sample in Rappin ' 4 - Tay 's hip - hop single, Playaz Club, which reached # 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1994. The opening seconds were also sampled in Pretty Lights 's "Finally Moving '', which is featured on his 2006 album Taking Up Your Precious Time, Nightmares On Wax 's "You Wish '' from his 2006 album In a Space Outta Sound, and more recently by Purple Disco Machine on "Devil in Me '', featured in his 2017 album Soulmatic.
English boy band 911 covered "Private Number '' for their third studio album, There It Is (1999). There are two different versions of the song, one version featuring Natalie Jordan and one featuring Fann Wong. The song was released as the third and final single from the album on 3 May 1999 and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart.
The music video features 911 performing the song in pouring rain in China. There are two different versions of the video, one featuring Natalie Jordan and one featuring Fann Wong. In Jordan 's version, she can be seen singing her parts whilst on a television screen and in a dark room. In Wong 's version, she is standing by herself in the rain as well.
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where does the eustachian tube drain in the throat | Eustachian tube - wikipedia
The Eustachian tube / juː ˌsteɪ. ʃən /, also known as the auditory tube or pharyngotympanic tube, is a tube that links the nasopharynx to the middle ear. It is a part of the middle ear. In adult humans the Eustachian tube is approximately 35 mm (1.4 in) long and 3 mm (0.12 in) in diameter. It is named after the sixteenth - century anatomist Bartolomeo Eustachi.
In humans and other land animals the middle ear (like the ear canal) is normally filled with air. Unlike the open ear canal, however, the air of the middle ear is not in direct contact with the atmosphere outside the body. The Eustachian tube connects from the chamber of the middle ear to the back of the nasopharynx.
Normally, the Eustachian tube is collapsed, but it gapes open both with swallowing and with positive pressure. When taking off in an airplane, the surrounding air pressure goes from higher (on the ground) to lower (in the sky). The air in the middle ear expands as the plane gains altitude, and pushes its way into the back of the nose and mouth. On the way down, the volume of air in the middle ear shrinks, and a slight vacuum is produced. Active opening of the Eustachian tube is required to equalize the pressure between the middle ear and the surrounding atmosphere as the plane descends. A diver also experiences this change in pressure, but with greater rates of pressure change; active opening of the Eustachian tube is required more frequently as the diver goes deeper into higher pressure.
The Eustachian tube extends from the anterior wall of the middle ear to the lateral wall of the nasopharynx, approximately at the level of the inferior nasal concha. It consists of a bony part and a cartilaginous part.
The bony part (1 / 3) nearest to the middle ear is made of bone and is about 12 mm in length. It begins in the anterior wall of the tympanic cavity, below the septum canalis musculotubarii, and, gradually narrowing, ends at the angle of junction of the squamous and the petrous parts of the temporal bone, its extremity presenting a jagged margin which serves for the attachment of the cartilaginous part.
The cartilaginous part of the Eustachian tube is about 24 mm. in length and is formed of a triangular plate of elastic fibrocartilage, the apex of which is attached to the margin of the medial end of the bony part of the tube, while its base lies directly under the mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx, where it forms an elevation, the torus tubarius or cushion, behind the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube.
The upper edge of the cartilage is curled upon itself, being bent laterally so as to present on transverse section the appearance of a hook; a groove or furrow is thus produced, which is open below and laterally, and this part of the canal is completed by fibrous membrane. The cartilage lies in a groove between the petrous part of the temporal bone and the great wing of the sphenoid; this groove ends opposite the middle of the medial pterygoid plate. The cartilaginous and bony portions of the tube are not in the same plane, the former inclining downward a little more than the latter. The diameter of the tube is not uniform throughout, being greatest at the pharyngeal opening, least at the junction of the bony and cartilaginous portions, and again increased toward the tympanic cavity; the narrowest part of the tube is termed the isthmus.
The position and relations of the pharyngeal opening are described with the nasal part of the pharynx. The mucous membrane of the tube is continuous in front with that of the nasal part of the pharynx, and behind with that of the tympanic cavity; it is covered with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelia and is thin in the osseous portion, while in the cartilaginous portion it contains many mucous glands and near the pharyngeal orifice a considerable amount of adenoid tissue, which has been named by Gerlach the tube tonsil.
There are four muscles associated with the function of the Eustachian tube:
The tube is opened during swallowing by contraction of the tensor veli palatini and levator veli palatini, muscles of the soft palate.
The Eustachian tube is derived from the ventral part of the first pharyngeal pouch and second endodermal pouch, which during embryogenesis forms the tubotympanic recess. The distal part of the tubotympanic sulcus gives rise to the tympanic cavity, while the proximal tubular structure becomes the Eustachian tube. It helps transformation of sound waves.
Under normal circumstances, the human Eustachian tube is closed, but it can open to let a small amount of air through to prevent damage by equalizing pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere. Pressure differences cause temporary conductive hearing loss by decreased motion of the tympanic membrane and ossicles of the ear. Various methods of ear clearing such as yawning, swallowing, or chewing gum may be used to intentionally open the tube and equalize pressures. When this happens, humans hear a small popping sound, an event familiar to aircraft passengers, scuba divers, or drivers in mountainous regions. Devices assisting in pressure equalization include an ad hoc balloon applied to the nose, creating inflation by positive air pressure. Some people learn to voluntarily ' click ' their ears, together or separately, performing a pressure equalizing routine by opening their Eustachian tubes when pressure changes are experienced, as in ascending / descending in aircraft, mountain driving, elevator lift / drops, etc. Some are even able to deliberately keep their Eustachian tubes open for a brief period, and even increase or decrease air pressure in the middle ear. The ' clicking ' can actually be heard by putting one 's ear to another 's while performing the clicking sound. This voluntary control may be first discovered when yawning or swallowing, or by other means (above). Those who develop this ability may discover that it can be done deliberately without force even when there are no pressure issues involved.
The Eustachian tube also drains mucus from the middle ear. Upper respiratory tract infections or allergies can cause the Eustachian tube, or the membranes surrounding its opening to become swollen, trapping fluid, which serves as a growth medium for bacteria, causing ear infections. This swelling can be reduced through the use of decongestants such as pseudoephedrine, oxymetazoline, and phenylephrine. Ear infections are more common in children because the tube is horizontal and shorter, making bacterial entry easier, and it also has a smaller diameter, making the movement of fluid more difficult. In addition, children 's developing immune systems and poor hygiene habits make them more prone to upper respiratory infections.
Otitis media, or inflammation of the middle ear, commonly affects the Eustachian tube. Children under 7 are more susceptible to this condition, one theory being that this is because the Eustachian tube is shorter and at more of a horizontal angle than in the adult ear. Others argue that susceptibility in this age group is related to immunological factors and not Eustachian tube anatomy.
Barotitis, a form of barotrauma, may occur when there is a substantial difference in air or water pressure between the outer and the inner ear -- for example, during a rapid ascent while scuba diving, or during sudden decompression of an aircraft at high altitude.
Some people are born with a dysfunctional Eustachian tube that is much slimmer than usual. The cause may be genetic, but it has also been posited as a condition in which the patient did not fully recover from the effects of pressure on the middle ear during birth (retained birth compression). It is suggested that Eustachian tube dysfunction can result in a large amount of mucus accumulating in the middle ear, often impairing hearing to a degree. This condition is known as otitis media with effusion, and may result in the mucus becoming very thick and glue - like, a condition known as glue ear.
A patulous Eustachian tube is a rare condition in which the Eustachian tube remains intermittently open, causing an echoing sound of the person 's own heartbeat, breathing, and speech. This may be temporarily relieved by holding the head upside down.
Smoking can also cause damage to the cilia that protect the Eustachian tube from mucus, which can result in the clogging of the tube and a buildup of bacteria in the ear, leading to a middle ear infection.
Recurring and chronic cases of sinus infection can result in Eustachian tube dysfunction caused by excessive mucus production which, in turn, causes obstruction to the openings of the Eustachian tubes.
In severe cases of childhood inner ear infections and Eustachian tube blockage, ventilation can be provided by a surgical puncturing of the eardrum to permit air equalization, known as myringotomy. The eardrum would normally naturally heal and close the hole, so a tiny plastic rimmed grommet is inserted into the hole to hold it open. This is known as a tympanostomy tube. As a child grows, the tube is eventually naturally expelled by the body. Longer - lasting vent grommets with larger flanges have been researched, but these can lead to permanent perforation of the eardrum.
Surgical implantation of permanent bypasses around the eardrum have also been studied, though these suffer from blockage issues, requiring frequent manual cleaning. These also can lead to inner ear infection due to the direct path from the external to the internal ear.
Another approach to permitting middle ear drainage is the use of a prosthesis inserted into the Eustachian tube, to assist in holding the tube open. The prosthesis does not necessarily hold the tube completely open all the time, but may instead lightly brace the tissue walls of a narrow tube to assist in venting.
One such example invented in 1978 is a silicone tube with a flange at the top, which keeps it from dislodging and sliding out into the throat. However, in a study in 1978 it was not found to be effective for long - term use, and would eventually become internally blocked with mucus or otitis media, or dislodged from its position.
Debridement has also been studied as a solution to inability to open the Eustachian tube. Hypertrophy (excessive growth) of the cells that produce mucus can make the tube hard to open, and the procedure to reduce the growth is known as "microdebrider eustachian tuboplasty ''.
In the equids (horses) and some rodent - like species such as the desert hyrax, an evagination of the eustachian tube is known as the guttural pouch and is divided into medial and lateral compartments by the stylohyoid bone of the hyoid apparatus. This is of great importance in equine medicine as the pouches are prone to infections, and, due to their intimate relationship to the cranial nerves (VII, IX, X, XI) and the internal and external carotid artery, various syndromes may arise relating to which is damaged. Epistaxis (nosebleed) is a very common presentation to veterinary surgeons and this may often be fatal unless a balloon catheter can be placed in time to suppress bleeding.
Frontal section through left ear; upper half of section
View of the inner wall of the tympanum (enlarged)
The right membrana tympani with the hammer and the chorda tympani, viewed from within, from behind, and from above
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what is the significance of the burning of washington | Burning of Washington - wikipedia
British victory
Unknown number killed / wounded Many government buildings set ablaze. 2 frigates lost 1 sloop lost
* Destruction of the 36 - gun frigate USS New York.
The Burning of Washington was a British invasion of Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States, during the War of 1812. On August 24, 1814, after defeating the Americans at the Battle of Bladensburg, a British force led by Major General Robert Ross burned down buildings including the White House (known as the Presidential Mansion), and the Capitol, as well as other facilities of the U.S. government. The attack was in part a retaliation for the recent American destruction of Port Dover in Upper Canada. The Burning of Washington marks the only time since the American Revolutionary War that a foreign power has captured and occupied the United States capital.
President James Madison, military officials, and his government fled the city in the wake of the British victory at the Battle of Bladensburg. They eventually found refuge for the night in Brookeville, a small town in Montgomery County, Maryland, which is known today as the "United States Capital for a Day ''. President Madison spent the night in the house of Caleb Bentley, a Quaker who lived and worked in Brookeville. Bentley 's house, known today as the Madison House, still stands in Brookeville.
Less than a day after the attack began, a sudden, very heavy thunderstorm -- possibly a hurricane -- put out the fires. It also spun off a tornado that passed through the center of the capital, setting down on Constitution Avenue and lifting two cannons before dropping them several yards away, killing British troops and American civilians alike. Following the storm, the British returned to their ships, many of which were badly damaged. The occupation of Washington lasted only about 26 hours. After the "Storm that saved Washington '', as it soon came to be called, the Americans returned to the city.
The British government, already at war with Napoleonic France, adopted a defensive strategy against the United States when the Americans declared war in 1812. Reinforcements were held back from Canada and reliance was instead made on local militias and native allies to bolster the British Army in Canada. However, after the defeat and exile of Napoleon Bonaparte in April 1814, Britain was able to use its now available troops and ships to prosecute its war with the United States. In addition to reinforcements sent to Canada, the Earl of Bathurst, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, dispatched an army brigade and additional naval vessels to Bermuda, from where a blockade of the US coast and even the occupation of some coastal islands had been overseen throughout the war. It was decided to use these forces in raids along the Atlantic seaboard to draw American forces away from Canada. The commanders were under strict orders, however, not to carry out operations far inland, or to attempt to hold territory. Early in 1814, Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane had been appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Royal Navy 's North America and West Indies Station, controlling naval forces based at the new Bermuda dockyard and the Halifax Naval Yard which were used to blockade US Atlantic ports throughout the war. He planned to carry the war into the United States by attacks in Virginia and against New Orleans.
Rear Admiral George Cockburn had commanded the squadron in Chesapeake Bay since the previous year. On June 25 he wrote to Cochrane stressing that the defenses there were weak, and he felt that several major cities were vulnerable to attack. Cochrane suggested attacking Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia. On July 17, Cockburn recommended Washington as the target, because of the comparative ease of attacking the national capital and "the greater political effect likely to result ''. General Ross commanded a 4,500 - man army, composed of the 4th (King 's Own) Light, 21st Royal North British Fusiliers, 44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot, and 85th Regiment of Foot.
An added motive was retaliation for what Britain saw as the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie '' by American forces under Col. John Campbell in May 1814, the most notable being the Raid on Port Dover. On June 2, 1814, Sir George Prévost, Governor General of The Canadas, wrote to Cochrane at Admiralty House, in Bailey 's Bay, Bermuda, calling for a retaliation against the American destruction of private property in violation of the laws of war. Prévost argued that,
... in consequence of the late disgraceful conduct of the American troops in the wanton destruction of private property on the north shores of Lake Erie, in order that if the war with the United States continues you may, should you judge it advisable, assist in inflicting that measure of retaliation which shall deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages.
On July 18, Cochrane ordered Cockburn to "deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages... You are hereby required and directed to destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable ''. Cochrane instructed, "You will spare merely the lives of the unarmed inhabitants of the United States ''. Ross and Cockburn surveyed the torching of the President 's Mansion, during which time a great storm arose unexpectedly out of the southeast. They were confronted a number of times while on horseback by older women from around Washington City and elderly clergymen (Southern Presbyterian and Southern Baptist), with women and children who had been hiding in homes and churches. They requested protection from abuse and robbery by enlisted personnel from the British Expeditionary Forces whom they accused of having tried to ransack private homes and other buildings. Major - General Ross had two British soldiers put in chains for violation of his general order. Throughout the events of that day, a severe storm blew into the city, worsening on the night of August 24, 1814.
President James Madison, members of his government, and the military fled the city in the wake of the British victory at the Battle of Bladensburg. They eventually found refuge for the night in Brookeville, a small town in Montgomery County, Maryland, which is known today as the United States Capital for a Day. President Madison spent the night in the house of Caleb Bentley, a Quaker who lived and worked in Brookeville. Bentley 's house, known today as the Madison House, still stands in Brookeville.
The sappers and miners of the Corps of Royal Engineers under Captain Blanshard were employed in burning the principal buildings. Blanshard reported that it seemed that the American President was so sure that the attacking force would be made prisoners that a handsome entertainment had been prepared. Blanshard and his sappers enjoyed the feast.
The Capitol was, according to some contemporary travelers, the only building in Washington "worthy to be noticed. '' Thus, it was a prime target for the British invaders, both for its aesthetic and symbolic value. Upon arrival into the city via Maryland Avenue, the British targeted the Capitol (first the southern wing, containing the House of Representatives, then the northern wing, containing the Senate). Prior to setting it aflame, the British looted the building (which at that time housed Congress, the Library of Congress, and the Supreme Court). Items looted by British General Sir George Cockburn included "An account of the receipts and expenditures of the United States for the year 1810. ''
The British intended to burn the building to the ground. They set fire to the southern wing first. The flames grew so quickly that the British were prevented from collecting enough wood to burn the stone walls completely. However, the Library of Congress 's contents in the northern wing contributed to the flames on that side. Among the destruction was the 3,000 - volume collection of the Library of Congress and the intricate decorations of the neoclassical columns, pediments, and sculptures originally designed by William Thornton in 1793 and Benjamin Latrobe in 1803. The wooden ceilings and floors burned, and the glass skylights melted because of the intense heat. But, the building was not a complete loss. The House rotunda, the east lobby, the staircases, and Latrobe 's famous Corn - Cob Columns in the Senate entrance hall all survived. The Superintendent of the Public Buildings of the City of Washington, Thomas Munroe, concluded that the loss to the Capitol amounted to $787,163.28, with $457,388.36 for the North wing and main building, and $329,774.92 for the South wing.
After burning the Capitol, the British turned northwest up Pennsylvania Avenue toward the White House. After US government officials and President Madison fled the city, the First Lady Dolley Madison received a letter from her husband, urging her to be prepared to leave Washington at a moment 's notice. Dolley organized the slaves and staff to save valuables from the British. James Madison 's personal slave, the fifteen - year - old boy Paul Jennings, was an eyewitness. After later buying his freedom from the widow Dolley Madison, Jennings published his memoir in 1865, considered the first from the White House:
It has often been stated in print, that when Mrs. Madison escaped from the White House, she cut out from the frame the large portrait of Washington (now in one of the parlors there), and carried it off. She had no time for doing it. It would have required a ladder to get it down. All she carried off was the silver in her reticule, as the British were thought to be but a few squares off, and were expected any moment.
Jennings said the people who saved the painting and removed the objects actually were:
John Susé (Jean Pierre Sioussat, the French door - keeper, and still living at the time of Jennings 's memoir, and Magraw (McGraw), the President 's gardener, took it down and sent it off on a wagon, with some large silver urns and such other valuables as could be hastily got hold of. When the British did arrive, they ate up the very dinner, and drank the wines, &c., that I had prepared for the President 's party.
The soldiers burned the president 's house, and fuel was added to the fires that night to ensure they would continue burning into the next day.
In 2009, President Barack Obama held a ceremony at the White House to honor Jennings as a representative of his contributions to saving the Gilbert Stuart painting and other valuables. (The painting that was saved was a copy Stuart made of the painting, not the original, although it is the same one on display in the East Room.) "A dozen descendants of Jennings came to Washington, to visit the White House. They looked at the painting their relative helped save. '' In an interview with National Public Radio, Jennings ' great - great - grandson Hugh Alexander said, "We were able to take a family portrait in front of the painting, which was for me one of the high points. '' He confirmed that Jennings later purchased his freedom from the widowed Dolley Madison.
The day after the destruction of the White House, Rear Admiral Cockburn entered the building of the D.C. newspaper, the National Intelligencer, intending to burn it down. However, several women persuaded him not to because they were afraid the fire would spread to their neighboring houses. Cockburn wanted to destroy the newspaper because its reporters had written so negatively about him, branding him "The Ruffian ''. Instead, he ordered his troops to tear the building down brick by brick, and ordered all the "C '' type destroyed "so that the rascals can have no further means of abusing my name ''.
The British sought out the United States Treasury in hopes of finding money or items of worth, but they found only old records. They burned the United States Treasury and other public buildings. The United States Department of War building was also burned. However, the War and State Department files had been removed, so the books and records had been saved; the only records of the War Department lost were recommendations of appointments for the Army and letters received from seven years earlier. The First U.S. Patent Office Building was saved by the efforts of William Thornton, the former Architect of the Capitol and then the Superintendent of Patents, who gained British cooperation to preserve it. "When the smoke cleared from the dreadful attack, the Patent Office was the only Government building... left untouched '' in Washington.
The Americans had already burned much of the historic Washington Navy Yard, founded by Thomas Jefferson, to prevent capture of stores and ammunition, as well as the 44 - gun frigate USS Columbia and the 22 gun USS Argus both new vessels nearing completion. The Navy Yard 's Latrobe Gate, Quarters A, and Quarters B were the only buildings to escape destruction. Also spared were the Marine Barracks and Commandant 's House, although several private properties were damaged or destroyed.
In the afternoon of August 25, General Ross sent two hundred men to secure a fort on Greenleaf 's Point. The fort, later known as Fort McNair, had already been destroyed by the Americans, but 150 barrels of gunpowder remained. While the British were trying to destroy it by dropping the barrels into a well, the powder ignited. As many as thirty men were killed in the explosion, and many others were maimed.
Less than a day after the attack began, a sudden, very heavy thunderstorm -- possibly a hurricane -- put out the fires. It also spun off a tornado that passed through the center of the capital, setting down on Constitution Avenue and lifting two cannons before dropping them several yards away and killing British troops and American civilians alike. Following the storm, the British troops returned to their ships, many of which were badly damaged. There is some debate regarding the effect of this storm on the occupation. While some assert that the storm forced their retreat, it seems likely from their destructive and arsonous actions before the storm, and their written orders from Cochrane to "destroy and lay waste '', that their intention was merely to raze the city, rather than occupy it for an extended period. Whatever the case, the British occupation of Washington lasted only about 26 hours. Despite this, the "Storm that saved Washington '', as it became known, did the opposite according to some. The rains sizzled and cracked the already charred walls of the White House and ripped away at structures the British had no plans to destroy (such as the Patent Office). The storm may have exacerbated an already dire situation for Washington DC.
An encounter was noted between Sir George Cockburn 10th Baronet and a female resident of Washington. "Dear God! Is this the weather to which you are accustomed to in this infernal country? '' enquired the Admiral. "This is a special interposition of Providence to drive our enemies from our city '', the woman allegedly called out to Cockburn. "Not so, Madam '', Cockburn retorted. "It is rather to aid your enemies in the destruction of your city '', before riding off on horseback. Yet, the British left right after the storm completely unopposed by any American military forces.
The Royal Navy reported that it lost one man killed and six wounded in the attack, of whom the fatality and three of the wounded were from the Corps of Colonial Marines.
The destruction of the Capitol, including the Senate House and the House of Representatives, the Arsenal, Dockyard, Treasury, War Office, President 's mansion, bridge over the Potomac, a frigate and a sloop together with all Materiel was estimated at £ 365,000.
A separate British force captured Alexandria, on the south side of the Potomac River, while Ross 's troops were leaving Washington. The mayor of Alexandria made a deal and the British refrained from burning the town.
President Madison returned to Washington by September 1, on which date he issued a proclamation calling on citizens to defend the District of Columbia. Congress returned and assembled in special session on September 19. Due to the destruction of the Capitol and other public buildings, they initially met in the Post and Patent Office building.
In 2013, an episode of the Weather Channel documentary series "Weather That Changed History '', entitled "The Thunderstorm That Saved D.C. '', was devoted to these events.
Most contemporary American observers, including newspapers representing anti-war Federalists, condemned the destruction of the public buildings as needless vandalism. Many of the British public were shocked by the burning of the Capitol and other buildings at Washington; such actions were denounced by most leaders of continental Europe, where capital cities had been repeatedly occupied in the course of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and always spared destruction (at least on the part of the occupiers -- the famous burning of Moscow that occurred less than two years prior had been an act carried out by the defenders). According to The Annual Register, the burning had "brought a heavy censure on the British character '', with some members of Parliament, including the anti-establishment MP Samuel Whitbread, joining in the criticism.
The majority of British opinion believed that the burnings were justified following the damage that United States forces had done with its incursions into Canada. In addition, they noted that the United States had been the aggressor, declaring war and initiating it. Several commentators regarded the damages as just revenge for the American destruction of the Parliament buildings and other public buildings in York, the provincial capital of Upper Canada, early in 1813. Sir George Prévost wrote that "as a just retribution, the proud capital at Washington has experienced a similar fate ''. The Reverend John Strachan, who as Rector of York had witnessed the American acts there, wrote to Thomas Jefferson that the damage to Washington "was a small retaliation after redress had been refused for burnings and depredations, not only of public but private property, committed by them in Canada ''.
When they ultimately returned to Bermuda, the British forces took two pairs of portraits of King George III and his wife, Queen Charlotte, which had been discovered in one of the public buildings. One pair currently hangs in the House of Assembly of the Parliament of Bermuda, and the other in the Cabinet Building, both in the city of Hamilton.
Although the President and military officers returned to Washington only a few days after the British left, Congress did not return for three and half weeks. The Thirteenth Congress officially convened on September 19, 1814, at the Blodgett 's Hotel, one of the few surviving buildings large enough to hold all members. The Blodgett 's Hotel also housed the U.S. Patent Office. Although the British had destroyed all public buildings, the Blodgett 's Hotel and U.S. Patent Office was spared. It was in this building that Congress met between September 1814 and December 1815 (when construction of the Old Brick Capitol was complete).
There was a movement in Congress to relocate the capital after the burning. Congressmen from the North pushed for relocation to Philadelphia or other prominent northern cities, while Southern congressmen claimed that moving the capital would degrade the American sense of dignity and strength (however many southern congressmen simply did not want to move the capital north of the Mason -- Dixon line). On September 21, 1814, the House of Representatives voted to strike down a proposal to relocate the capital from Washington, D.C. by a margin of 83 to 54. On February 3, 1815, in an effort to guarantee that the federal government would always remain in the area, Washington property owners funded the building of the Old Brick Capitol, a larger meeting space where the Supreme Court now stands. Construction of the Old Brick Capitol cost $25,000 and was funded primarily through the sale of stocks. The largest donor was Daniel Carroll of Duddington, a rich English property owner in the area. Construction began on July 4, 1814, and concluded in December 1815. Congress met in the Old Brick Capitol between December 1815 and December 1819, when the Capitol reopened.
The Capitol reconstruction took much longer than anticipated. The Old Brick Capitol took only five months to complete; the Capitol took twelve years. A committee appointed by Congress to investigate the damage to the District concluded that it was cheaper to rebuild the already existing and damaged buildings than to build an entirely new one. On February 13, 1815, President Madison and Congress passed legislation to borrow $500,000 to repair the public buildings, including the Capitol, "on their present sites in the city of Washington ''. Benjamin Latrobe, architect of the Capitol who took over for William Thornton in 1803, was rehired to repair the building on April 18, 1815. He immediately requested 60,000 feet of boards, 500 tons of stone, 1,000 barrels of lime, and brick. With the $500,000 borrowed from Washington banks, Latrobe was able to rebuild the two wings and the central dome before being fired in 1818 for being difficult. Charles Bulfinch took over and officially completed the renovations by 1826. Bulfinch modified Latrobe 's design by increasing the height of the Capitol dome to match the diameter of 86 ft. With the reconstruction of the public buildings in Washington, the value of land in the area increased dramatically, paving the way for the expansion of the city that developed in the years leading up to the American Civil War.
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what is the name of japan capital city | Capital of Japan - wikipedia
The current de facto capital of Japan is Tokyo, with the seat of the Emperor, National Diet and many government organizations. However, the National Diet never legislated Tokyo as the capital of Japan for some specific reasons. Traditionally, the home of the Emperor is considered the capital. In the course of history, the national capital has been in many locations other than Tokyo.
Traditionally, the home of the Emperor is considered the capital. Historically, that was Kinai area, including Nara, Osaka, Kyoto, Shiga and Kobe. Famous Heijō - kyō (710 - 784) was at Nara. From 794 through 1868, the Emperor lived in Heian - kyō, modern - day Kyoto and his home was famous Kyoto Imperial Palace. In 1868, Emperor declared Meiji Restoration and Charter Oath at Kyoto Imperial Palace then he moved into Edo in 1869 then most of the Government of Japan are built at Edo (renamed Tokyo in 1871) and the main seat of the Emperor 's home was moved to Edo castle, currently called Tokyo Imperial Palace. But Kyoto Imperial Palace is also used as active palace.
In 1941, the Ministry of Education published the "designation of Tokyo as capital '' (東京 奠 都, Tōkyō - tento).
While no laws have designated Tokyo as the Japanese capital, many laws have defined a "capital area '' (首都 圏, shuto - ken) that incorporates Tokyo. Article 2 of the Capital Area Consolidation Law (首都 圏 整備 法) of 1956 states: "In this Act, the term ' capital area ' shall denote a broad region comprising both the territory of Tokyo Metropolis as well as outlying regions designated by cabinet order. '' This clearly implies that the government has designated Tokyo as the capital of Japan, although (again) it is not explicitly stated, and the definition of the "capital area '' is purposely restricted to the terms of that specific law.
Other laws referring to this "capital area '' include the Capital Expressway Public Corporation Law (首都 高速 道路 公団 法) and the Capital Area Greenbelt Preservation Law (首都 圏 近郊 緑地 保全 法).
This term for capital was never used to refer to Kyoto. Indeed, shuto came into use during the 1860s as a gloss of the English term "capital ''.
The Ministry of Education published a book called "History of the Restoration '' in 1941. This book referred to "designating Tokyo as capital '' (東京 奠 都, Tōkyō - tento) without talking about "relocating the capital to Tokyo '' (東京 遷都, Tōkyō - sento). A contemporary history textbook states that the Meiji government "moved the capital (shuto) from Kyoto to Tokyo '' without using the sento term.
As of 2007, there is a movement to transfer the government functions of the capital from Tokyo while retaining Tokyo as the de facto capital, with the Gifu - Aichi region, the Mie - Kio region and other regions submitting bids for a de jure capital. Officially, the relocation is referred to as "capital functions relocation '' instead of "capital relocation '', or as "relocation of the Diet and other organizations ''.
In 2017, Government decided to move Agency for Cultural Affairs to Kyoto.
This list of legendary capitals of Japan begins with the reign of Emperor Jimmu. The names of the Imperial palaces are in parentheses.
This list of capitals includes the Imperial palaces names in parentheses.
Kofun period
Asuka period
Nara period
Heian period
Medieval Japan and Early modern period (see also: History of Japan)
Modern Japan (see also: History of Japan)
Media related to Capital of Japan at Wikimedia Commons
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who does the voice of siri for apple | Susan Bennett - wikipedia
Susan Bennett (born July 31, 1949) is an American voice - over artist. She is best known for being the female American voice of Apple 's "Siri '' since the service was introduced on the iPhone 4S on October 4, 2011 until iOS 11.
Susan Bennett was born in Clinton, New York, and attended high school at Clinton Central School. In 1967, she enrolled in Pembroke College, but graduated in 1971 from Brown University after the two schools merged.
While at Brown, Bennett concentrated her studies in the classics and intended to become a teacher. She acted in Sock and Buskin theatrical productions, was a member of a jazz band, and was a singer with the "Chattertocks '' a cappella group.
Bennett 's career began in 1974 when she was recorded as the voice of First National Bank of Atlanta 's "Tillie the All - Time Teller. '' She has recorded messages for the public address system in all Delta Air Lines terminals worldwide, as well as voicing e-learning software and GPS navigation software, and telephone systems. Bennett 's voice has also been used in numerous local and national television advertisements for Ford, Coca - Cola, Fisher - Price, McDonald 's, The Home Depot, Goodyear, Visa, Macy 's, Hot Pockets, Club Med, and Cartoon Network, among others.
In June 2005, the software company ScanSoft was looking for someone to be the voice for a database project involving speech construction. ScanSoft inquired with GM Voices and selected Bennett, who happened to be present when the scheduled voice - over artist was absent. She worked in a home recording booth for the entire month of July 2005, more than four hours each day, reading phrases and sentences. The recordings were then concatenated into the various words, sentences, and paragraphs used in the Siri voice. Bennett only became aware she was the voice of Siri when a friend contacted her through email in October 2011.
Despite Apple not having acknowledged or confirmed its use of Bennett, audio - forensics experts hired by CNN expressed 100 percent certainty that Bennett is the voice of Siri.
While at Brown University, Bennett met her husband, Curt Bennett, who played in the National Hockey League as well as for the United States national ice hockey team in the 1970s. Bennett now lives in Atlanta, Georgia and has a son Cameron and a pet tabby cat named Boo.
On October 4, 2013, she appeared on CNN "New Day '' explaining how she got picked to play the part of Siri.
In the March 13, 2015 episode of Adult Swim 's The Jack and Triumph Show, titled "Siri '', Bennett appeared as herself, and was referred to as the "voice of Siri ''.
In July 2016 Bennett appeared on comedian Anthony Anderson 's ABC game show To Tell the Truth, and was revealed as the true voice of Siri.
Bennett voiced Batman 's computer in the 2017 animated feature film The Lego Batman Movie. Bennett used her Siri voice, but was credited as Siri as a joke. As an update for the iPhone, whenever the user says ' Hey Computer ' to Siri, she will respond with Batman related things.
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who sang always on my mind first elvis or willie nelson | Always on My Mind - wikipedia
"Always on My Mind '' is an American country music song by Johnny Christopher, Mark James and Wayne Carson, recorded first by Gwen McCrae (as "You Were Always On My Mind '') and Brenda Lee in 1972.
AllMusic lists over 300 recorded releases of the song in versions by dozens of performers. While Brenda Lee 's version had stalled at # 45 on the country charts in 1972, other performers would reach the top 20 in the United States and elsewhere with their own versions: Elvis Presley in 1972; John Wesley Ryles in 1979; Willie Nelson 's Grammy Award winning version in 1982; Pet Shop Boys in 1987; Loretta Lynn in 2016.
Wayne Carson said that he wrote most of the song in 10 minutes at his kitchen table in Springfield, Missouri, and completed the song in studio with the assistance of Johnny and Mark.
Carson, who had the song about a year and one day, was finishing a recording session. Producer Chips Moman asked about recording "that mind '' song, but added it would need a bridge. Wayne went upstairs to the studio 's old piano, trying to work out a bridge, when Johnny and Mark walked in the door, and he asked for their help to complete his song.
The trio felt that the song was finished and at first could not come up with anything to add, but Wayne explained that Moman was insisting that a bridge be added. So between them, the two - line "Tell me... '' bridge was written.
The song was passed to one of Elvis 's bodyguards, who gave Presley the cut from the studio. Moman did not produce Presley 's recording, but did record the Willie Nelson version years later.
Elvis Presley recorded his version of "Always on My Mind '' on March 29, 1972, a few weeks after his February separation from wife Priscilla. The song received immense fame and critical appreciation and is considered one of the standout songs of the ' 70s for Elvis. The song was released as the B - side of the "Separate Ways '' single, which reached Gold status in the U.S for sales of over a million copies. It was listed as a double sided hit reaching number 16 on Billboard magazine 's Hot Country Singles chart in November 1972. In the UK "Always on My Mind '' was the hit song and "Separate Ways '' was the B - side. It was voted the # 1 song of Presley 's recording career in a poll conducted by ITV in 2013.
recorded March 27 -- 29, 1972, RCA 's Studio C., Hollywood
later overdubs:
In 1979, John Wesley Ryles reached number 20 on the US country charts with his rendition, entitled "You Are Always on My Mind '', from the album Let the Night Begin.
A review in Billboard praised the "brightly mixed vocals '' and "powerful production ''.
Willie Nelson recorded and released the song in early 1982. It raced to number one on Billboard magazine 's Hot Country Singles chart that May, spending two weeks on top and total of 21 weeks on the chart. The song also did very well on Top 40 radio, reaching number five on the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks and staying on this chart for 23 weeks. In the year end charts, it was Billboard 's biggest Country hit for 1982. This version also charted in a number of other countries.
Nelson 's version would result in three wins at the 25th Grammy Awards in February 1983: songwriters Christopher, James and Carson won Song of the Year and Best Country Song; in addition, Nelson won for Best Male Country Vocal Performance.
This version also won Country Music Association awards in two consecutive years: 1982 Song of the Year and 1983 Song of the Year for songwriters Christopher, James and Carson; 1982 Single of the Year for Nelson, and; contributed to Nelson winning 1982 Album of the Year for the album "Always on My Mind ''.
Willie Nelson performed the number with Johnny Cash on the 1998 release of VH1 Storytellers: Johnny Cash & Willie Nelson. The song was also featured on a December 2009 ASPCA commercial.
The single was certified Platinum by the RIAA signifying U.S. sales in excess of two million. In 2008, the single was inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame.
Nelson 's version was also featured, in its entirety, in a season two (2013) episode of the HBO television series The Newsroom.
In 1987, the Pet Shop Boys performed a synthpop version of "Always on My Mind '' on Love Me Tender, a television special on the ITV network in the UK. Commemorating the tenth anniversary of Presley 's death, the programme featured various popular acts of the time performing cover versions of his hits. The Pet Shop Boys ' performance was so well - received that the duo decided to record the song and release it as a single.
This version became the UK 's Christmas number one single that year. It went on to top the charts for four weeks in total, and reached number four on the US Billboard Hot 100.
The Pet Shop Boys version introduces a harmonic variation not present in the original version. In the original the ending phrase "always on my mind '' is sung to a IV - V - I cadence (C-D - G). The Pet Shop Boys extend this cadence by adding two further chords: C-D - Gm / B ♭ - C-G (i.e. a progression of IV - V - III - IV - I).
In November 2004, The Daily Telegraph newspaper placed the version at number two in a list of the fifty greatest cover versions of all time. In October 2014, a public poll compiled by the BBC saw the song voted the all - time best cover version.
In the video for Pet Shop Boys ' version of "Always on My Mind '' (an excerpt from their surreal music film It Could n't Happen Here), Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe are seated in the front of a taxi cab, when an eccentric passenger gets in, played by notable British actor Joss Ackland. At the end of the song, he gets out of the car, which drives away. Standing alone, he mutters: "You went away. It should make me feel better. But I do n't know how I 'm going to get through '', which is part of the lyrics for another Pet Shop Boys track, "What Have I Done to Deserve This? '', which was released earlier in the year.
In 1988, the duo remixed the song for their third studio LP, Introspective, combining it with an acid - house track called "In My House ''.
In 2008, Konami used the song for Dance Dance Revolution X which was released for both arcades and the Sony PlayStation 2 console. In 2010, the song was re-used for Dance Dance Revolution X2 which was released for arcades.
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where does cheaper by the dozen 2 take place | Cheaper by the Dozen 2 - wikipedia
Cheaper by the Dozen 2 is a 2005 American family comedy film produced by 20th Century Fox. It is the sequel to the family comedy film Cheaper by the Dozen (2003). Shawn Levy, the director of the first film, did not return as director for this sequel, which was instead directed by Adam Shankman (The Pacifier). Levy was a producer of the film and made an appearance as a hospital intern in the movie. Steve Martin, Bonnie Hunt, Hilary Duff, Piper Perabo, Alyson Stoner, and Tom Welling reprise their roles as members of the twelve - child Baker family. Eugene Levy co-stars as the patriarch of a rival family of eight children. Carmen Electra portrays Levy 's wife.
Two years after Tom Baker resigned from his head coaching position, the Baker family begins to undergo many changes, beginning with Lorraine and her desire to study in New York. Their oldest daughter Nora is now married to Bud McNulty and heavily pregnant with their first child. They intend to move to Houston because of Bud 's new job promotion.
Feeling the family is breaking apart as the children grow up and move away, Tom persuades the entire family to take one last family vacation all together at Lake Winnetka. Tom 's old rival Jimmy Murtaugh and his large family (with "only '' eight kids) are also there for the summer. Jimmy constantly flaunts his wealth and success to Tom, as well as the accomplishments of his children, often suggesting to Tom that the Baker children are less successful because of Tom 's parenting style. The Baker kids get into many incidents, several of which are accidental: Mark Baker, along with Kenny Murtaugh, crashes into a tennis court with a golf cart; Sarah Baker is caught shoplifting in a gift shop, and Mark accidentally sets off a backpack of fireworks, causing widespread panic, especially when the backpack is thrown into a boat, igniting its engine and causing it to explode.
Jimmy again starts the topic that Tom needs to use a firmer hand on his kids. Tom is angered by this, and they decide to settle the matter at the Annual Labor Day Family Cup. Tom trains the kids for days, not realizing they are miserable. Sarah and Elliot Murtaugh watch Ice Age together, but are spied on by their fathers, which ultimately results in them getting into an argument and humiliating their children. Upon returning home, Sarah is furious and refuses to compete for her father in the Cup. Everyone, including Kate, is angry with Tom, not only for spying on Sarah, but also for ruining the entire trip through his competitiveness with the Murtaughs.
The next morning, Tom goes to the Cup to compete with Nigel and Kyle (the only two still willing to go). However, after discovering an old "Team Baker '' flag, Kate and the rest of the family show up, showing they forgive Tom and are willing to compete. After the events, however, the Bakers and the Murtaughs are tied for first; a tiebreaking canoe race is announced, in which every family member must compete. During the race, Nora 's water breaks; the Murtaughs want to help, but Jimmy, sensing the opportunity to defeat Tom once and for all, initially refuses to help. Eventually, the Murtaughs convince Jimmy that they should help the Bakers, and the Bakers and the Murtaughs work together to get Nora to the hospital as she goes into labor. Bud, Lorraine and Kate go with Nora in the delivery room, while Tom, Jimmy, Sarina and the rest of the kids stay in the waiting room. While talking to Jimmy, Tom realizes that he has to let his kids grow, but wherever they go, they will always be with him, and he will always be with them. Nora then gives birth to a baby boy who she and Bud name Tom in honor of her father, who has shown them "there is no way to be a perfect parent, but a million ways to be a really good one. '' Bud announces that they have bought "The Big House '', the vacation home that the Bakers have been renting. Nora, Bud and baby Tom leave for Houston a few days later while the Bakers continue their vacation at Lake Winnetka.
Reviews for the film were overwhelmingly negative. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes ranked Cheaper by the Dozen 2 98th in the 100 worst reviewed films of the 2000s, with a rating of 6 % based on 93 reviews of the film. The site 's consensus reads "A sequel to a remake, Cheaper 2 wastes its solid cast in scenes of over-the - top, predictable humor ''. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Chicago Sun - Times critic Roger Ebert, gave the film one of its rare positive reviews, awarding it 3 / 4 stars and stating "As I watched this sequel, a certain good feeling began to make itself known. Yes, the movie is unnecessary. However, it is unnecessary at a higher level of warmth and humor than the recent remake Yours, Mine, and Ours. '' Ebert also highly praised Alyson Stoner 's performance, favorably comparing the then - twelve year old actress to Reese Witherspoon.
Calling the overall film "bland '', Variety 's Justin Chang agreed with Ebert on Stoner, calling her "an endearingly vulnerable standout '' and deeming her subplot to be "the most engaging '' in the film. Chang was also kind to Steve Martin, Bonnie Hunt and Eugene Levy, deeming the veteran actors did the best with what was given to them. Marrit Ingman of the Austin Chronicle conceded that the film had a good message, and agreed that Hunt was "marvelous and down - to - earth '' but ultimately felt that "the rest of the movie is as funny as mildew '', found that "the product placement is particularly egregious '' and thought that Hilary Duff looked "as tanned and raw as buffalo jerky ''. Andrea Gronvall was also horrified by Duff 's appearance while writing for the Chicago Reader, calling her "haggard '' and "flat - out scary '', and overall felt that there was "a discernible lack of enthusiasm from almost everyone involved '', however singling out Carmen Electra for being "the most winning performer of the bunch ''.
The film received two Razzie Award nominations including Worst Actress (Hilary Duff) and Worst Supporting Actor (Eugene Levy).
The film grossed $9,309,387 million opening weekend, finishing in 4th place at the box office. By the end of its run, Cheaper by the Dozen 2 grossed $82,571,173 domestically and $46,610,657 internationally, totaling $129,181,830 worldwide. It is one of only twelve feature films to be released in over 3,000 theaters and still improve on its box office performance in its second weekend, increasing 55.6 % from $9,309,387 to $14,486,519.
The DVD was released on May 23, 2006. The Blu - ray was released on January 5, 2010. The DVD is two - sided and side B has an inside look previews of Flicka and Aquamarine.
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where was legends of the fall movie filmed | Legends of the Fall - wikipedia
Legends of the Fall is a 1994 American epic drama film directed by Edward Zwick and starring Brad Pitt, Anthony Hopkins, Aidan Quinn, Julia Ormond and Henry Thomas. Based on the 1979 novella of the same title by Jim Harrison, the film is about three brothers and their father living in the wilderness and plains of Montana in the early 20th century and how their lives are affected by nature, history, war and love. The film 's time frame spans from World War I through the Prohibition era, ending with a brief scene set in 1963. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards and won for Best Cinematography (John Toll). Both the film and book contain occasional Cornish language terms, the Ludlows being a Cornish emigrant family.
Sick of betrayals the United States government perpetrated on the Native Americans, Colonel William Ludlow leaves the Army and moves to a remote part of Montana. Along with One Stab, a Cree friend, he builds a ranch and raises his family. Accompanying them are hired hand and former outlaw Decker, Decker 's Cree wife Pet, and daughter Isabel Two. Ludlow has three sons: Alfred, the eldest, is responsible and cautious; Tristan, the Colonel 's favorite son, is wild and well - versed in American Indian traditions; Samuel, the youngest, is educated but naive and constantly watched over by his brothers.
Ludlow 's wife Isabel does not adapt to the harsh Montana winters and moves to the East Coast; Tristan vows never to speak of her again. At age 12, Tristan touches a sleeping grizzly bear. The bear awakens and injures him, but he stabs at the bear 's paw and cuts off a claw.
Years later, Samuel returns from Harvard University with his fiancée, Susannah. Susannah talks with Isabel Two and learns of her fondness for Tristan. Susannah finds Tristan captivating but loves Samuel. Before they can marry, Samuel announces his intention to join the Canadian Expeditionary Force and aid Britain in the fight against Germany. Much to their father 's displeasure, Alfred also joins. Although Tristan does not want to join, he does so to protect his brothers.
During World War I, the brothers find themselves in the 10th Battalion, CEF. Alfred, commissioned as an officer, leads a charge into no man 's land. The attack results in heavy casualties and Alfred is wounded. While visiting Alfred in the field hospital, Tristan learns that Samuel has volunteered for a dangerous reconnaissance mission. He rushes off to protect his brother but arrives too late. A devastated Tristan holds Samuel until he dies, then cuts out his brother 's heart and sends it home to be buried at the ranch. Tristan single - handedly raids the German lines. He returns to camp with the scalps of German soldiers hanging around his neck, horrifying his fellow soldiers. He is discharged but does not go home. Alfred returns to Montana and proposes to Susannah, but she declines.
Tristan returns home, where Susannah finds him weeping over Samuel 's grave. She comforts him, and they become lovers. A jealous Alfred confronts Tristan and leaves to make his name in Helena. Tristan is plagued with guilt over Samuel 's death and feels responsible for driving Alfred away; he leaves Montana for several years. Susannah waits for him, only to receive a letter telling her to marry someone else. Alfred comforts Susannah. Ludlow finds them together, which leads to a falling out between him and Alfred. Ludlow later suffers a stroke. He does not speak for years and the ranch deteriorates. Susannah marries Alfred, now a congressman. Alfred 's business and politics cause him to get involved with the O'Banion brothers, bootleggers and gangsters.
Tristan returns during Prohibition, bringing life back to the ranch and his father. He falls in love with Isabel Two and they marry. They have two children, the elder being a boy named Samuel. Tristan becomes involved in small - scale rum - running, finding himself at odds with the O'Banion brothers. Isabel is accidentally killed by a police officer working for the O'Banions. In a fit of grief, Tristan beats the officer nearly to death and is jailed. Susannah visits Tristan, still having feelings for him, but he refuses her advances. After his release, Tristan and Decker kill those responsible for Isabel 's death, including one of the O'Banion brothers.
Realizing she can not live without Tristan, Susannah commits suicide. The remaining O'Banion brother, along with the corrupt sheriff and another police officer, comes after Tristan for revenge. At the ranch, Ludlow and Alfred kill the attackers. Alfred reconciles with his father and brother. The family realizes that Tristan is likely to be blamed for the deaths, which prompts Tristan to ask Alfred to take care of his children. One Stab 's narration explains that later during the night they bury the bodies and dump the car in the Missouri River. He reflects that rather than dying young as he, the American Indian, had expected, Tristan lived to watch his children and grandchildren grow. One Stab observes that it was the people Tristan loved and wanted to protect most that died young. The last scene takes place in 1963. Tristan, now an old man living in the North Country investigates an animal carcass as he is confronted by a grizzly bear. He draws his knife and fights it. As they struggle, the image freeze - frames as One Stab narrates, "It was a good death ''.
Legends of the Fall was primarily filmed on location in Alberta and British Columbia, Canada. Principal photography began in mid-September 1993. The World War I battlefield scenes took two weeks to film and were shot near Morley, Alberta, with hundreds of locals and a few Canadian Forces soldiers recruited as extras. The Ghost River Wilderness Area in Alberta served as the filming location for the Ludlow ranch; additional outdoor scenes, as well as the funeral and cemetery scenes, were shot at the Bow River near Banff National Park. A historic harbour area in Vancouver called Gastown was augmented with period building facades for the Helena, Montana street scenes. Hotel scenes were shot at the Hotel Europe at 43 Powell Street in Vancouver. Additional scenes were shot at Maple Leaf Square in Gastown, Vancouver, and Ocho Rios in Saint Ann, Jamaica. Filming wrapped up around January 1994.
The film opened in limited release on December 23, 1994, and expanded to a wide release on January 13, 1995. During its first weekend in wide release, which was a four - day weekend due to Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, the film reached number one at the domestic box office after grossing $14 million. After its initial run, the film brought in a final box office total of $160,638,883. Against its $30 million budget, the film was a financial success.
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 56 % of 54 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 5.8 out of 10. Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 45 based on 23 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. IMBD gave the film a score of 7.5 / 10 based on reviews from critics, indicating generally positive reviews.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times described the film as "pretty good... with full - blooded performances and heartfelt melodrama ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone particularly praised Pitt 's performance saying, "Though the admirable Quinn has the toughest role, Pitt carries the picture. The blue - eyed boy who seemed a bit lost in Interview with the Vampire proves himself a bona fide movie star, stealing every scene he 's in. '' Comparatively, Chris Hicks of Deseret News noted, "Pitt is the hunk of the moment, and Legends of the Fall will only further cement his big - screen, romantic leading - man status. And he is satisfying as the internalized, rebellious Tristan (look for that name to be given to more than a few babies over the next few years). Even if the character seems only a slight twist on the similar role he played in A River Runs Through It. (He even becomes a bootlegger!) ''
On the other hand, Rita Kempley of The Washington Post stated that the film 's "yarn does n't so much sweep as sprawl across the screen in all its panoramic idiocy ''. Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented, "Before it turns exhaustingly hollow, this film shows the potential for bringing Mr. Harrison 's tough, brooding tale to life. And the actors may have captured the spirit of the story, but that 's impossible to know. '' She concluded, "These are performances that lost too much in the editing room, smothered by music and overshadowed by a picture - postcard vision of the American West. ''
The film was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Cinematography (John Toll), Best Art Direction (Lilly Kilvert, Dorree Cooper), and Best Sound (Paul Massey, David E. Campbell, Chris David and Douglas Ganton), and won the category for Best Cinematography. In addition, the film was nominated for the Golden Globes for Best Picture -- Drama, Best Actor -- Drama (Brad Pitt), Best Director (Edward Zwick), and Best Original Score (James Horner).
Legends of the Fall was first released on DVD on April 29, 1997, and once again on October 17, 2000. The film was later released on Blu - ray on February 8, 2011, with bonus content that includes two audio commentaries, deleted scenes with optional commentary and two behind - the - scenes featurettes.
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if a eukaryotic cell is in the g1 phase of the cell cycle | G1 phase - wikipedia
The g phase, or Gap 1 phase, is the first of four phases of the cell cycle that takes place in eukaryotic cell division. In this part of interphase, the cell synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for subsequent steps leading to mitosis. G phase ends when the cell moves into the S phase of interphase.
G phase together with the S phase and G phase comprise the long growth period of the cell cycle called interphase that takes place before cell division in mitosis (M phase).
During G phase, the cell grows in size and synthesizes mRNA and proteins (Known as histones) that are required for DNA synthesis. Once the required proteins and growth are complete, the cell enters the next phase of the cell cycle, S phase. The duration of each phase, including the G phase, is different in many different types of cells. In human somatic cells, the cell cycle lasts about 18 hours, and the G phase takes up about 1 / 3 of that time. However, in Xenopus embryos, sea urchin embryos, and Drosophila embryos, the G phase is barely existent and is defined as the gap, if one exists, between the end of mitosis and the S phase.
G phase and the other subphases of the cell cycle may be affected by limiting growth factors such as nutrient supply, temperature, and room for growth. Sufficient nucleotides and amino acids must be present in order to synthesize mRNA and proteins. Physiological temperatures are optimal for cell growth. In humans, the normal physiological temperature is around 37 ° C (98.6 ° F).
G phase is particularly important in the cell cycle because it determines whether a cell commits to division or to leaving the cell cycle. If a cell is signaled to remain undivided, instead of moving onto the S phase, it will leave the G phase and move into a state of dormancy called the G phase. Most nonproliferating vertebrate cells will enter the G phase.
Within the cell cycle, there is a stringent set of regulations known as the cell cycle control system that controls the timing and coordination of the phases to ensure a correct order of events. Biochemical triggers known as cyclin - dependent kinases (Cdks) switch on cell cycles events at the corrected time and in the correct order to prevent any mistakes.
There are three checkpoints in the cell cycle: the G / S Checkpoint or the Start checkpoint in yeast; the G / M checkpoint; and the spindle checkpoint.
During G phase, the G / S cyclin activity rises significantly near the end of the G phase.
Complexes of cyclin that are active during other phases of the cell cycle are kept inactivated to prevent any cell - cycle events from occurring out of order. Three methods of preventing Cdk activity are found in G phase: inhibitory gene regulatory proteins suppress major cyclin genes from expression (* the way this is phrased it is unclear whether it is transcription of the gene or translation of the mRNA gene product that is being regulated); anaphase - promoting complex (APC) is activated, which targets and degrades S and M cyclins (but not G / S cyclins); and a high concentration of Cdk inhibitors is found during G phase.
The restriction point (R) in the G phase is different from a checkpoint because it does not determine whether cell conditions are ideal to move on to the next phase, but it changes the course of the cell. After a vertebrate cell has been in the G phase for about three hours, the cell enters a restriction point in which it is decided whether the cell will move forward with the G phase or move into the dormant G phase.
This point also separates two halves of the G phase; the post-mitotic and pre-mitotic phases. Between the beginning of the G phase (which is also after mitosis has occurred) and R, the cell is known as being in the G - pm subphase, or the post-mitotic phase. After R and before S, the cell is known as being in G - ps, or the pre S phase interval of the G phase.
In order for the cell to continue through the G - pm, there must be a high amount of growth factors and a steady rate of protein synthesis, otherwise the cell will move into G phase.
Some authors will say that the restriction point and the G / S checkpoint are one and the same, but more recent studies have argued that there are two different points in the G phase that check the progression of the cell. The first restriction point is growth - factor dependent and determines whether the cell moves into the G phase, while the second checkpoint is nutritionally - dependent and determines whether the cell moves into the S phase. Some of the confusion between researchers has been.
The G / S checkpoint is the point between G phase and the S phase in which the cell is cleared for progression into the S phase. Reasons the cell would not move into the S phase include insufficient cell growth, damaged DNA, or other preparations have not been completed.
At the G / S checkpoint, formation of the G / S cyclin with Cdk to form a complex commits the cell to a new division cycle. These complexes then activate S - Cdk complexes that move forward with DNA replication in the S phase. Concurrently, anaphase - promoting complex (APC) activity decreases significantly, allowing S and M cyclins to become activated.
If a cell does not clear to pass through to the S phase, it enters the dormant G phase in which there is no cellular growth or division.
Many sources have linked irregularities in the G phase or the G / S checkpoint to uncontrolled growth of tumors. In these cases where the G phase is affected, it is generally because gene regulatory proteins of the E2F family have become unrestrained and increase G / S cyclin gene expression, leading to uncontrolled cell - cycle entry.
However, the cure for some forms of cancer also lies in the G phase of the cell cycle. Many cancers including breast and skin cancers have been prevented from proliferating by causing the tumor cells to enter G cell cycle arrest, preventing the cells from dividing and spreading.
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harmonica solo i guess that why they call it the blues | I Guess That 's Why They Call It the Blues - wikipedia
"I Guess That 's Why They Call It the Blues '' is a song by English singer Elton John, with music by John and lyrics by Bernie Taupin and Davey Johnstone. In the US, it was one of John 's biggest hits of the 1980s, holding at # 2 for four weeks on the Adult Contemporary chart, and reaching # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The song features Stevie Wonder on harmonica. The song received largely favorable reviews, with Bill Janovitz of AllMusic declaring the song "likely to stand the test of time as a standard. ''
The song appeared on the album Too Low for Zero. Released as a single in April 1983, the song reached number five in the UK chart and number four in the US chart six months later. The song was also featured on the film soundtrack to Peter 's Friends in 1992.
The original music video, one of twenty directed for John by Australian Russell Mulcahy, tells the story of two 1950s - era young lovers who are separated when the man is forced to leave for National Service, depicting the trials and tribulations he experiences there, and then are finally reunited at the end of the song. It was filmed in the Rivoli Ballroom in London and is marked as one of the few times John has been filmed or videotaped without wearing his trademark eyeglasses.
The song was later performed live by Mary J. Blige and Elton John, and this version of the song was part of the Mary J. Blige & Friends EP. A live version of the song with Mary J. Blige also appeared on John 's One Night Only -- The Greatest Hits live compilation, recorded in Madison Square Garden in October 2000. Another live version, this one featuring just Elton John and basic rhythm section, was recorded live in Verona in 1996 during John 's appearance with Luciano Pavarotti as part of the master tenor 's Pavarotti and Friends for War Child benefit concerts. Produced by Phil Ramone, this version of "I Guess That 's Why They Call It the Blues '' was included as a B - side on the Rocket Records maxi CD single of "Live Like Horses '', which also included Elton John 's original studio version from 1997 's The Big Picture album, and studio and live versions of a duet of "Horses '' by John and Pavarotti.
John has performed the song, a fan favourite, live numerous times, occasionally playing it as part of a medley with his hit "Blue Eyes '' (from the 1982 album Jump Up!).
The song was covered by James Blunt and released in the UK on the compilation album BBC Radio 2: Sounds of the 80s on 7 November 2014.
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how many seasons of the hand of god | Hand of God (tv series) - wikipedia
Hand of God is an American drama web television series created by Ben Watkins. The premiere episode is one of two drama pilots that Amazon streamed online in August 2014, along with Hysteria. Viewers were allowed to offer their opinions about the pilot before the studio decided whether or not to place an order for the entire series. In October 2014, Hand of God was ordered to full series by Amazon Studios.
The series officially premiered on September 4, 2015. A second season was ordered in December 2015, which premiered on March 10, 2017. On September 15, 2016, Amazon Studios announced that the series would end after the second season.
Hand of God follows Pernell Harris (Ron Perlman), a corrupt judge who suffers a breakdown and believes God is compelling him onto a path of vigilante justice. He becomes a born - again Christian and joins an evangelical church, Hand of God.
The series has received mixed reviews from critics. On Metacritic, the first season has a metascore of 44 out of 100 based on 19 critics reviews but has a user score of 6.9 out of 10 based on 32 ratings, while receiving a 7.5 out of 10 on IMDb, and an 8.2 / 10 from IGN. The average rating on TV.com is 8.3 out of 10 based on 33 ratings.
Todd VanDerWerff of Vox called the show "mind - boggling bad ''. Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote that it "loses its focus '' and that it feels "attenuated and static ''. Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times gave the series a negative review, writing that it had great acting but "little else ''. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the climax of the series did n't "justify 10 depressing hours of television ''. Alternately, Robert Rorke of the NY Post called the show "oddly compelling '', while Tirdad Derakhshani of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote, "It 's such an engaging, original, quirky, and thought - provoking drama, it should be seen. ''
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who wrote you'll be in my heart | You 'll be in My Heart - wikipedia
"You 'll Be in My Heart '' is a song by Phil Collins, from the 1999 Disney animated feature Tarzan. It appeared on Tarzan: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack as well as various other Disney compilations. A version of the single performed by Glenn Close also appears on the soundtrack.
A demo version with Collins playing piano and singing is featured as a bonus on the 2 - DVD Special Edition of Tarzan, along with "I Will Follow '', "Celebration '', "6 / 8 Demo '' and "Rhythm Piece '' which became "Strangers Like Me '', "Son of Man '' and "Trashin ' the Camp ''. "6 / 8 Demo '' was not featured in the movie.
The music video for the song was directed by Kevin Godley.
Collins was originally hired by Disney as a songwriter, but given his history as a drummer for the rock band Genesis, he appealed to the Disney production crew, who "wanted a strong jungle beat to accompany Tarzan 's adventures ''. This "ballad '' is one of five original songs he wrote for the film, and he ended up also performing this song as well.
The song, originally called "Lullaby '' is used in a scene when Tarzan 's adoptive gorilla mother Kala sings that her baby should stop crying because she will protect him and keep him safe and warm. She says everything will be fine and she tells him that "you will be in my heart always ''. The song is about "how love is a bond that can not be broken ''.
In the movie the song ends on the first verse, the full version of the song on the soundtrack album notes that others do n't understand why a mother and child who are so different can love each other. When destiny calls, the child is told he must be strong even if the parent is not with him. The song is one of only two songs within Disney 's Tarzan to have a part performed by an actual character (the other being "Trashin ' the Camp '' which the character 's role in the song can be classified as scat singing). The rest of the songs were performed by Collins himself and overlaid into the movie. The full song is finally played all together during the end credits.
In the 2006 stage version, the song is performed by Kala with the ensemble, while a reprise is performed by Kala and Tarzan when the latter "decides to join the human world ''. This was because the omniscience of Collins ' songs did not translate too well, so the song along with Two Worlds, "perform similar thematic and character introductions on stage ''.
Manilla Standard said Collins "waxes poetic '' with the song. The Disney Song Encyclopedia deemed it an "uptempo ballad '' and "tender song ''. American Musical Theatre: A Chronicle said that Merle Dandridge, who sang this song as the role of Tarzan 's adoptive mother Kala in the Broadway version, had "the best song ''. American Literature on Stage and Screen: 525 Works and Their Adaptations said this song was "contemporary sounding yet (its) rhythmic momentum blended beautifully with the pulsating sounds of the jungle ''. Billboard said the song ran "in the same vein '' as another Collins song "Ca n't Stop Loving You ''. Musical Experience in Our Lives: Things We Learn and Meanings We Make recounted a personal story of how the song has a special meaning to a mother / daughter relationship involving fetus - singing. Similar stories were recounted by two other sources.
Soon after the song was released, it was already "being touted as an Oscar contender ''. The song went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Collins performed the song live at that year 's ceremony. The song also received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media, but lost to Madonna 's "Beautiful Stranger '' from Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me.
The song became very popular and received steady airplay ". "You 'll Be in My Heart '', spent nineteen non consecutive weeks at number one on the Adult Contemporary charts ("the longest time ever up to that point '') and peaked at # 21 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. The song was Collins 's first appearance on the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 chart since 1994 's "Everyday ''. The track peaked at # 17 in the UK Singles Chart, continuing his success that had not stopped after "Everyday ''.
The entire Tarzan soundtrack, including "You 'll Be in My Heart '', was also written and performed by Phil Collins in various other languages besides English, namely German, French, Spanish and Italian. In the Hungarian, Norwegian, Brazilian Portuguese, Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese, Malay, Swedish and Portuguese versions, the whole soundtracks were performed by the Hungarian singer Akos, the Norwegian singer Tor Endresen, the Brazilian singer Ed Motta, Japanese singer Masayuki Sakamoto, Chinese singer Wakin Chau, Malaysian singer Zainal Abidin, Swedish singer Pelle Ankarberg and Portuguese singer Luís Represas, respectively. The Portuguese version, however, includes the original credits ' song. Because of the multiple recordings, a Spanish version of the song, "En Mi Corazón Vivirás '', marks Collins ' only appearance on Billboard 's Hot Latin Tracks. The song charted at # 32.
On German television, he sang a translation of "You 'll Be in My Heart '' called "Dir Gehört Mein Herz ''.
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what was the date of the battle of britain | Battle of Britain - wikipedia
2,550 serviceable aircraft.
Pacific War
Mediterranean and Middle East
Other campaigns
Contemporaneous wars
The Battle of Britain (German: Luftschlacht um England, literally "the air battle for England '') was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large - scale attacks by the German Air Force (Luftwaffe). It has been described as the first major military campaign fought entirely by air forces.
The British officially recognise the battle 's duration as being from 10 July until 31 October 1940, which overlaps the period of large - scale night attacks known as the Blitz, that lasted from 7 September 1940 to 11 May 1941. German historians do not accept this subdivision and regard the battle as a single campaign lasting from July 1940 to June 1941, including the Blitz.
The primary objective of the Nazi German forces was to compel Britain to agree to a negotiated peace settlement. In July 1940 the air and sea blockade began, with the Luftwaffe mainly targeting coastal - shipping convoys, ports and shipping centres, such as Portsmouth. On 1 August, the Luftwaffe was directed to achieve air superiority over the RAF with the aim of incapacitating RAF Fighter Command; 12 days later, it shifted the attacks to RAF airfields and infrastructure. As the battle progressed, the Luftwaffe also targeted factories involved in aircraft production and strategic infrastructure. Eventually it employed terror bombing on areas of political significance and on civilians.
The Germans had swiftly overwhelmed continental countries, and Britain now appeared to face a threat of invasion by sea, but the German high command knew the difficulties of an unprecedented seaborne attack and its impracticality while the Royal Navy commanded the seas. In early July 1940 the German High Command began planning the invasion of the Soviet Union. On 16 July Hitler ordered the preparation of Operation Sea Lion as a potential amphibious and airborne assault on Britain, to follow once the Luftwaffe had air superiority over the UK. In September RAF Bomber Command night raids disrupted the German preparation of converted barges, and the Luftwaffe failure to overwhelm the RAF forced Hitler to postpone and eventually cancel Operation Sea Lion.
Nazi Germany proved unable to sustain daylight raids, but their continued night - bombing operations on Britain became known as the Blitz. Steven Bungay regards the German failure to destroy Britain 's air defences to force an armistice (or even outright surrender) as the first major defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II and a crucial turning point in the conflict.
The Battle of Britain takes its name from a speech by Winston Churchill to the House of Commons on 18 June: "What General Weygand has called The Battle of France is over. The Battle of Britain is about to begin. ''
Strategic bombing during World War I introduced air attacks intended to panic civilian targets and led in 1918 to the amalgamation of British army and navy air services into the Royal Air Force. Its first Chief of the Air Staff Hugh Trenchard was among the military strategists in the 1920s like Giulio Douhet who saw air warfare as a new way to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare. Interception was nearly impossible with fighter planes no faster than bombers. Their view (expressed vividly in 1932) was that the bomber will always get through, and the only defence was a deterrent bomber force capable of matching retaliation. Predictions were made that a bomber offensive would quickly cause thousands of deaths and civilian hysteria leading to capitulation, but widespread pacifism contributed to a reluctance to provide resources.
Germany was forbidden to have a military air force by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, but developed air crew training in civilian and sport flying. Following a 1923 memorandum, the Deutsche Luft Hansa airline developed designs which were claimed to be for passengers and freight, but which could in fact be readily adapted into bombers, including the Junkers Ju 52. In 1926 the secret Lipetsk fighter - pilot school began operating. Erhard Milch organised rapid expansion, and following the 1933 Nazi seizure of power his subordinate Robert Knauss formulated a deterrence theory incorporating Douhet 's ideas and Tirpitz 's "risk theory '', which proposed a fleet of heavy bombers to deter a preventive attack by France and Poland before Germany could fully rearm. A winter 1933 -- 34 war game indicated a need for fighters and anti-aircraft protection as well as bombers. On 1 March 1935 the Luftwaffe was formally announced, with Walther Wever as Chief of Staff. The 1935 Luftwaffe doctrine for "Conduct of the Air War '' (Die Luftkriegführung) set air power within the overall military strategy, with critical tasks of attaining (local and temporary) air superiority and providing battlefield support for army and naval forces. Strategic bombing of industries and transport could be decisive longer term options, dependent on opportunity or preparations by the army and navy, to overcome a stalemate or used when only destruction of the enemy 's economy would be conclusive. The list excluded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale, as that was considered a waste of strategic effort, but the doctrine allowed revenge attacks if German civilians were bombed. A revised edition was issued in 1940, and the continuing central principle of Luftwaffe doctrine was that destruction of enemy armed forces was of primary importance.
The RAF responded to Luftwaffe developments with its 1934 Expansion Plan A rearmament scheme, and in 1936 it was restructured into Bomber Command, Coastal Command, Training Command and Fighter Command. The latter was under Hugh Dowding, who opposed the doctrine that bombers were unstoppable: the invention of radar at that time could allow early detection, and prototype monoplane fighters were significantly faster. Priorities were disputed, but in December 1937 the Minister in charge of defence coordination Sir Thomas Inskip decided in Dowding 's favour, that "The role of our air force is not an early knock - out blow '' but rather was "to prevent the Germans from knocking us out '' and fighter squadrons were just as necessary as bomber squadrons.
In the Spanish Civil War, the Luftwaffe in the Condor Legion tried out air fighting tactics and their new aeroplanes. Wolfram von Richthofen become an exponent of air power providing ground support to other services. The difficulty of accurately hitting targets prompted Ernst Udet to require that all new bombers had to be dive bombers, and led to the development of the Knickebein system for night time navigation. Priority was given to producing large numbers of smaller aeroplanes, and plans for a long range four engined strategic bomber were delayed.
The early stages of World War II saw successful German invasions on the continent aided decisively by the air power of the Luftwaffe, which was able to establish tactical air superiority with great efficiency. The speed with which German forces defeated most of the defending armies in Norway in early 1940 created a significant political crisis in Britain. In early May 1940, the Norway Debate questioned the fitness for office of the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. On 10 May, the same day Winston Churchill became British Prime Minister, the Germans initiated the Battle of France with an aggressive invasion of French territory. RAF Fighter Command was desperately short of trained pilots and aircraft, but despite the objections of its commander Hugh Dowding that the diversion of his forces would leave home defences under - strength, Churchill sent fighter squadrons, the Air Component of the British Expeditionary Force, to support operations in France, where the RAF suffered heavy losses.
After the evacuation of British and French soldiers from Dunkirk and the French surrender on 22 June 1940, Hitler mainly focused his energies on the possibility of invading the Soviet Union in the belief that the British, defeated on the continent and without European allies, would quickly come to terms. The Germans were so convinced of an imminent armistice that they began constructing street decorations for the homecoming parades of victorious troops. Although the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax, and certain elements of the British public favoured a negotiated peace with an ascendant Germany, Churchill and a majority of his Cabinet refused to consider an armistice. Instead, Churchill used his skilful rhetoric to harden public opinion against capitulation and to prepare the British for a long war.
The Battle of Britain has the unusual distinction that it gained its name before being fought. The name is derived from the This was their finest hour speech delivered by Winston Churchill in the House of Commons on 18 June, more than three weeks prior to the generally accepted date for the start of the battle:
... What General Weygand has called The Battle of France is over. The battle of Britain is about to begin. Upon this battle depends the survival of Christian civilisation. Upon it depends our own British life and the long continuity of our institutions and our Empire. The whole fury and might of the enemy must very soon be turned on us. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free and the life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of a perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, "This was their finest hour ''.
From the outset of his rise to power, Hitler expressed admiration for Britain, and throughout the Battle period he sought neutrality or a peace treaty with Britain. In a secret conference on 23 May 1939, Hitler set out his rather contradictory strategy that an attack on Poland was essential and "will only be successful if the Western Powers keep out of it. If this is impossible, then it will be better to attack in the West and to settle Poland at the same time '' with a surprise attack. "If Holland and Belgium are successfully occupied and held, and if France is also defeated, the fundamental conditions for a successful war against England will have been secured. England can then be blockaded from Western France at close quarters by the Air Force, while the Navy with its submarines extend the range of the blockade. ''
When war commenced, Hitler and the OKW (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht or "High Command of the Armed Forces '') issued a series of Directives ordering planning and stating strategic objectives. "Directive No. 1 for the Conduct of the War '' dated 31 August 1939 instructed the invasion of Poland on 1 September as planned. Potentially, Luftwaffe "operations against England '' were to "dislocate English imports, the armaments industry, and the transport of troops to France. Any favourable opportunity of an effective attack on concentrated units of the English Navy, particularly on battleships or aircraft carriers, will be exploited. The decision regarding attacks on London is reserved to me. Attacks on the English homeland are to be prepared, bearing in mind that inconclusive results with insufficient forces are to be avoided in all circumstances. '' Both France and the UK declared war on Germany; on 9 October Hitler 's "Directive No. 6 '' planned the offensive to defeat these allies and "win as much territory as possible in Holland, Belgium, and northern France to serve as a base for the successful prosecution of the air and sea war against England ''. On 29 November OKW "Directive No. 9 -- Instructions For Warfare Against The Economy Of The Enemy '' stated that once this coastline had been secured, the Lufwaffe together with the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) was to blockade UK ports with sea mines, attack shipping and warships, and make air attacks on shore installations and industrial production. This directive remained in force in the first phase of the Battle of Britain. It was reinforced on 24 May during the Battle of France by "Directive No. 13 '' which authorised the Luftwaffe "to attack the English homeland in the fullest manner, as soon as sufficient forces are available. This attack will be opened by an annihilating reprisal for English attacks on the Ruhr Basin. ''
By the end of June 1940, Germany had defeated Britain 's allies on the continent, and on 30 June the OKW Chief of Staff Alfred Jodl issued his review of options to increase pressure on Britain to agree to a negotiated peace. The first priority was to eliminate the RAF and gain air supremacy. Intensified air attacks against shipping and the economy could affect food supplies and civilian morale in the long term. Reprisal attacks of terror bombing had the potential to cause quicker capitulation, but the effect on morale was uncertain. Once the Luftwaffe had control of the air, and the UK economy had been weakened, an invasion would be a last resort or a final strike ("Todesstoss '') after England had already been conquered, but could have a quick result. On the same day, the Luftwaffe Commander - in - Chief Hermann Göring issued his operational directive; to destroy the RAF, thus protecting German industry, and also to block overseas supplies to Britain. The German Supreme Command argued over the practicality of these options.
In "Directive No. 16 -- On preparations for a landing operation against England '' on 16 July, Hitler required readiness by mid-August for the possibility of an invasion he called Operation Sea Lion, unless the British agreed to negotiations. The Luftwaffe reported that it would be ready to launch its major attack early in August. The Kriegsmarine Commander - in - Chief, Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, continued to highlight the impracticality of these plans, and said sea invasion could not take place before the Spring of 1941. Hitler now argued that Britain was holding out in hope of assistance from Russia, and the Soviet Union was to be invaded by mid 1941. Göring met his air fleet commanders, and on 24 July issued "Tasks and Goals '' of firstly gaining air supremacy, secondly protecting invasion forces and attacking the Royal Navy 's ships. Thirdly, they were to blockade imports, bombing harbours and stores of supplies.
Hitler 's "Directive No. 17 -- For the conduct of air and sea warfare against England '' issued on 1 August attempted to keep all the options open. The Luftwaffe 's Adlertag campaign was to start around 5 August, subject to weather, with the aim of gaining air superiority over southern England as a necessary precondition of invasion, to give credibility to the threat and give Hitler the option of ordering the invasion. The intention was to incapacitate the RAF so much that the UK would feel open to air attack, and would begin peace negotiations. It was also to isolate the UK and damage war production, beginning an effective blockade. Following severe Luftwaffe losses, Hitler agreed at a 14 September OKW conference that the air campaign was to intensify regardless of invasion plans. On 16 September, Göring gave the order for this change in strategy, to the first independent strategic bombing campaign.
Adolf Hitler 's Mein Kampf of 1923 mostly set out his hatreds: he only admired ordinary German World War I soldiers and Britain, which he saw as an ally against communism. In 1935 Hermann Göring welcomed news that Britain as a potential ally was rearming. In 1936 he promised assistance to defend the British Empire, asking only a free hand in Eastern Europe, and repeated this to Lord Halifax in 1937. That year, von Ribbentrop met Churchill with a similar proposal; when rebuffed, he told Churchill that interference with German domination would mean war. To Hitler 's great annoyance, all his diplomacy failed to stop Britain from declaring war when he invaded Poland. During the fall of France, he repeatedly discussed peace efforts with his generals.
When Churchill came to power, there was still wide support for Halifax, who as Foreign Secretary openly argued for peace negotiations in the tradition of British diplomacy, to secure British independence without war. On 20 May, Halifax secretly requested a Swedish businessman to make contact with Göring to open negotiations. Shortly afterwards, in the May 1940 War Cabinet Crisis, Halifax argued for negotiations involving the Italians, but this was rejected by Churchill with majority support. An approach made through the Swedish ambassador on 22 June was reported to Hitler, making peace negotiations seem feasible. Throughout July, as the battle started, the Germans made wider attempts to find a diplomatic solution. On 2 July, the day the armed forces were asked to start preliminary planning for an invasion, Hitler got von Ribbentrop to draft a speech offering peace negotiations. On 19 July Hitler made this speech to the German Parliament in Berlin, appealing "to reason and common sense '', and said he could "see no reason why this war should go on ''. His sombre conclusion was received in silence, but he did not suggest negotiations and this was effectively an ultimatum which was rejected by the British government. Halifax kept trying to arrange peace until he was sent to Washington in December as ambassador, and in January 1941 Hitler expressed continued interest in negotiating peace with Britain.
A May 1939 planning exercise by Luftflotte 3 found that the Luftwaffe lacked the means to do much damage to Britain 's war economy beyond laying naval mines. The Head of Luftwaffe intelligence Joseph "Beppo '' Schmid presented a report on 22 November 1939, stating that "Of all Germany 's possible enemies, Britain is the most dangerous. '' This "Proposal for the Conduct of Air Warfare '' argued for a counter to the British blockade and said "Key is to paralyse the British trade ''. Instead of the Wehrmacht attacking the French, the Luftwaffe with naval assistance was to block imports to Britain and attack seaports. "Should the enemy resort to terror measures -- for example, to attack our towns in western Germany '' they could retaliate by bombing industrial centres and London. Parts of this appeared on 29 November in "Directive No. 9 '' as future actions once the coast had been conquered. On 24 May 1940 "Directive No. 13 '' authorised attacks on the blockade targets, as well as retaliation for RAF bombing of industrial targets in the Ruhr.
After the defeat of France the High Command (OKW) felt they had won the war, and some more pressure would persuade Britain. On 30 June the OKW Chief of Staff Alfred Jodl issued his paper setting out options: the first was to increase attacks on shipping, economic targets and the RAF: air attacks and food shortages were expected to break morale and lead to capitulation. Destruction of the RAF was the first priority, and invasion would be a last resort. Hermann Göring 's operational directive issued the same day ordered destruction of the RAF to clear the way for attacks cutting off seaborne supplies to Britain. It made no mention of invasion.
In November 1939, the OKW reviewed the potential for an air - and seaborne invasion of Britain: the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) was faced with the threat the Royal Navy 's larger Home Fleet posed to a crossing of the English Channel, and together with the German Army viewed control of airspace as a necessary precondition. The Luftwaffe said invasion could only be "the final act in an already victorious war. ''
Hitler first discussed the idea at a 21 May 1940 meeting with Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, who stressed the difficulties and his own preference for a blockade. OKW Chief of Staff Alfred Jodl 's 30 June report described invasion as a last resort once the British economy had been damaged and the Luftwaffe had full air superiority. On 2 July, OKW requested preliminary plans. In Britain, Churchill described "the great invasion scare '' as "serving a very useful purpose '' by "keeping every man and woman tuned to a high pitch of readiness ''. On 10 July, he advised the War Cabinet that invasion could be ignored, as it "would be a most hazardous and suicidal operation ''.
On 11 July, Hitler agreed with Raeder that invasion would be a last resort, and the Luftwaffe advised that gaining air superiority would take 14 to 28 days. Hitler met his army chiefs, von Brauchitsch and Halder, who presented detailed plans on the assumption that the navy would provide safe transport. Hitler showed no interest in the details, but on 16 July he issued Directive No. 16 ordering preparations for Operation Sea Lion.
The navy insisted on a narrow beachhead and an extended period for landing troops; the army rejected these plans: the Luftwaffe could begin an air attack in August. Hitler held a meeting of his army and navy chiefs on 31 July. The navy said 22 September was the earliest possible date, and proposed postponement until the spring, but Hitler preferred September. He then told von Brauchitsch and Halder that he would decide on the landing operation eight to fourteen days after the air attack began. On 1 August he issued Directive No. 17 for intensified air and sea warfare, to begin with Adlertag on or after 5 August subject to weather, keeping options open for negotiated peace or blockade and siege.
Under the continuing influence of the 1935 "Conduct of the Air War '' doctrine, the main focus of the Luftwaffe command (including Göring) was in concentrating attacks to destroy enemy armed forces on the battlefield, and "blitzkrieg '' close air support of the army succeeded brilliantly. They reserved strategic bombing for a stalemate situation or revenge attacks, but doubted if this could be decisive on its own and regarded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale as a waste of strategic effort.
The defeat of France in June 1940 introduced the prospect for the first time of independent air action against Britain. A July Fliegercorps I paper asserted that Germany was by definition an air power: "Its chief weapon against England is the Air Force, then the Navy, followed by the landing forces and the Army. '' In 1940, the Luftwaffe would undertake a "strategic offensive... on its own and independent of the other services '', according to an April 1944 German account of their military mission. Göring was convinced that strategic bombing could win objectives which were beyond the army and navy, and gain political advantages in the Third Reich for the Luftwaffe and himself. He expected air warfare to decisively force Britain to negotiate, as all in the OKW hoped, and the Luftwaffe took little interest to planning to support an invasion.
The Luftwaffe faced a more capable opponent than any it had previously met: a sizeable, highly coordinated, well - supplied, modern air force.
The Luftwaffe 's Messerschmitt Bf 109E and Bf 110C fought against the RAF 's workhorse Hurricane Mk I and the less numerous Spitfire Mk I; Hurricanes outnumbered Spitfires in RAF Fighter Command by about 2: 1 when war broke out. The Bf 109E had a better climb rate and was up to 40 mph faster in level flight than the Rotol (constant speed propellor) equipped Hurricane Mk I, depending on altitude. The speed and climb disparity with the original non-Rotol Hurricane was even greater. By the end of spring 1940, all RAF Spitfire and Hurricane fighter squadrons converted to 100 octane aviation fuel, which allowed their Merlin engines to generate significantly more power and an approximately 30 mph increase in speed at low altitudes through the use of an Emergency Boost Override. In September 1940, the more powerful Mk IIa series 1 Hurricanes started entering service in small numbers. This version was capable of a maximum speed of 342 mph (550 km / h), some 20 mph more than the original (non-Rotol) Mk I, though it was still 15 to 20 mph slower than a Bf 109 (depending on altitude).
The performance of the Spitfire over Dunkirk came as a surprise to the Jagdwaffe, although the German pilots retained a strong belief that the 109 was the superior fighter. The British fighters were equipped with eight Browning. 303 (7.7 mm) machine guns, while most Bf 109Es had two 7.92 mm machine guns supplemented by two 20mm cannons. The latter was much more effective than the. 303; during the Battle it was not unknown for damaged German bombers to limp home with up to two hundred. 303 hits. At some altitudes, the Bf 109 could outclimb the British fighter. It could also engage in vertical - plane negative - g manoeuvres without the engine cutting out because its DB 601 engine used fuel injection; this allowed the 109 to dive away from attackers more readily than the carburettor - equipped Merlin. On the other hand, the Bf 109E had a much larger turning circle than its two foes. In general, though, as Alfred Price noted in The Spitfire Story:
... the differences between the Spitfire and the Me 109 in performance and handling were only marginal, and in a combat they were almost always surmounted by tactical considerations of which side had seen the other first, which had the advantage of sun, altitude, numbers, pilot ability, tactical situation, tactical co-ordination, amount of fuel remaining, etc.
The Bf 109E was also used as a Jabo (jagdbomber, fighter - bomber) -- the E-4 / B and E-7 models could carry a 250 kg bomb underneath the fuselage, the later model arriving during the battle. The Bf 109, unlike the Stuka, could fight on equal terms with RAF fighters after releasing its ordnance.
At the start of the battle, the twin - engined Messerschmitt Bf 110C long range Zerstörer ("Destroyer '') was also expected to engage in air - to - air combat while escorting the Luftwaffe bomber fleet. Although the 110 was faster than the Hurricane and almost as fast as the Spitfire, its lack of manoeuvrability and acceleration meant that it was a failure as a long - range escort fighter. On 13 and 15 August, thirteen and thirty aircraft were lost, the equivalent of an entire Gruppe, and the type 's worst losses during the campaign. This trend continued with a further eight and fifteen lost on 16 and 17 August. Göring ordered the Bf 110 units to operate "where the range of the single - engined machines were not sufficient ''.
The most successful role of the Bf 110 during the battle was as a Schnellbomber (fast bomber). The Bf 110 usually used a shallow dive to bomb the target and escape at high speed. One unit, Erprobungsgruppe 210 -- initially formed as the service test unit (Erprobungskommando) for the emerging successor to the 110, the Me 210 -- proved that the Bf 110 could still be used to good effect in attacking small or "pinpoint '' targets.
The RAF 's Boulton Paul Defiant had some initial success over Dunkirk because of its resemblance to the Hurricane; Luftwaffe fighters attacking from the rear were surprised by its unusual gun turret. However, during the Battle of Britain, this single - engined two - seater proved hopelessly outclassed. For various reasons, the Defiant lacked any form of forward - firing armament, and the heavy turret and second crewman meant it could not outrun or outmanoeuvre either the Bf 109 or Bf 110. By the end of August, after disastrous losses, the aircraft was withdrawn from daylight service.
The Luftwaffe 's primary bombers were the Heinkel He 111, Dornier Do 17, and Junkers Ju 88 for level bombing at medium to high altitudes, and the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka for dive bombing tactics. The He 111 was used in greater numbers than the others during the conflict, and was better known, partly due to its distinctive wing shape. Each level bomber also had a few reconnaissance versions accompanying them that were used during the battle.
Although it was successful in previous Luftwaffe engagements, the Stuka suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Britain, particularly on 18 August, due to its slow speed and vulnerability to fighter interception after dive bombing a target. As the losses went up along with their limited payload and range, Stuka units were largely removed from operations over England and diverted to concentrate on shipping instead until they were eventually re-deployed to the Eastern Front in 1941. However, for some raids, they were called back, such as on 13 September to attack Tangmere airfield.
The remaining three bomber types differed in their capabilities; the Heinkel 111 was the slowest; the Ju 88 was the fastest once its mainly external bomb load was dropped; and the Do 17 had the smallest bomb load. All three bomber types suffered heavy losses from the home - based British fighters, but the Ju 88 disproportionately so. The German bombers required constant protection by the Luftwaffe 's fighter force. German escorts, however, were not sufficiently numerous. Bf 109Es were ordered to support more than 300 -- 400 bombers on any given day. Later in the conflict, when night bombing became more frequent, all three were used. However, due to its reduced bomb load, the lighter Do 17 was used less than the He 111 and Ju 88 for this purpose.
On the British side, three bomber types were mostly used on night operations against targets such as factories, invasion ports and railway centres; the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, the Handley - Page Hampden and the Vickers Wellington were classified as heavy bombers by the RAF, although the Hampden was a medium bomber comparable to the He 111. The twin - engined Bristol Blenheim and the obsolescent single - engined Fairey Battle were both light bombers; the Blenheim was the most numerous of the aircraft equipping RAF Bomber Command and was used in attacks against shipping, ports, airfields and factories on the continent by day and by night. The Fairey Battle squadrons, which had suffered heavy losses in daylight attacks during the Battle of France, were brought up to strength with reserve aircraft and continued to operate at night in attacks against the invasion ports, until the Battle was withdrawn from UK front line service in October 1940.
Before the war, the RAF 's processes for selecting potential candidates were opened to men of all social classes through the creation in 1936 of the RAF Volunteer Reserve, which "... was designed to appeal, to... young men... without any class distinctions... '' The older squadrons of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force did retain some of their upper - class exclusiveness, but their numbers were soon swamped by the newcomers of the RAFVR; by 1 September 1939, 6,646 pilots had been trained through the RAFVR.
By summer 1940, there were about 9,000 pilots in the RAF to man about 5,000 aircraft, most of which were bombers. Fighter Command was never short of pilots, but the problem of finding sufficient numbers of fully trained fighter pilots became acute by mid-August 1940. With aircraft production running at 300 planes each week, only 200 pilots were trained in the same period. In addition, more pilots were allocated to squadrons than there were aircraft, as this allowed squadrons to maintain operational strength despite casualties and still provide for pilot leave. Another factor was that only about 30 % of the 9,000 pilots were assigned to operational squadrons; 20 % of the pilots were involved in conducting pilot training, and a further 20 % were undergoing further instruction, like those offered in Canada and in Southern Rhodesia to the Commonwealth trainees, although already qualified. The rest were assigned to staff positions, since RAF policy dictated that only pilots could make many staff and operational command decisions, even in engineering matters. At the height of fighting, and despite Churchill 's insistence, only 30 pilots were released to the front line from administrative duties.
For these reasons, and the permanent loss of 435 pilots during the Battle of France alone along with many more wounded, and others lost in Norway, the RAF had fewer experienced pilots at the start of the initial defence of their home. It was the lack of trained pilots in the fighting squadrons, rather than the lack of aircraft, that became the greatest concern for Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, Commander of Fighter Command. Drawing from regular RAF forces, the Auxiliary Air Force and the Volunteer Reserve, the British were able to muster some 1,103 fighter pilots on 1 July. Replacement pilots, with little flight training and often no gunnery training, suffered high casualty rates, thus exacerbating the problem.
The Luftwaffe, on the other hand, were able to muster a larger number (1,450) of more experienced fighter pilots. Drawing from a cadre of Spanish Civil War veterans, these pilots already had comprehensive courses in aerial gunnery and instructions in tactics suited for fighter - versus - fighter combat. Training manuals discouraged heroism, stressing the importance of attacking only when the odds were in the pilot 's favour. Despite the high levels of experience, German fighter formations did not provide a sufficient reserve of pilots to allow for losses and leave, and the Luftwaffe was unable to produce enough pilots to prevent a decline in operational strength as the battle progressed.
The Royal Air Force roll of honour for the Battle of Britain recognises 595 non-British pilots (out of 2,936) as flying at least one authorised operational sortie with an eligible unit of the RAF or Fleet Air Arm between 10 July and 31 October 1940. These included 145 Poles, 127 New Zealanders, 112 Canadians, 88 Czechoslovaks, 10 Irish, 32 Australians, 28 Belgians, 25 South Africans, 13 French, 9 Americans, 3 Southern Rhodesians and one each from Jamaica and Mandatory Palestine. "Altogether in the fighter battles, the bombing raids, and the various patrols flown between 10 July and 31 October 1940 by the Royal Air Force, 1495 aircrew were killed, of whom 449 were fighter pilots, 718 aircrew from Bomber Command, and 280 from Coastal Command. Among those killed were 47 airmen from Canada, 24 from Australia, 17 from South Africa, 35 from Poland, 20 from Czechoslovakia and six from Belgium. Forty - seven New Zealanders lost their lives, including 15 fighter pilots, 24 bomber and eight coastal aircrew. The names of these Allied and Commonwealth airmen are inscribed in a memorial book which rests in the Battle of Britain Chapel in Westminster Abbey. In the chapel is a stained glass window which contains the badges of the fighter squadrons which operated during the battle and the flags of the nations to which the pilots and aircrew belonged. ''
An element of the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) called the Italian Air Corps (Corpo Aereo Italiano or CAI) first saw action in late October 1940. It took part in the latter stages of the battle, but achieved limited success. The unit was redeployed in early 1941.
The high command 's indecision over which aim to pursue was reflected in shifts in Luftwaffe strategy. Their Air War doctrine of concentrated close air support of the army at the battlefront succeeded in the blitzkrieg offensives against Poland, Denmark and Norway, the Low Countries and France, but incurred significant losses. The Luftwaffe now had to establish or restore bases in the conquered territories, and rebuild their strength. In June 1940 they began regular armed reconnaissance flights and sporadic Störangriffe, nuisance raids of one or a few bombers, both day and night. These gave crews practice in navigation and avoiding air defences, and set off air raid alarms which disturbed civilian morale. Similar nuisance raids continued throughout the battle, into the winter months of 1940. Scattered naval mine -- laying sorties began at the outset, and increased gradually over the battle period.
Göring 's operational directive of 30 June ordered destruction of the RAF as a whole, including the aircraft industry, with the aims of ending RAF bombing raids on Germany and facilitating attacks on ports and storage in the Luftwaffe blockade of Britain. Attacks on Channel shipping in the Kanalkampf began on 4 July, and were formalised on 11 July in an order by Hans Jeschonnek which added the arms industry as a target.
On 16 July Directive No. 16 ordered preparations for Operation Sea Lion, and on the next day the luftwaffe was ordered to stand by in full readiness. Göring met his air fleet commanders, and on 24 July issued "Tasks and Goals '' of gaining air supremacy, protecting the army and navy if invasion went ahead, and attacking the Royal Navy 's ships as well as continuing the blockade. Once the RAF had been defeated, Luftwaffe bombers were to move forward beyond London without the need for fighter escort, destroying military and economic targets.
At a meeting on 1 August the command reviewed plans produced by each Fliegerkorps with differing proposals for targets including whether to bomb airfields, but failed to focus priorities. Intelligence reports gave Göring the impression that the RAF was almost defeated: the intent was that raids would attract British fighters for the Luftwaffe to shoot down. On 6 August he finalised plans for this "Operation Eagle Attack '' with Kesselring, Sperle and Stumpff: destruction of RAF Fighter Command across the south of England was to take four days, with lightly escorted small bomber raids leaving the main fighter force free to attack RAF fighters. Bombing of military and economic targets was then to systematically extend up to the Midlands until daylight attacks could proceed unhindered over the whole of Britain.
Bombing of London was to be held back while these night time "destroyer '' attacks proceeded over other urban areas, then in culmination of the campaign a major attack on the capital was intended to cause a crisis when refugees fled London just as the Operation Sea Lion invasion was to begin. With hopes fading for the possibility of invasion, on 4 September Hitler authorised a main focus on day and night attacks on tactical targets with London as the main target, in what the British called the Blitz. With increasing difficulty in defending bombers in day raids, the Lufwaffe shifted to a strategic bombing campaign of night raids aiming to overcome British resistance by damaging infrastructure and food stocks, though intentional terror bombing of civilians was not sanctioned.
The Luftwaffe was forced to regroup after the Battle of France into three Luftflotten (Air Fleets) on Britain 's southern and northern flanks. Luftflotte 2, commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, was responsible for the bombing of southeast England and the London area. Luftflotte 3, under Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle, targeted the West Country, Wales, the Midlands, and northwest England. Luftflotte 5, led by Generaloberst Hans - Jürgen Stumpff from his headquarters in Norway, targeted the north of England and Scotland. As the battle progressed, command responsibility shifted, with Luftflotte 3 taking more responsibility for the night - time Blitz attacks while the main daylight operations fell upon Luftflotte 2 's shoulders.
Initial Luftwaffe estimates were that it would take four days to defeat the RAF Fighter Command in southern England. This would be followed by a four - week offensive during which the bombers and long - range fighters would destroy all military installations throughout the country and wreck the British aircraft industry. The campaign was planned to begin with attacks on airfields near the coast, gradually moving inland to attack the ring of sector airfields defending London. Later reassessments gave the Luftwaffe five weeks, from 8 August to 15 September, to establish temporary air superiority over England. To achieve this goal, Fighter Command had to be destroyed, either on the ground or in the air, yet the Luftwaffe had to be able to preserve its own strength to be able to support the invasion; this meant that the Luftwaffe had to maintain a high "kill ratio '' over the RAF fighters. The only alternative to the goal of air superiority was a terror bombing campaign aimed at the civilian population, but this was considered a last resort and it was (at this stage of the battle) expressly forbidden by Hitler.
The Luftwaffe kept broadly to this scheme, but its commanders had differences of opinion on strategy. Sperrle wanted to eradicate the air defence infrastructure by bombing it. His counterpart, Kesselring, championed attacking London directly -- either to bombard the British government into submission, or to draw RAF fighters into a decisive battle. Göring did nothing to resolve this disagreement between his commanders, and only vague directives were set down during the initial stages of the battle, with Göring seemingly unable to decide upon which strategy to pursue. He seemed at times obsessed with maintaining his own power base in the Luftwaffe and indulging his outdated beliefs on air fighting, which would later lead to tactical and strategic errors.
Luftwaffe formations employed a loose section of two (nicknamed the Rotte (pack)), based on a leader (Rottenführer) followed at a distance of about 200 metres by his wingman (nicknamed the Rottenhund (pack dog) or Katschmarek), who also flew slightly higher and was trained always to stay with his leader. With more room between them, both pilots could spend less time maintaining formation and more time looking around and covering each other 's blind spots. Attacking aircraft could be sandwiched between the two 109s. The Rotte allowed the Rottenführer to concentrate on getting kills, but few wingmen had the chance, leading to some resentment in the lower ranks where it was felt that the high scores came at their expense. Two sections were usually teamed up into a Schwarm, where all the pilots could watch what was happening around them. Each Schwarm in a Staffel flew at staggered heights and with about 200 metres of room between them, making the formation difficult to spot at longer ranges and allowing for a great deal of flexibility. By using a tight "cross-over '' turn, a Schwarm could quickly change direction.
The Bf 110s adopted the same Schwarm formation as the 109s, but were seldom able to use this to the same advantage. The Bf 110 's most successful method of attack was the "bounce '' from above. When attacked, Zerstörergruppen increasingly resorted to forming large "defensive circles '', where each Bf 110 guarded the tail of the aircraft ahead of it. Göring ordered that they be renamed "offensive circles '' in a vain bid to improve rapidly declining morale. These conspicuous formations were often successful in attracting RAF fighters that were sometimes "bounced '' by high - flying Bf 109s. This led to the often repeated misconception that the Bf 110s were escorted by Bf 109s.
Luftwaffe tactics were influenced by their fighters. The Bf 110 proved too vulnerable to the nimble single - engined RAF fighters. This meant the bulk of fighter escort duties fell on the Bf 109. Fighter tactics were then complicated by bomber crews who demanded closer protection. After the hard - fought battles of 15 and 18 August, Göring met with his unit leaders. During this conference, the need for the fighters to meet up on time with the bombers was stressed. It was also decided that one bomber Gruppe could only be properly protected by several Gruppen of 109s. In addition, Göring stipulated that as many fighters as possible were to be left free for Freie Jagd ("Free Hunts '': a free - roving fighter sweep preceded a raid to try to sweep defenders out of the raid 's path). The Ju 87 units, which had suffered heavy casualties, were only to be used under favourable circumstances. In early September, due to increasing complaints from the bomber crews about RAF fighters seemingly able to get through the escort screen, Göring ordered an increase in close escort duties. This decision shackled many of the Bf 109s to the bombers and, although they were more successful at protecting the bomber forces, casualties amongst the fighters mounted primarily because they were forced to fly and manoeuvre at reduced speeds.
The Luftwaffe consistently varied its tactics in its attempts to break through the RAF defences. It launched many Freie Jagd to draw up RAF fighters. RAF fighter controllers, however, were often able to detect these and position squadrons to avoid them, keeping to Dowding 's plan to preserve fighter strength for the bomber formations. The Luftwaffe also tried using small formations of bombers as bait, covering them with large numbers of escorts. This was more successful, but escort duty tied the fighters to the bombers ' slow speed and made them more vulnerable.
By September, standard tactics for raids had become an amalgam of techniques. A Freie Jagd would precede the main attack formations. The bombers would fly in at altitudes between 16,000 feet (4,900 m) and 20,000 feet (6,100 m), closely escorted by fighters. Escorts were divided into two parts (usually Gruppen), some operating in close contact with the bombers, and others a few hundred yards away and a little above. If the formation was attacked from the starboard, the starboard section engaged the attackers, the top section moving to starboard and the port section to the top position. If the attack came from the port side the system was reversed. British fighters coming from the rear were engaged by the rear section and the two outside sections similarly moving to the rear. If the threat came from above, the top section went into action while the side sections gained height to be able to follow RAF fighters down as they broke away. If attacked, all sections flew in defensive circles. These tactics were skilfully evolved and carried out, and were difficult to counter.
Adolf Galland noted:
We had the impression that, whatever we did, we were bound to be wrong. Fighter protection for bombers created many problems which had to be solved in action. Bomber pilots preferred close screening in which their formation was surrounded by pairs of fighters pursuing a zigzag course. Obviously, the visible presence of the protective fighters gave the bomber pilots a greater sense of security. However, this was a faulty conclusion, because a fighter can only carry out this purely defensive task by taking the initiative in the offensive. He must never wait until attacked because he then loses the chance of acting.
We fighter pilots certainly preferred the free chase during the approach and over the target area. This gives the greatest relief and the best protection for the bomber force.
The biggest disadvantage faced by Bf 109 pilots was that without the benefit of long - range drop tanks (which were introduced in limited numbers in the late stages of the battle), usually of 300 litres (66 imp gal; 79 US gal) capacity, the 109s had an endurance of just over an hour and, for the 109E, a 600 km (370 mi) range. Once over Britain, a 109 pilot had to keep an eye on a red "low fuel '' light on the instrument panel: once this was illuminated, he was forced to turn back and head for France. With the prospect of two long flights over water, and knowing their range was substantially reduced when escorting bombers or during combat, the Jagdflieger coined the term Kanalkrankheit or "Channel sickness ''.
The Luftwaffe was ill - served by its lack of military intelligence about the British defences. The German intelligence services were fractured and plagued by rivalries; their performance was "amateurish ''. By 1940, there were few German agents operating in Great Britain and a handful of bungled attempts to insert spies into the country were foiled.
As a result of intercepted radio transmissions, the Germans began to realise that the RAF fighters were being controlled from ground facilities; in July and August 1939, for example, the airship Graf Zeppelin, which was packed with equipment for listening in on RAF radio and RDF transmissions, flew around the coasts of Britain. Although the Luftwaffe correctly interpreted these new ground control procedures, they were incorrectly assessed as being rigid and ineffectual. A British radar system was well known to the Luftwaffe from intelligence gathered before the war, but the highly developed "Dowding system '' linked with fighter control had been a well - kept secret. Even when good information existed, such as a November 1939 Abwehr assessment of Fighter Command strengths and capabilities by Abteilung V, it was ignored if it did not match conventional preconceptions.
On 16 July 1940, Abteilung V, commanded by Oberstleutnant "Beppo '' Schmid, produced a report on the RAF and on Britain 's defensive capabilities which was adopted by the frontline commanders as a basis for their operational plans. One of the most conspicuous failures of the report was the lack of information on the RAF 's RDF network and control systems capabilities; it was assumed that the system was rigid and inflexible, with the RAF fighters being "tied '' to their home bases. An optimistic and, as it turned out, erroneous conclusion reached was:
D. Supply Situation... At present the British aircraft industry produces about 180 to 300 first line fighters and 140 first line bombers a month. In view of the present conditions relating to production (the appearance of raw material difficulties, the disruption or breakdown of production at factories owing to air attacks, the increased vulnerability to air attack owing to the fundamental reorganisation of the aircraft industry now in progress), it is believed that for the time being output will decrease rather than increase.
In the event of an intensification of air warfare it is expected that the present strength of the RAF will fall, and this decline will be aggravated by the continued decrease in production.
Because of this statement, reinforced by another more detailed report, issued on 10 August, there was a mindset in the ranks of the Luftwaffe that the RAF would run out of frontline fighters. The Luftwaffe believed it was weakening Fighter Command at three times the actual attrition rate. Many times, the leadership believed Fighter Command 's strength had collapsed, only to discover that the RAF were able to send up defensive formations at will.
Throughout the battle, the Luftwaffe had to use numerous reconnaissance sorties to make up for the poor intelligence. Reconnaissance aircraft (initially mostly Dornier Do 17s, but increasingly Bf 110s) proved easy prey for British fighters, as it was seldom possible for them to be escorted by Bf 109s. Thus, the Luftwaffe operated "blind '' for much of the battle, unsure of its enemy 's true strengths, capabilities, and deployments. Many of the Fighter Command airfields were never attacked, while raids against supposed fighter airfields fell instead on bomber or coastal defence stations. The results of bombing and air fighting were consistently exaggerated, due to inaccurate claims, over-enthusiastic reports and the difficulty of confirmation over enemy territory. In the euphoric atmosphere of perceived victory, the Luftwaffe leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality. This lack of leadership and solid intelligence meant the Germans did not adopt consistent strategy, even when the RAF had its back to the wall. Moreover, there was never a systematic focus on one type of target (such as airbases, radar stations, or aircraft factories); consequently, the already haphazard effort was further diluted.
While the British were using radar for air defence more effectively than the Germans realised, the Luftwaffe attempted to press its own offensive with advanced radio navigation systems of which the British were initially not aware. One of these was Knickebein ("bent leg ''); this system was used at night and for raids where precision was required. It was rarely used during the Battle of Britain.
The Luftwaffe was much better prepared for the task of air - sea rescue than the RAF, specifically tasking the Seenotdienst unit, equipped with about 30 Heinkel He 59 floatplanes, with picking up downed aircrew from the North Sea, English Channel and the Dover Straits. In addition, Luftwaffe aircraft were equipped with life rafts and the aircrew were provided with sachets of a chemical called fluorescein which, on reacting with water, created a large, easy - to - see, bright green patch. In accordance with the Geneva Convention, the He 59s were unarmed and painted white with civilian registration markings and red crosses. Nevertheless, RAF aircraft attacked these aircraft, as some were escorted by Bf 109s.
After single He 59s were forced to land on the sea by RAF fighters, on 1 and 9 July respectively, a controversial order was issued to the RAF on 13 July; this stated that from 20 July, Seenotdienst aircraft were to be shot down. One of the reasons given by Churchill was:
We did not recognise this means of rescuing enemy pilots so they could come and bomb our civil population again... all German air ambulances were forced down or shot down by our fighters on definite orders approved by the War Cabinet.
The British also believed that their crews would report on convoys, the Air Ministry issuing a communiqué to the German government on 14 July that Britain was
unable, however, to grant immunity to such aircraft flying over areas in which operations are in progress on land or at sea, or approaching British or Allied territory, or territory in British occupation, or British or Allied ships. Ambulance aircraft which do not comply with the above will do so at their own risk and peril
The white He 59s were soon repainted in camouflage colours and armed with defensive machine guns. Although another four He 59s were shot down by RAF aircraft, the Seenotdienst continued to pick up downed Luftwaffe and Allied aircrew throughout the battle, earning praise from Adolf Galland for their bravery.
During early tests of the Chain Home system, the slow flow of information from the CH radars and observers to the aircraft often caused them to miss their "bandits ''. The solution, today known as the "Dowding system '', was to create a set of reporting chains to move information from the various observation points to the pilots in their fighters. It was named after its chief architect, "Stuffy '' Dowding.
Reports from CH radars and the Observer Corps were sent directly to Fighter Command Headquarters (FCHQ) at Bentley Priory where they were "filtered '' to combine multiple reports of the same formations into single tracks. Telephone operators would then forward only the information of interest to the Group headquarters, where the map would be re-created. This process was repeated to produce another version of the map at the Sector level, covering a much smaller area. Looking over their maps, Group level commanders could select squadrons to attack particular targets. From that point the Sector operators would give commands to the fighters to arrange an interception, as well as return them to base. Sector stations also controlled the anti-aircraft batteries in their area; an army officer sat beside each fighter controller and directed the gun crews when to open and cease fire.
The Dowding system dramatically improved the speed and accuracy of the information that flowed to the pilots. During the early war period it was expected that an average interception mission might have a 30 % chance of ever seeing their target. During the battle, the Dowding system maintained an average rate over 75 %, with several examples of 100 % rates -- every fighter dispatched found and intercepted its target. In contrast, Luftwaffe fighters attempting to intercept raids had to randomly seek their targets and often returned home having never seen enemy aircraft. The result is what is now known as an example of "force multiplication ''; RAF fighters were as effective as two or more Luftwaffe fighters, greatly offsetting, or overturning, the disparity in actual numbers.
While Luftwaffe intelligence reports underestimated British fighter forces and aircraft production, the British intelligence estimates went the other way: they overestimated German aircraft production, numbers and range of aircraft available, and numbers of Luftwaffe pilots. In action, the Luftwaffe believed from their pilot claims and the impression given by aerial reconnaissance that the RAF was close to defeat, and the British made strenuous efforts to overcome the perceived advantages held by their opponents.
It is unclear how much the British intercepts of the Enigma cipher, used for high - security German radio communications, affected the battle. Ultra, the information obtained from Enigma intercepts, gave the highest echelons of the British command a view of German intentions. According to F.W. Winterbotham, who was the senior Air Staff representative in the Secret Intelligence Service, Ultra helped establish the strength and composition of the Luftwaffe 's formations, the aims of the commanders and provided early warning of some raids. In early August it was decided that a small unit would be set up at FCHQ, which would process the flow of information from Bletchley and provide Dowding only with the most essential Ultra material; thus the Air Ministry did not have to send a continual flow of information to FCHQ, preserving secrecy, and Dowding was not inundated with non-essential information. Keith Park and his controllers were also told about Ultra. In a further attempt to camouflage the existence of Ultra, Dowding created a unit named No. 421 (Reconnaissance) Flight RAF. This unit (which later became No. 91 Squadron RAF), was equipped with Hurricanes and Spitfires and sent out aircraft to search for and report Luftwaffe formations approaching England. In addition the radio listening service (known as Y Service), monitoring the patterns of Luftwaffe radio traffic contributed considerably to the early warning of raids.
One of the biggest oversights of the entire system was the lack of adequate air - sea rescue organisation. The RAF had started organising a system in 1940 with High Speed Launches (HSLs) based on flying boat bases and at a number of overseas locations, but it was still believed that the amount of cross-Channel traffic meant that there was no need for a rescue service to cover these areas. Downed pilots and aircrew, it was hoped, would be picked up by any boats or ships which happened to be passing by. Otherwise the local life boat would be alerted, assuming someone had seen the pilot going into the water.
RAF aircrew were issued with a life jacket, nicknamed the "Mae West, '' but in 1940 it still required manual inflation, which was almost impossible for someone who was injured or in shock. The waters of the English Channel and Dover Straits are cold, even in the middle of summer, and clothing issued to RAF aircrew did little to insulate them against these freezing conditions. The RAF also imitated the German practice of issuing fluorescein. A conference in 1939 had placed air - sea rescue under Coastal Command. Because a number of pilots had been lost at sea during the "Channel Battle '', on 22 August, control of RAF rescue launches was passed to the local naval authorities and 12 Lysanders were given to Fighter Command to help look for pilots at sea. In all some 200 pilots and aircrew were lost at sea during the battle. No proper air - sea rescue service was formed until 1941.
In the late 1930s, Fighter Command expected to face only bombers over Britain, not single - engined fighters. A series of "Fighting Area Tactics '' were formulated and rigidly adhered to, involving a series of manoeuvres designed to concentrate a squadron 's firepower to bring down bombers. RAF fighters flew in tight, v - shaped sections ("vics '') of three aircraft, with four such "sections '' in tight formation. Only the squadron leader at the front was free to watch for the enemy; the other pilots had to concentrate on keeping station. Training also emphasised by - the - book attacks by sections breaking away in sequence. Fighter Command recognised the weaknesses of this structure early in the battle, but it was felt too risky to change tactics during the battle, because replacement pilots -- often with only minimal flying time -- could not be readily retrained, and inexperienced pilots needed firm leadership in the air only rigid formations could provide. German pilots dubbed the RAF formations Idiotenreihen ("rows of idiots '') because they left squadrons vulnerable to attack.
Front line RAF pilots were acutely aware of the inherent deficiencies of their own tactics. A compromise was adopted whereby squadron formations used much looser formations with one or two "weavers '' flying independently above and behind to provide increased observation and rear protection; these tended to be the least experienced men and were often the first to be shot down without the other pilots even noticing that they were under attack. During the battle, 74 Squadron under Squadron Leader Adolph "Sailor '' Malan adopted a variation of the German formation called the "fours in line astern '', which was a vast improvement on the old three aircraft "vic ''. Malan 's formation was later generally used by Fighter Command.
The weight of the battle fell upon 11 Group. Keith Park 's tactics were to dispatch individual squadrons to intercept raids. The intention was to subject incoming bombers to continual attacks by relatively small numbers of fighters and try to break up the tight German formations. Once formations had fallen apart, stragglers could be picked off one by one. Where multiple squadrons reached a raid the procedure was for the slower Hurricanes to tackle the bombers while the more agile Spitfires held up the fighter escort. This ideal was not always achieved, resulting in occasions when Spitfires and Hurricanes reversed roles. Park also issued instructions to his units to engage in frontal attacks against the bombers, which were more vulnerable to such attacks. Again, in the environment of fast moving, three - dimensional air battles, few RAF fighter units were able to attack the bombers from head - on.
During the battle, some commanders, notably Leigh - Mallory, proposed squadrons be formed into "Big Wings, '' consisting of at least three squadrons, to attack the enemy en masse, a method pioneered by Douglas Bader.
Proponents of this tactic claimed interceptions in large numbers caused greater enemy losses while reducing their own casualties. Opponents pointed out the big wings would take too long to form up, and the strategy ran a greater risk of fighters being caught on the ground refuelling. The big wing idea also caused pilots to overclaim their kills, due to the confusion of a more intense battle zone. This led to the belief big wings were far more effective than they were.
The issue caused intense friction between Park and Leigh - Mallory, as 12 Group was tasked with protecting 11 Group 's airfields whilst Park 's squadrons intercepted incoming raids. However, the delay in forming up Big Wings meant the formations often did not arrive at all or until after German bombers had hit 11 Group 's airfields. Dowding, to highlight the problem of the Big Wing 's performance, submitted a report compiled by Park to the Air Ministry on 15 November. In the report, he highlighted that during the period of 11 September -- 31 October, the extensive use of the Big Wing had resulted in just 10 interceptions and one German aircraft destroyed, but his report was ignored. Post-war analysis agrees Dowding and Park 's approach was best for 11 Group.
Dowding 's removal from his post in November 1940 has been blamed on this struggle between Park and Leigh - Mallory 's daylight strategy. However, the intensive raids and destruction wrought during the Blitz damaged both Dowding and Park in particular, for the failure to produce an effective night - fighter defence system, something for which the influential Leigh - Mallory had long criticised them.
Bomber Command and Coastal Command aircraft flew offensive sorties against targets in Germany and France during the battle.
An hour after the declaration of war, Bomber Command launched raids on warships and naval ports by day, and in night raids dropped leaflets as it was considered illegal to bomb targets which could affect civilians. After the initial disasters of the war, with Vickers Wellington bombers shot down in large numbers attacking Wilhelmshaven and the slaughter of the Fairey Battle squadrons sent to France, it became clear that they would have to operate mainly at night to avoid incurring very high losses. Churchill came to power on 10 May 1940, and night raids on German towns began with the bombing of Mönchen - Gladbach on the night of 11 May. The War Cabinet on 12 May agreed that German actions justified "unrestricted warfare '', and on 14 May they authorised an attack on the night of 14 / 15 May against oil and rail targets in Germany. At the urging of Clement Attlee, the Cabinet on 15 May authorised a full bombing strategy against "suitable military objectives '', even where there could be civilian casualties. That evening, a night time bomber campaign began against the German oil industry, communications, and forests / crops, mainly in the Ruhr area. The RAF lacked accurate night navigation, and carried small bomb loads. As the threat mounted, Bomber Command changed targeting priority on 3 June 1940 to attack the German aircraft industry. On 4 July, the Air Ministry gave Bomber Command orders to attack ports and shipping. By September, the build - up of invasion barges in the Channel ports had become a top priority target.
On 7 September, the government issued a warning that the invasion could be expected within the next few days and, that night, Bomber Command attacked the Channel ports and supply dumps. On 13 September, they carried out another large raid on the Channel ports, sinking 80 large barges in the port of Ostend. 84 barges were sunk in Dunkirk after another raid on 17 September and by 19 September, almost 200 barges had been sunk. The loss of these barges may have contributed to Hitler 's decision to postpone Operation Sea Lion indefinitely. The success of these raids was in part because the Germans had few Freya radar stations set up in France, so that air defences of the French harbours were not nearly as good as the air defences over Germany; Bomber Command had directed some 60 % of its strength against the Channel ports.
The Bristol Blenheim units also raided German - occupied airfields throughout July to December 1940, both during daylight hours and at night. Although most of these raids were unproductive, there were some successes; on 1 August, five out of twelve Blenheims sent to attack Haamstede and Evere (Brussels) were able to bomb, destroying or heavily damaging three Bf 109s of II. / JG 27 and apparently killing a Staffelkapitän identified as a Hauptmann Albrecht von Ankum - Frank. Two other 109s were claimed by Blenheim gunners. Another successful raid on Haamstede was made by a single Blenheim on 7 August which destroyed one 109 of 4. / JG 54, heavily damaged another and caused lighter damage to four more.
There were some missions which produced an almost 100 % casualty rate amongst the Blenheims; one such operation was mounted on 13 August 1940 against a Luftwaffe airfield near Aalborg in north - eastern Denmark by 12 aircraft of 82 Squadron. One Blenheim returned early (the pilot was later charged and due to appear before a court martial, but was killed on another operation); the other eleven, which reached Denmark, were shot down, five by flak and six by Bf 109s. Of the 33 crewmen who took part in the attack, 20 were killed and 13 captured.
As well as the bombing operations, Blenheim - equipped units had been formed to carry out long - range strategic reconnaissance missions over Germany and German - occupied territories. In this role, the Blenheims again proved to be too slow and vulnerable against Luftwaffe fighters, and they took constant casualties.
Coastal Command directed its attention towards the protection of British shipping, and the destruction of enemy shipping. As invasion became more likely, it participated in the strikes on French harbours and airfields, laying mines, and mounting numerous reconnaissance missions over the enemy - held coast. In all, some 9,180 sorties were flown by bombers from July to October 1940. Although this was much less than the 80,000 sorties flown by fighters, bomber crews suffered about half the total number of casualties borne by their fighter colleagues. The bomber contribution was, therefore, much more dangerous on a loss - per - sortie comparison.
Bomber, reconnaissance, and antisubmarine patrol operations continued throughout these months with little respite and none of the publicity accorded to Fighter Command. In his famous 20 August speech about "The Few '', praising Fighter Command, Churchill also made a point of mentioning Bomber Command 's contribution, adding that bombers were even then striking back at Germany; this part of the speech is often overlooked, even today. The Battle of Britain Chapel in Westminster Abbey lists in a roll of honour, 718 Bomber Command crew members, and 280 from Coastal Command who were killed between 10 July and 31 October.
Bomber and Coastal Command attacks against invasion barge concentrations in Channel ports were widely reported by the British media during September and October 1940. In what became known as ' the Battle of the Barges ' RAF attacks were claimed in British propaganda to have sunk large numbers of barges, and to have created widespread chaos and disruption to German invasion preparations. Given the volume of British propaganda interest in these bomber attacks during September and earlier October, it is striking how quickly this was overlooked once the Battle of Britain had been concluded. Even by mid-war the bomber pilots ' efforts had been largely eclipsed by a continuing focus on the Few, this a result of the Air Ministry 's continuing valorisation of the '' fighter boys '', beginning with the March 1941 Battle of Britain propaganda pamphlet.
The battle covered a shifting geographical area, and there have been differing opinions on significant dates: when the Air Ministry proposed 8 August as the start, Dowding responded that operations "merged into one another almost insensibly '', and proposed 10 July as the onset of increased attacks. With the caution that phases drifted into each other and dates are not firm, the Royal Air Force Museum states that five main phases can be identified:
The RAF night bombing campaign against military objectives in German towns began on 11 May. The small forces available were given ambitious objectives, but lacked night navigation capability and their isolated inaccurate attacks were thought by the Germans to be intended to terrorise civilians. From 4 July the RAF achieved some successes with raids on Channel ports, anticipating the build up for an invasion.
Following Germany 's rapid territorial gains in the Battle of France, the Luftwaffe had to reorganise its forces, set up bases along the coast, and rebuild after heavy losses. It began small scale bombing raids on Britain on the night of 5 / 6 June, and continued sporadic attacks throughout June and July. The first large - scale attack was at night, on 18 / 19 June, when small raids scattered between Yorkshire and Kent involved in total 100 bombers. These Störangriffe ("nuisance raids '') which involved only a few aeroplanes, sometimes just one, were used to train bomber crews in both day and night attacks, to test defences and try out methods, with most flights at night. They found that, rather than carrying small numbers of large high explosive bombs, it was more effective to use more small bombs, similarly incendiaries had to cover a large area to set effective fires. These training flights continued through August and into the first week of September. Against this, the raids also gave the British time to assess the German tactics, and invaluable time for the RAF fighters and anti-aircraft defences to prepare and gain practice.
The attacks were widespread: over the night of 30 June alarms were set off in 20 counties by just 20 bombers, then next day the first daylight raids occurred during 1 July, on both Hull in Yorkshire and Wick, Caithness. On 3 July most flights were reconnaissance sorties, but 15 civilians were killed when bombs hit Guildford in Surrey. Numerous small Störangriffe raids, both day and night, were made daily through August, September and into the winter, with aims including bringing RAF fighters up to battle, destruction of specific military and economic targets, and setting off air - raid warnings to affect civilian morale: four major air - raids in August involved hundreds of bombers, in the same month 1,062 small raids were made, spread across the whole of Britain.
The Kanalkampf comprised a series of running fights over convoys in the English Channel. It was launched partly because Kesselring and Sperrle were not sure about what else to do, and partly because it gave German aircrews some training and a chance to probe the British defences. Dowding could provide only minimal shipping protection, and these battles off the coast tended to favour the Germans, whose bomber escorts had the advantage of altitude and outnumbered the RAF fighters. From 9 July reconnaissance probing by Dornier Do 17 bombers put a severe strain on RAF pilots and machines, with high RAF losses to Bf 109s. When nine 141 Squadron Defiants went into action on 19 July six were lost to Bf 109s before a squadron of Hurricanes intervened. On 25 July a coal convoy and escorting destroyers suffered such heavy losses to attacks by Stuka dive bombers that the Admiralty decided convoys should travel at night: the RAF shot down 16 raiders but lost 7 aircraft. By 8 August 18 coal ships and 4 destroyers had been sunk, but the Navy was determined to send a convoy of 20 ships through rather than move the coal by railway. After repeated Stuka attacks that day, six ships were badly damaged, four were sunk and only four reached their destination. The RAF lost 19 fighters and shot down 31 German aircraft. The Navy now cancelled all further convoys through the Channel and sent the cargo by rail. Even so, these early combat encounters provided both sides with experience.
The main attack upon the RAF 's defences was code - named Adlerangriff ("Eagle Attack ''). Intelligence reports gave Göring the impression that the RAF was almost defeated, and raids would attract British fighters for the Luftwaffe to shoot down. The strategy agreed on 6 August was to destroy RAF Fighter Command across the south of England in four days, then bombing of military and economic targets was to systematically extend up to the Midlands until daylight attacks could proceed unhindered over the whole of Britain, culminating in a major bombing attack on London.
Poor weather delayed Adlertag ("Eagle Day '') until 13 August 1940. On 12 August, the first attempt was made to blind the Dowding system, when aircraft from the specialist fighter - bomber unit Erprobungsgruppe 210 attacked four radar stations. Three were briefly taken off the air but were back working within six hours. The raids appeared to show that British radars were difficult to knock out. The failure to mount follow - up attacks allowed the RAF to get the stations back on the air, and the Luftwaffe neglected strikes on the supporting infrastructure, such as phone lines and power stations, which could have rendered the radars useless, even if the towers themselves (which were very difficult to destroy) remained intact.
Adlertag opened with a series of attacks, led again by Epro 210, on coastal airfields used as forward landing grounds for the RAF fighters, as well as ' satellite airfields ' (including Manston and Hawkinge). As the week drew on, the airfield attacks moved further inland, and repeated raids were made on the radar chain. 15 August was "The Greatest Day '' when the Luftwaffe mounted the largest number of sorties of the campaign. Luftflotte 5 attacked the north of England. Believing Fighter Command strength to be concentrated in the south, raiding forces from Denmark and Norway ran into unexpectedly strong resistance. Inadequately escorted by Bf 110s, bombers were shot down in large numbers. North East England was attacked by 65 Heinkel 111s escorted by 34 Messerschmitt 110s, and RAF Great Driffield was attacked by 50 unescorted Junkers 88s. Out of 115 bombers and 35 fighters sent, 75 planes were destroyed and many others damaged beyond repair. Furthermore, due to early engagement by RAF fighters many of the bombers dropped their payloads ineffectivley early. As a result of these casualties, Luftflotte 5 did not appear in strength again in the campaign.
18 August, which had the greatest number of casualties to both sides, has been dubbed "The Hardest Day ''. Following this grinding battle, exhaustion and the weather reduced operations for most of a week, allowing the Luftwaffe to review their performance. "The Hardest Day '' had sounded the end for the Ju 87 in the campaign. This veteran of Blitzkrieg was too vulnerable to fighters to operate over Britain. So as to preserve the Stuka force, Göring withdrew them from the fighting. This removed the main Luftwaffe precision - bombing weapon and shifted the burden of pinpoint attacks on the already - stretched Erpro 210. The Bf 110 proved too clumsy for dogfighting with single - engined fighters, and its participation was scaled back. It would only be used when range required it or when sufficient single - engined escort could not be provided for the bombers.
Göring made yet another fateful decision: to order more bomber escorts at the expense of free - hunting sweeps. To achieve this, the weight of the attack now fell on Luftflotte 2, and the bulk of the Bf 109s in Luftflotte 3 were transferred to Kesselring 's command, reinforcing the fighter bases in the Pas - de-Calais. Stripped of its fighters, Luftflotte 3 would concentrate on the night bombing campaign. Göring, expressing disappointment with the fighter performance thus far in the campaign, also made sweeping changes in the command structure of the fighter units, replacing many Geschwaderkommodore with younger, more aggressive pilots like Adolf Galland and Werner Mölders.
Finally, Göring stopped the attacks on the radar chain. These were seen as unsuccessful, and neither the Reichsmarschall nor his subordinates realised how vital the Chain Home stations were to the defence systems. It was known that radar provided some early warning of raids, but the belief among German fighter pilots was that anything bringing up the "Tommies '' to fight was to be encouraged.
On the afternoon of 15 August, Hauptmann Walter Rubensdörffer leading Erprobungsgruppe 210 mistakenly bombed Croydon airfield (on the outskirts of London) instead of the intended target, RAF Kenley.
German intelligence reports made the Luftwaffe optimistic that the RAF, thought to be dependent on local air control, was struggling with supply problems and pilot losses. After a major raid attacking Biggin Hill on 18 August, Luftwaffe aircrew said they had been unopposed, the airfield was "completely destroyed '', and asked "Is England already finished? '' In accordance with the strategy agreed on 6 August, defeat of the RAF was to be followed by bombing military and economic targets, systematically extending up to the Midlands.
Göring ordered attacks on aircraft factories on 19 August 1940. Sixty raids on the night of 19 / 20 August targeted the aircraft industry and harbours, and bombs fell on suburban areas around London: Croydon, Wimbledon and the Maldens. Night raids were made on 21 / 22 August on Aberdeen, Bristol and South Wales. That morning, bombs were dropped on Harrow and Wealdstone, on the outskirts of London. Overnight on 22 / 23 August, the output of an aircraft factory at Filton near Bristol was drastically affected by a raid in which Ju88 bombers released over 16 tons of high explosive bombs. On the night of 23 / 24 August over 200 bombers attacked the Fort Dunlop tyre factory in Birmingham, with a significant effect on production. A sustained bombing campaign began on 24 August with the largest raid so far, killing 100 in Portsmouth, and that night, several areas of London were bombed; the East End was set ablaze and bombs landed on central London. Some historians believe that these bombs were dropped accidentally by a group of Heinkel He 111s which had failed to find their target; this account has been contested.
More night raids were made around London on 24 / 25 August, when bombs fell on Croydon, Banstead, Lewisham, Uxbridge, Harrow and Hayes. London was on red alert over the night of 28 / 29 August, with bombs reported in Finchley, St Pancras, Wembley, Wood Green, Southgate, Old Kent Road, Mill Hill, Ilford, Chigwell and Hendon.
Göring 's directive issued on 23 August 1940 ordered ceaseless attacks on the aircraft industry and on RAF ground organisation to force the RAF to use its fighters, continuing the tactic of luring them up to be destroyed, and added that focussed attacks were to be made on RAF airfields.
From 24 August onwards, the battle was a fight between Kesselring 's Luftflotte 2 and Park 's 11 Group. The Luftwaffe concentrated all their strength on knocking out Fighter Command and made repeated attacks on the airfields. Of the 33 heavy attacks in the following two weeks, 24 were against airfields. The key sector stations were hit repeatedly: Biggin Hill and Hornchurch four times each; Debden and North Weald twice each. Croydon, Gravesend, Rochford, Hawkinge and Manston were also attacked in strength. Coastal Command 's Eastchurch was bombed at least seven times because it was believed to be a Fighter Command aerodrome. At times these raids caused some damage to the sector stations, threatening the integrity of the Dowding system.
To offset some losses, some 58 Fleet Air Arm fighter pilot volunteers were seconded to RAF squadrons, and a similar number of former Fairey Battle pilots were used. Most replacements from Operational Training Units (OTUs) had as little as nine hours flying time and no gunnery or air - to - air combat training. At this point, the multinational nature of Fighter Command came to the fore. Many squadrons and personnel from the air forces of the Dominions were already attached to the RAF, including top level commanders -- Australians, Canadians, New Zealanders, Rhodesians and South Africans. In addition, there were other nationalities represented, including Free French, Belgian and a Jewish pilot from the British mandate of Palestine.
They were bolstered by the arrival of fresh Czechoslovak and Polish squadrons. These had been held back by Dowding, who mistakenly thought non-English speaking aircrew would have trouble working within his control system: Polish and Czech fliers proved to be especially effective. The pre-war Polish Air Force had lengthy and extensive training, and high standards; with Poland conquered and under brutal German occupation, the pilots of No. 303 (Polish) Squadron, the highest - scoring Allied unit, were strongly motivated. Josef František, a Czech regular airman who had flown from the occupation of his own country to join the Polish and then French air forces before arriving in Britain, flew as a guest of 303 Squadron and was ultimately credited with the highest "RAF score '' in the Battle of Britain.
The RAF had the advantage of fighting over home territory. Pilots who bailed out of their downed aircraft could be back at their airfields within hours, while if low on fuel and / or ammunition they could be immediately rearmed. One RAF pilot interviewed in late 1940 had been shot down five times during the Battle of Britain, but was able to crash land in Britain or bail out each time. For Luftwaffe aircrews, a bailout over England meant capture -- in the critical August period, almost exactly as many Luftwaffe pilots were taken prisoner as were killed -- while parachuting into the English Channel often meant drowning or death from exposure. Morale began to suffer, and (Kanalkrankheit) ("Channel sickness '') -- a form of combat fatigue -- began to appear among the German pilots. Their replacement problem became even worse than the British.
The effect of the German attacks on airfields is unclear. According to Stephen Bungay, Dowding, in a letter to Hugh Trenchard accompanying Park 's report on the period 8 August -- 10 September 1940, states that the Luftwaffe "achieved very little '' in the last week of August and the first week of September. The only Sector Station to be shut down operationally was Biggin Hill, and it was non-operational for just two hours. Dowding admitted 11 Group 's efficiency was impaired but, despite serious damage to some airfields, only two out of 13 heavily attacked airfields were down for more than a few hours. The German refocus on London was not critical.
Retired air marshal Peter Dye, head of the RAF Museum, discussed the logistics of the battle in 2000 and 2010, dealing specifically with the single - seat fighters. Dye contends that not only was British aircraft production replacing aircraft, but replacement pilots were keeping pace with losses. The number of pilots in RAF Fighter Command increased during July, August and September. The figures indicate the number of pilots available never decreased: from July 1,200 were available, and from 1 August, 1,400 were available. Just over that number were in the field by September. In October the figure was nearly 1,600. By 1 November 1,800 were available. Throughout the battle, the RAF had more fighter pilots available than the Luftwaffe. Although the RAF 's reserves of single seat fighters fell during July, the wastage was made up for by an efficient Civilian Repair Organisation (CRO), which by December had repaired and put back into service some 4,955 aircraft, and by aircraft held at Air Servicing Unit (ASU) airfields.
Richard Overy agrees with Dye and Bungay. Overy asserts only one airfield was temporarily put out of action and "only '' 103 pilots were lost. British fighter production produced 496 new aircraft in July and 467 in August, and another 467 in September (not counting repaired aircraft), covering the losses of August and September. Overy indicates the number of serviceable and total strength returns reveal an increase in fighters from 3 August to 7 September, 1,061 on strength and 708 serviceable to 1,161 on strength and 746 serviceable. Moreover, Overy points out that the number of RAF fighter pilots grew by one - third between June and August 1940. Personnel records show a constant supply of around 1,400 pilots in the crucial weeks of the battle. In the second half of September it reached 1,500. The shortfall of pilots was never above 10 %. The Germans never had more than between 1,100 and 1,200 pilots, a deficiency of up to one - third. "If Fighter Command were ' the few ', the German fighter pilots were fewer ''.
Other scholars assert that this period was the most dangerous of all. In The Narrow Margin, published in 1961, historians Derek Wood and Derek Dempster believed that the two weeks from 24 August to 6 September represented a real danger. According to them, from 24 August to 6 September 295 fighters had been totally destroyed and 171 badly damaged, against a total output of 269 new and repaired Spitfires and Hurricanes. They assert that 103 pilots were killed or missing and 128 were wounded, which represented a total wastage of 120 pilots per week out of a fighting strength of just fewer than 1,000. They conclude that during August no more than 260 fighter pilots were turned out by OTUs and casualties in the same month were just over 300. A full squadron establishment was 26 pilots whereas the average in August was 16. In their assessment, the RAF was losing the battle. Denis Richards, in his 1953 contribution to the official British account History of the Second World War, agreed that lack of pilots, especially experienced ones, was the RAF 's greatest problem. He states that between 8 and 18 August 154 RAF pilots were killed, severely wounded, or missing, while only 63 new pilots were trained. Availability of aircraft was also a serious issue. While its reserves during the Battle of Britain never declined to a half dozen planes as some later claimed, Richards describes 24 August to 6 September as the critical period because during these two weeks Germany destroyed far more aircraft through its attacks on 11 Group 's southeast bases than Britain was producing. Three more weeks of such a pace would indeed have exhausted aircraft reserves. Germany had seen heavy losses of pilots and aircraft as well however, thus its shift to night - time attacks in September. On 7 September RAF aircraft losses fell below British production and remained so until the end of the war.
Hitler 's "Directive No. 17 -- For the conduct of air and sea warfare against England '' issued on 1 August 1940, reserved to himself the right to decide on terror attacks as measures of reprisal. Hitler issued a directive that London was not to be bombed save on his sole instruction. In preparation, detailed target plans under the code name Operation Loge for raids on communications, power stations, armaments works and docks in the Port of London were distributed to the Fliegerkorps in July. The port areas were crowded next to residential housing and civilian casualties would be expected, but this would combine military and economic targets with indirect effects on morale. The strategy agreed on 6 August was for raids on military and economic targets in towns and cities to culminate in a major attack on London. In mid August raids were made on targets on the outskirts of London.
Luftwaffe doctrine included the possibility of retaliatory attacks on cities, and since 11 May small scale night raids by RAF Bomber Command had frequently bombed residential areas. The Germans assumed this was deliberate, and as the raids increased in frequency and scale the population grew impatient for measures of revenge. On 25 August 1940, 81 bombers of Bomber Command were sent out to raid industrial and commercial targets in Berlin. Clouds prevented accurate identification and the bombs fell across the city, causing some casualties among the civilian population as well as damage to residential areas. Continuing RAF raids on Berlin led to Hitler withdrawing his directive on 30 August, and giving the go - ahead to the planned bombing offensive. On 3 September Göring planned to bomb London daily, with General Albert Kesselring 's enthusiastic support, having received reports the average strength of RAF squadrons was down to five or seven fighters out of twelve and their airfields in the area were out of action. Hitler issued a directive on 5 September to attack cities including London. In his widely publicised speech delivered on 4 September 1940, Hitler condemned the bombing of Berlin and presented the planned attacks on London as reprisals. The first daylight raid was titled Vergeltungsangriff (revenge attack).
On 7 September, a massive series of raids involving nearly four hundred bombers and more than six hundred fighters targeted docks in the East End of London, day and night. The RAF anticipated attacks on airfields and 11 Group rose to meet them, in greater numbers than the Luftwaffe expected. The first official deployment of 12 Group 's Leigh - Mallory 's Big Wing took twenty minutes to form up, missing its intended target, but encountering another formation of bombers while still climbing. They returned, apologetic about their limited success, and blamed the delay on being scrambled too late.
The German press jubilantly announced that "one great cloud of smoke stretches tonight from the middle of London to the mouth of the Thames. '' Reports reflected the briefings given to crews before the raids -- "Everyone knew about the last cowardly attacks on German cities, and thought about wives, mothers and children. And then came that word ' Vengeance! ' '' Pilots reported seeing ruined airfields as they flew towards London, appearances which gave intelligence reports the impression of devastated defences. Göring maintained that the RAF was close to defeat, making invasion feasible.
Fighter Command had been at its lowest ebb, short of men and machines, and the break from airfield attacks allowed them to recover. 11 Group had considerable success in breaking up daytime raids. 12 Group repeatedly disobeyed orders and failed to meet requests to protect 11 Group airfields, but their experiments with increasingly large Big Wings had some success. The Luftwaffe began to abandon their morning raids, with attacks on London starting late in the afternoon for fifty - seven consecutive nights.
The most damaging aspect to the Luftwaffe of targeting London was the increase in range. The Bf 109E escorts had a limited fuel capacity resulting in only a 660 km (410 mile) maximum range solely on internal fuel, and when they arrived had only 10 minutes of flying time before turning for home, leaving the bombers undefended by fighter escorts. Its eventual stablemate, the Focke - Wulf Fw 190 A, was flying only in prototype form in the summer of 1940; the first 28 Fw 190s were not delivered until November 1940. The Fw 190A - 1 had a maximum range of 940 km (584 miles) on internal fuel, 40 % greater than the Bf 109E. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 E-7 corrected this deficiency by adding a ventral centre - line ordnance rack to take either an SC 250 bomb or a standard 300 litre Luftwaffe drop tank to double the range to 1,325 km (820 mi). The ordnance rack was not retrofitted to earlier Bf 109Es until October 1940.
On 14 September, Hitler chaired a meeting with the OKW staff. Göring was in France directing the decisive battle, so Erhard Milch deputised for him. Hitler asked "Should we call it off altogether? ''. General Hans Jeschonnek, Luftwaffe Chief of Staff, begged for a last chance to defeat the RAF and for permission to launch attacks on civilian residential areas to cause mass panic. Hitler refused the latter, perhaps unaware of how much damage had already been done to civilian targets. He reserved for himself the power to unleash the terror weapon. Instead political will was to be broken by destroying the material infrastructure, the weapons industry, and stocks of fuel and food. On 15 September, two massive waves of German attacks were decisively repulsed by the RAF by deploying every aircraft in 11 Group. Sixty German and 26 RAF aircraft were shot down.
Two days after the German defeat Hitler postponed preparations for the invasion of Britain. Henceforth, in the face of mounting losses in men, aircraft and the lack of adequate replacements, the Luftwaffe completed their gradual shift from daylight bomber raids and continued with nighttime bombing. 15 September is commemorated as Battle of Britain Day.
At the 14 September OKW conference, Hitler acknowledged that the Luftwaffe had still not gained the air superiority needed for the Operation Sealion invasion. In agreement with Raeder 's written recommendation, Hitler said the campaign was to intensify regardless of invasion plans: "The decisive thing is the ceaseless continuation of air attacks. '' Jeschonnek proposed attacking residential areas to cause "mass panic '', but Hitler turned this down: he reserved to himself the option of terror bombing. British morale was to be broken by destroying infrastructure, armaments manufacturing, fuel and food stocks. On 16 September, Göring gave the order for this change in strategy. This new phase was to be the first independent strategic bombing campaign, in hopes of a political success forcing the British to give up. Hitler hoped it might result in "eight million going mad '' (referring to the population of London in 1940), which would "cause a catastrophe '' for the British. In those circumstances, Hitler said, "even a small invasion might go a long way ''. Hitler was against cancelling the invasion as "the cancellation would reach the ears of the enemy and strengthen his resolve ''. On 19 September, Hitler ordered a reduction in work on Sealion. He doubted if strategic bombing could achieve its aims, but ending the air war would be an open admission of defeat. He had to maintain the appearance of concentration on defeating Britain, to conceal from Joseph Stalin his covert aim to invade the Soviet Union.
Throughout the battle, most Luftwaffe bombing raids had been at night. They increasingly suffered unsustainable losses in daylight raids, and the last massive daytime attacks were on 15 September. A raid of 70 bombers on 18 September also suffered badly, and day raids were gradually phased out leaving the main attacks at night. Fighter command still lacked any successful way of intercepting night - time raiders, the night fighter force was mostly Blenheims and Beaufighters, and lacked airborne radar so had no way of finding the bombers. Anti-aircraft guns were diverted to London 's defences, but had a much reduced success rate against night attacks.
From mid September, Luftwaffe daylight bombing was gradually taken over by a Bf 109 fighters, adapted to take one 250 kg bomb. Small groups of fighter - bombers would carry out Störangriffe raids escorted by large escort formations of about 200 to 300 combat fighters. They flew at altitudes over 20,000 feet (6,100 m) where the Bf109 had an advantage over RAF fighters, except the Spitfire. The raids disturbed civilians, and continued the war of attrition against Fighter Command. The raids were intended to carry out precision bombing on military or economic targets, but it was hard to achieve sufficient accuracy with the single bomb. Sometimes, when attacked, the fighter - bombers had to jettison the bomb to function as fighters. The RAF was at a disadvantage, and changed defensive tactics by introducing standing patrols of Spitfires at high altitude to monitor incoming raids. On a sighting, other patrols at lower altitude would fly up to join the battle.
A Junkers Ju 88 returning from a raid on London was shot down in Kent on 27 September resulting in the Battle of Graveney Marsh, the last action between British and foreign military forces on British mainland soil.
German bombing of Britain reached its peak in October and November 1940. In post war interrogation, Wilhelm Keitel described the aims as economic blockade, in conjunction with submarine warfare, and attrition of Britain 's military and economic resources. The Luftwaffe wanted to achieve victory on its own, and was reluctant to cooperate with the navy. Their strategy for blockade was to destroy ports and storage facilities in towns and cities. Priorities were based on the pattern of trade and distribution, so for these months London was the main target. In November their attention turned to other ports and industrial targets around Britain.
Hitler postponed the Sealion invasion on 13 October "until the spring of 1941 ''. It was not until Hitler 's Directive 21 was issued, on 18 December 1940, that the threat to Britain of invasion finally ended.
During the battle, and for the rest of the war, an important factor in keeping public morale high was the continued presence in London of King George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth. When war broke out in 1939, the King and Queen decided to stay in London and not flee to Canada, as had been suggested. George VI and Elizabeth officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war, although they often spent weekends at Windsor Castle to visit their daughters, Elizabeth (the future queen) and Margaret. Buckingham Palace was damaged by bombs which landed in the grounds on 10 September and, on 13 September, more serious damage was caused by two bombs which destroyed the Royal Chapel. The royal couple were in a small sitting room about 80 yards from where the bombs exploded. On 24 September, in recognition of the bravery of civilians, King George VI inaugurated the award of the George Cross.
Overall, by 2 November, the RAF fielded 1,796 pilots, an increase of over 40 % from July 1940 's count of 1,259 pilots. Based on German sources (from a Luftwaffe intelligence officer Otto Bechtle attached to KG 2 in February 1944) translated by the Air Historical Branch, Stephen Bungay asserts German fighter and bomber "strength '' declined without recovery, and that from August -- December 1940, the German fighter and bomber strength declined by 30 and 25 percent. In contrast, Williamson Murray, argues (using translations by the Air Historical Branch) that 1,380 German bombers were on strength on 29 June 1940, 1,420 bombers on 28 September, 1,423 level bombers on 2 November and 1,393 bombers on 30 November 1940. In July -- September the number of Luftwaffe pilots available fell by 136, but the number of operational pilots had shrunk by 171 by September. The training organisation of the Luftwaffe was failing to replace losses. German fighter pilots, in contrast to popular perception, were not afforded training or rest rotations unlike their British counterparts. The first week of September accounted for 25 % of the Fighter Command, and 24 % of the Luftwaffe 's overall losses. Between the dates 26 August -- 6 September, on only one day (1 September) did the Germans destroy more aircraft than they lost. Losses were 325 German and 248 British.
Luftwaffe losses for August numbered 774 aircraft to all causes, representing 18.5 % of all combat aircraft at the beginning of the month. Fighter Command 's losses in August were 426 fighters destroyed, amounting to 40 per cent of 1,061 fighters available on 3 August. In addition, 99 German bombers and 27 other types were destroyed between 1 and 29 August.
From July to September, the Luftwaffe 's loss records indicate the loss of 1,636 aircraft, 1,184 to enemy action. This represented 47 % of the initial strength of single - engined fighters, 66 % of twin - engined fighters, and 45 % of bombers. This indicates the Germans were running out of aircrew as well as aircraft.
Throughout the battle, the Germans greatly underestimated the size of the RAF and the scale of British aircraft production. Across the Channel, the Air Intelligence division of the Air Ministry consistently overestimated the size of the German air enemy and the productive capacity of the German aviation industry. As the battle was fought, both sides exaggerated the losses inflicted on the other by an equally large margin. However, the intelligence picture formed before the battle encouraged the Luftwaffe to believe that such losses pushed Fighter Command to the very edge of defeat, while the exaggerated picture of German air strength persuaded the RAF that the threat it faced was larger and more dangerous than was the case. This led the British to the conclusion that another fortnight of attacks on airfields might force Fighter Command to withdraw their squadrons from the south of England. The German misconception, on the other hand, encouraged first complacency, then strategic misjudgement. The shift of targets from air bases to industry and communications was taken because it was assumed that Fighter Command was virtually eliminated.
Between the 24 August and 4 September, German serviceability rates, which were acceptable at Stuka units, were running at 75 % with Bf 109s, 70 % with bombers and 65 % with Bf 110s, indicating a shortage of spare parts. All units were well below established strength. The attrition was beginning to affect the fighters in particular. '' By 14 September, the Luftwaffe 's Bf 109 Geschwader possessed only 67 % of their operational crews against authorised aircraft. For Bf 110 units it was 46 per cent; and for bombers it was 59 per cent. A week later the figures had dropped to 64 per cent, 52 % and 52 per cent. Serviceability rates in Fighter Command 's fighter squadrons, between the 24 August and 7 September, were listed as: 64.8 % on 24 August; 64.7 % on 31 August and 64.25 % on 7 September 1940.
Due to the failure of the Luftwaffe to establish air supremacy, a conference assembled on 14 September at Hitler 's headquarters. Hitler concluded that air superiority had not yet been established and "promised to review the situation on 17 September for possible landings on 27 September or 8 October. Three days later, when the evidence was clear that the German Air Force had greatly exaggerated the extent of their successes against the RAF, Hitler postponed Sea Lion indefinitely. ''
Propaganda was an important element of the air war which began to develop over Britain from the 18th June 1940 onwards, when the Luftwaffe began small, probing daylight raids to test RAF defences. One of many examples of these small - scale raids was the destruction of a school at Polruan in Cornwall, by a single raider. Into early July, the British media 's focus on the air battles increased steadily, the press, magazines, BBC radio and newsreels daily conveying the contents of Air Ministry communiques. The German OKW communiques matched Britain 's efforts in claiming for the upper hand.
Central to the propaganda war on both sides of the Channel were aircraft claims, this discussed under ' Attrition statistics '. These daily claims were important both for sustaining British home front morale and persuading America to support Britain, and were produced by the Air Ministry 's Air Intelligence branch. Under pressure from American journalists and broadcasters to prove that the RAF 's claims were genuine, RAF intelligence compared pilots ' claims with actual aircraft wrecks and those seen to crash into the sea. It was soon realised that there was a discrepancy between the two, but the Air Ministry decided not to reveal this. In fact, it was not until May 1947 that the actual figures were released to the public, by which time it was of far less importance. Many though refused to believe the revised figures, including Douglas Bader.
The place of the Battle of Britain in British popular memory is due in no small part to the successful propaganda campaign waged by the Air Ministry, between July -- October 1940, but also in valorising the Few from March 1941 onwards. The publication of the immensely successful 3d pamphlet, The Battle of Britain, saw huge international sales, leading even Goebbels to admire its propaganda value. Focusing only upon the Few, with no mention of RAF bomber attacks against invasion barges, the Battle of Britain was soon established as a major victory for Fighter Command. This in turn inspired a wide range of feature films, books, magazines, works of art, poetry, radio plays and MOI short films.
It is notable that this most impressive of British victories had, in essence, been proclaimed within only five months of the cessation of large - scale daylight air battles, and without reference to Hitler and the OKW 's reasoning for not proceeding with Operation Sea Lion. The continuing post-war popularity of the Battle of Britain is in fact directly attributable to the Air Ministry 's latter - 1940 air communiques, the media in turn broadcasting or publishing RAF aircraft claims. Noted above, this in turn led to the March 1941 pamphlet, which inspired a wide range of cultural responses to the Few, and the Battle of Britain. The Air Ministry built upon this with the development of the Battle of Britain Sunday commemoration, also supported the Battle of Britain clasp for issue to the Few in 1945, and from 1945 Battle of Britain Week. The Battle of Britain window in Westminster Abbey was also encouraged by the Air Ministry, Lords Trenchard and Dowding on its committee. By July 1947 when the window was unveiled, the Battle of Britain had already attained central prominence as Fighter Command 's most notable victory, the Few alone credited with preventing invasion in 1940. Although given widespread media coverage in September and October 1940, RAF Bomber and Coastal Command raids against invasion barge concentrations had already been forgotten by war 's end.
The Battle of Britain marked the first major defeat of Hitler 's military forces, with air superiority seen as the key to victory. Pre-war theories had led to exaggerated fears of strategic bombing, and UK public opinion was buoyed by coming through the ordeal. For the RAF, Fighter Command had achieved a great victory in successfully carrying out Sir Thomas Inskip 's 1937 air policy of preventing the Germans from knocking Britain out of the war. Churchill concluded his famous 18 June ' Battle of Britain ' speech in the House of Commons by referring to pilots and aircrew who fought the Battle: "... if the British Empire and its Commonwealth lasts for a thousand years, men will still say, ' This was their finest hour. ' ''
The battle also significantly shifted American opinion. During the battle, many Americans accepted the view promoted by Joseph Kennedy, the American ambassador in London, who believed that the United Kingdom could not survive. Roosevelt wanted a second opinion, and sent "Wild Bill '' Donovan on a brief visit to the UK; he became convinced the UK would survive and should be supported in every possible way. Before the end of the year American journalist Ralph Ingersoll, after returning from Britain, published a book concluding that "Adolf Hitler met his first defeat in eight years '' in what might "go down in history as a battle as important as Waterloo or Gettysburg ''. The turning point was when the Germans reduced the intensity of the Blitz after 15 September. According to Ingersoll, "(a) majority of responsible British officers who fought through this battle believe that if Hitler and Göring had had the courage and the resources to lose 200 planes a day for the next five days, nothing could have saved London ''; instead, "(the Luftwaffe 's) morale in combat is definitely broken, and the RAF has been gaining in strength each week. ''
Both sides in the battle made exaggerated claims of numbers of enemy aircraft shot down. In general, claims were two to three times the actual numbers, because of the confusion of fighting in dynamic three - dimensional air battles. Postwar analysis of records has shown that between July and September, the RAF claimed 2,698 kills, while the Luftwaffe fighters claimed 3,198 RAF aircraft downed. Total losses, and start and end dates for recorded losses, vary for both sides. Luftwaffe losses from 10 July to 30 October 1940 total 1,977 aircraft, including 243 twin - and 569 single - engined fighters, 822 bombers and 343 non combat types. In the same period, RAF Fighter Command aircraft losses number 1,087, including 53 twin - engined fighters. To the RAF figure should be added 376 Bomber Command and 148 Coastal Command aircraft lost conducting bombing, mining, and reconnaissance operations in defence of the country.
There is a consensus among historians that the Luftwaffe were unable to crush the RAF. Stephen Bungay described Dowding and Park 's strategy of choosing when to engage the enemy whilst maintaining a coherent force as vindicated; their leadership, and the subsequent debates about strategy and tactics, however, had created enmity among RAF senior commanders and both were sacked from their posts in the immediate aftermath of the battle. All things considered, the RAF proved to be a robust and capable organisation which was to use all the modern resources available to it to the maximum advantage. Richard Evans wrote:
Irrespective of whether Hitler was really set on this course, he simply lacked the resources to establish the air superiority that was the sine qua non-of a successful crossing of the English Channel. A third of the initial strength of the German air force, the Luftwaffe, had been lost in the western campaign in the spring. The Germans lacked the trained pilots, the effective fighter aircraft, and the heavy bombers that would have been needed.
The Germans launched some spectacular attacks against important British industries, but they could not destroy the British industrial potential, and made little systematic effort to do so. Hindsight does not disguise the fact the threat to Fighter Command was very real, and for the participants it seemed as if there was a narrow margin between victory and defeat. Nevertheless, even if the German attacks on the 11 Group airfields which guarded southeast England and the approaches to London had continued, the RAF could have withdrawn to the Midlands out of German fighter range and continued the battle from there. The victory was as much psychological as physical. Writes Alfred Price:
The truth of the matter, borne out by the events of 18 August is more prosaic: neither by attacking the airfields, nor by attacking London, was the Luftwaffe likely to destroy Fighter Command. Given the size of the British fighter force and the general high quality of its equipment, training and morale, the Luftwaffe could have achieved no more than a Pyrrhic victory. During the action on 18 August it had cost the Luftwaffe five trained aircrew killed, wounded or taken prisoner, for each British fighter pilot killed or wounded; the ratio was similar on other days in the battle. And this ratio of 5: 1 was very close to that between the number of German aircrew involved in the battle and those in Fighter Command. In other words the two sides were suffering almost the same losses in trained aircrew, in proportion to their overall strengths. In the Battle of Britain, for the first time during the Second World War, the German war machine had set itself a major task which it patently failed to achieve, and so demonstrated that it was not invincible. In stiffening the resolve of those determined to resist Hitler the battle was an important turning point in the conflict.
The British victory in the Battle of Britain was achieved at a heavy cost. Total British civilian losses from July to December 1940 were 23,002 dead and 32,138 wounded, with one of the largest single raids on 19 December 1940, in which almost 3,000 civilians died. With the culmination of the concentrated daylight raids, Britain was able to rebuild its military forces and establish itself as an Allied stronghold, later serving as a base from which the Liberation of Western Europe was launched.
Winston Churchill summed up the effect of the battle and the contribution of RAF Fighter Command, RAF Bomber Command, RAF Coastal Command and the Fleet Air Arm with the words, "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few ''. Pilots who fought in the battle have been known as The Few ever since; at times being specially commemorated on 15 September, "Battle of Britain Day ''. On this day in 1940, the Luftwaffe embarked on their largest bombing attack yet, forcing the engagement of the entirety of the RAF in defence of London and the South East, which resulted in a decisive British victory that proved to mark a turning point in Britain 's favour.
Within the Commonwealth, Battle of Britain Day has been observed more usually on the third Sunday in September, and even on the 2nd Thursday in September in some areas in the British Channel Islands.
The day has been observed by many artists over the years, often with works that show the battle itself. Many mixed media artists have also created pieces in honour of the Battle of Britain.
Plans for the Battle of Britain window in Westminster Abbey were begun during wartime, the committee chaired by Lords Trenchard and Dowding. Public donations paid for the window itself, this officially opened by King George VI on 10 July 1947. Although not actually an ' official ' memorial to the Battle of Britain in the sense that government paid for it, the window and chapel have since been viewed as such. During the late 1950s and 1960, various proposals were advanced for a national monument to the Battle of Britain, this also the focus of several letters in The Times. In 1960 the Conservative government decided against a further monument, taking the view that the credit should be shared more broadly than Fighter Command alone, and there was little public appetite for one. All subsequent memorials are the result of private subscription and initiative, as discussed below.
There are numerous memorials to the battle. The most important ones are the Battle of Britain Monument in London and the Battle of Britain Memorial at Capel - le - Ferne in Kent. Westminster Abbey and St James 's Church, Paddington both have memorial windows to the battle, replacing windows that were destroyed during the campaign. There is also a memorial at the former Croydon Airport, one of the RAF bases during the battle, and a memorial to the pilots at Armadale Castle on the Isle of Skye in Scotland, which is topped by a raven sculpture.
There are also two museums to the battle: one at Hawkinge in Kent and one at Stanmore in London, at the former RAF Bentley Priory.
In 2015 the RAF created an online ' Battle of Britain 75th Anniversary Commemorative Mosaic ' composed of pictures of "the few '' -- the pilots and aircrew who fought in the battle -- and "the many '' -- ' the often unsung others whose contribution during the Battle of Britain was also vital to the RAF 's victory in the skies above Britain ', submitted by participants and their families.
Victoria Embankment, London
Capel - le - Ferne, Kent
Armadale Castle
Westminster Abbey
St James 's Church, Paddington
Croydon Airport
Monument of Polish Pilots, Northolt
The story of the battle was documented in, amongst many others, the 1969 film Battle of Britain, which drew many respected British actors to act key figures of the battle, including Sir Laurence Olivier as Hugh Dowding and Trevor Howard as Keith Park. It also starred Michael Caine, Christopher Plummer and Robert Shaw as Squadron Leaders. Former participants of the battle served as technical advisors including Douglas Bader, James Lacey, Robert Stanford Tuck, Adolf Galland and Dowding himself. An Italian film around the same time titled Eagles Over London (1969) also featured the Battle of Britain. The 1988 ITV mini-series Piece of Cake, an aerial drama about a fictional Second World War RAF fighter squadron in 1940, features the battle. The Czech film Dark Blue World (2001) also featured the battle, focusing on the Czech Pilots who fought in the battle. An inaccurate and fictional version of the battle is shown in the 2001 movie, Pearl Harbor, in which the battle is depicted as still going on into 1941.
It has also been the subject of many documentaries, including the 1941 Allied propaganda film Churchill 's Island, winner of the first - ever Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject. There was also the 1943 The Battle of Britain in Frank Capra 's Why We Fight series. It was included in an episode of Battlefield Britain. In 2010, actor Julian Glover played a 101 - year - old Polish veteran RAF pilot in the short film Battle for Britain.
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who sang then you can tell me goodbye | Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye - wikipedia
"Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye '' is a song written by John D. Loudermilk. It was first released in 1962 by Don Cherry, as a country song and again as a doo - wop in 1967 by the group The Casinos on its album of the same name, and was a number 6 pop hit that year. The song has since been covered by Eddy Arnold, whose version was a number 1 country hit in 1968, and by Neal McCoy, whose version became a Top 5 country hit in 1996.
The song was written by Loudermilk, who also recorded it for his 1967 album, Suburban Attitudes in Country Verse. It is played as a slow 12 / 8 shuffle, its lyric addressing a female lover at the beginning of a relationship.
The Casinos released its version in 1967 from its debut album Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye. It reached number 6 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in March 1967, and was the group 's only Top 40 pop hit. Musicians on the recording included Armstrong on organ, Mickey Denton on guitar, Ray White on bass, and Bob Smith on drums. It also featured a brass section of trumpets and trombones. It was also a number 28 pop hit in the United Kingdom.
In 1968, country music artist Eddy Arnold covered "Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye '' on his album Walkin ' in Love Land. Arnold has said that he was inspired to record the song after hearing Loudermilk perform it. Arnold 's rendition was a Number One hit on both the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles (now Hot Country Songs) charts and RPM Country Tracks charts, as well as reaching number 84 on the U.S. pop charts.
Neal McCoy covered the song in 1996 on his self - titled album. Released in May of that year as that album 's lead - off single, it reached number 4 on the U.S. Billboard country charts and number 7 on the Canadian RPM country charts, as well as number 7 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100. McCoy 's cover was the seventh Top Ten country hit of his career.
Andy Williams released a version in 1967 on his album, Born Free.
Bettye Swann recorded the song in 1969.
Glen Campbell recorded the song as a medley with Hamilton, Joe Frank & Reynolds ' "Do n't Pull Your Love. '' This song was a number 27 pop hit and went to number 1 on the Easy Listening chart in 1976. The medley also peaked at number 4 on the country chart.
Toby Beau included it in their second album More Than a Love Song in 1979. It reached 57 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts and 7 on the Adult Contemporary list.
The 5th Dimension recorded the song in 1973, but it was not released until 2004 as a bonus track on their The Ultimate 5th Dimension album.
Joss Stone recorded a version of the song for her 2012 album The Soul Sessions Vol. II.
Johnny Nash recorded a version in 1964 for Argo Records.
Frankie Valli recorded a cover version of this song for his 2007 solo album of covers, Romancing The 60 's.
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who recorded don't think twice it's alright | Do n't Think Twice, It 's All Right - wikipedia
"Do n't Think Twice, It 's All Right '' is a song written by Bob Dylan in 1962, recorded on November 14 that year, and released on the 1963 album The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan and as a single.
In the liner notes to the original release, Nat Hentoff calls the song "a statement that maybe you can say to make yourself feel better... as if you were talking to yourself. '' The song was written around the time that Suze Rotolo indefinitely prolonged her stay in Italy. The melody is based on the public domain traditional song "Who 's Gonna Buy Your Chickens When I 'm Gone ''. The melody was taught to Dylan by folksinger Paul Clayton, who had used the melody in his song "Who 's Gonna Buy You Ribbons When I 'm Gone? ''
As well as the melody, a couple of lines were taken from Clayton 's "Who 's Gonna Buy You Ribbons When I 'm Gone? '', which was recorded in 1960, two years before Dylan wrote "Do n't Think Twice ''. Lines taken word - for - word or slightly altered from the Clayton song are, "T'ai n't no use to sit and wonder why, darlin ', '' and, "So I 'm walkin ' down that long, lonesome road. '' On the first release of the song, instead of "So I 'm walkin ' down that long, lonesome road babe, where I 'm bound, I ca n't tell '' Dylan sings "So long, honey babe, where I 'm bound, I ca n't tell ''. The lyrics were changed when Dylan performed live versions of the song and on cover versions recorded by other artists.
In addition to its original release, the song has appeared on several of Dylan 's greatest hits compilations, including Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol. II (1971), The Best of Bob Dylan (1997), and The Essential Bob Dylan (2000). Another version of the song, recorded as a demo for Dylan 's music publisher M. Witmark & Sons in 1963, was included on two releases in Columbia 's Bootleg Series: Vol. 7: No Direction Home: The Soundtrack (2005) and Vol. 9 -- The Witmark Demos: 1962 -- 1964 (2010). In addition, live versions have been released on Before the Flood (1974; recorded February 14, 1974), Bob Dylan at Budokan (1978; recorded February 28, 1978), The Bootleg Series Vol. 6: Bob Dylan Live 1964, Concert at Philharmonic Hall (2004; recorded October 31, 1964), and Live at The Gaslight 1962 (2005; recorded October 1962).
It has been argued that the guitar on the original version of the song, which features a fast, fingerstyle style, was played by Bruce Langhorne. In live performances, Dylan often strummed the chords, or flatpicked, but in a similar, fast - paced manner. Moreover, the 1963 "Witmark demos '' version of the song has Bob Dylan finger - picking, in a very similar manner to the original 1962 recording. Furthermore, a recording of an April 1963 concert in New York City contains a live version of "Do n't Think Twice '', finger - picked in a manner similar to that heard on the original recording.
The song was used on the television series Mad Men, Friday Night Lights, and Men of a Certain Age. It was also used in Nancy Savoca 's 1991 film Dogfight, starring River Phoenix and Lili Taylor; the 2011 film The Help; and the October 30, 2016 episode of the TV series The Walking Dead.
"Do n't Think Twice, It 's All Right '' has been covered by Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard, Peter, Paul and Mary (1963), Dick and Dee Dee, Bobby Darin, Glen Campbell, Dolly Parton, The Seekers, John Anderson, Randy Travis, Arnaldo Baptista, The Georgia Satellites, Cher, Melanie, Kesha, Johnny Cash, Ed Sheeran, Bobby Bare, Jackie DeShannon, Gordon Lightfoot, Davey Graham, Odetta, Ralph McTell, Rory Gallagher, Stone the Crows, Heinz, Elvis Presley, Burl Ives, Waylon Jennings, Flatt and Scruggs, Steve Young, Donavon Frankenreiter, Ramblin ' Jack Elliott, Jerry Reed, Joan Baez (who, in addition to covering it alone, also recorded it as a trio with the Indigo Girls), Joshua Radin, Doc Watson, The Waifs, Vonda Shepard, John Martyn, Metric, Elliott Smith, Billy Bragg, Frank Turner & Mark McCabe, Nick Drake, Sandi Thom, Susan Tedeschi, Emily Haines, Susanna and the Magical Orchestra, Boris Grebenshchikov, Jackie Greene, Bryan Ferry, Julie Felix, Wolfgang Ambros, Arlo Guthrie, Tristan Prettyman, Bree Sharp, Gavin Castleton, The Folkswingers, O.A.R. with Matt Nathanson and Mike Ness, The Kingston Trio, David Wiffen, Billy Paul, guitarist Lenny Breau, Susan Tedeschi, Ryan Montbleau, John Mayer, Albert Hammond Jr., The Allman Brothers Band, Emilie - Claire Barlow, Cock Robin, Gregory and the Hawk, Barbara Dickson, Chris Thile, Brad Mehldau, Kronos Quartet, Drew Holcomb and The Neighbors, Post Malone and Nick Takenobu Ogawa. The Peter, Paul and Mary cover was the definitive single, reaching # 9 pop Billboard Hot 100, # 2 easy listening on Billboard 's charts.
Eric Clapton performed, to critical acclaim, a blues rendition of the song at the 1992 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration in Dylan 's honor.
The Four Seasons released a cover of the song as a single in 1965 (with the title "Do n't Think Twice '') under the pseudonym The Wonder Who? Their "joke '' version reached the # 12 position on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and eventually sold one million copies.
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who plays the irish guy in sons of anarchy | Tommy Flanagan (actor) - wikipedia
Tommy Flanagan (born 3 July 1965) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for his role of Filip "Chibs '' Telford in the FX crime drama television series Sons of Anarchy.
Flanagan was born in Easterhouse, Glasgow, the third of five children. He was an altar boy as a child. His facial scars are the result of a knife attack outside a nightclub where he had been working as a DJ.
Flanagan is married to Dina, and together they have a daughter born in 2012. He is a supporter of Celtic F.C.
His first television roles were in Screen One (1992) and Taggart (1993). Flanagan worked in Robert Carlyle 's Raindog Theatre for three years before being cast in Braveheart (1995). He has had roles in Face / Off (1997), The Game (1997), Sunset Strip (2000), Gladiator (2000), All About the Benjamins (2002), Charlie 's Angels: Full Throttle (2003), Alien vs. Predator (2004), Sin City (2005), Smokin ' Aces (2006), When a Stranger Calls (2006), The Last Drop (2006), Smokin ' Aces 2: Assassins ' Ball (2010) and the TV mini-series Attila.
He portrayed arms dealer Gabriel Schecter in the first episode of 24 's seventh season and appeared in the episode "Headlock '' of Lie to Me, aired in the U.S. on Monday 2 August 2010. He was one of the main cast members of Sons of Anarchy, in which he plays an outlaw biker named Filip "Chibs '' Telford. In October 2010, Flanagan was revealed as the spokesperson for the Scottish soft drink Irn - Bru. In July 2016, he appeared in the music video for the song "Rotting in Vain '' by Korn.
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