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is a do not enter sign a regulatory sign

Regulatory sign - Wikipedia One type of regulatory signs are traffic signs intended to instruct road users on what they must or should do (or not do) under a given set of circumstances. Other types may be signs located on streets and in parking lots having to do with parking, signs in public parks and on beaches or on or in architectural facilities prohibiting specific types of activities. The term regulatory sign describes a range of signs that are used to indicate or reinforce traffic laws, regulations or requirements which apply either at all times or at specified times or places upon a street or highway, the disregard of which may constitute a violation, or signs in general that regulate public behavior in places open to the public. Examples of non-traffic types of regulatory signs might be tow - away signs for vehicles without disabled parking stickers or no - smoking signs where there are laws prohibiting smoking. No entry No parking No Standing Right Hand curve sign Left Hand curve sign Stop, MUTCD R1 - 1. Yield, MUTCD R1 - 2. Speed limit, MUTCD R2 - 1. Speed limit sign, metric, MUTCD R2 - 1. Keep right sign, MUTCD R4 - 7 Railroad crossing (one version), MUTCD R15 - 1. Do not enter, MUTCD R5 - 1. Red light photo enforced, DELDOT R10 - 19 - DE. Do n't block the box, NYCDOT SR - 1258. No u-turn - left turn on green arrow Caltrans SR - 39A. Bike path, no automobiles, NYCDOT SR - 1801 State law yield for pedestrians in crosswalk, MUTCD, R1 - 6. State law stop for pedestrians in crosswalk, MDSHA R16 - A (1). No right turn, MUTCD R3 - 1. No trucks, MUTCD R5 - 2. Weight limit, MUTCD R12 - 1. No parking, MUTCD R7 - 1. No parking, Caltrans R - 28. No parking, NYSDOT NYP1 - 2. No parking, PADOT R7 - 7A. No parking with restrictions and localized, NYCDOT SC - 346C. Placed at Stop Line at a traffic light No stopping or parking, Road sign: 3.27 No parking or waiting, Road sign: 3.28 No parking within odd days, Road sign: 3.29 No parking within even days, Road sign: 3.30 Stop Yield (give way) No entry No straight ahead No left turn No right turn No U-turns Keep left Yield to oncoming traffic Priority over oncoming traffic Speed limit 30 km / h Speed limit 50 km / h Speed limit 60 km / h Speed limit 80 km / h Speed limit 100 km / h Speed limit 120 km / h National speed limit applies

what is a person who designs buildings called

Building design - wikipedia Building design refers to the broadly based architectural, engineering and technical applications to the design of buildings. All building projects require the services of a building designer, typically a licensed architect or structural engineer. Smaller, less complicated projects often do not require a licensed professional, and the design of such projects is often undertaken by building designers, draftspersons, interior designers (for interior fit - outs or renovations), or contractors. Larger, more complex building projects require the services of many professionals trained in specialist disciplines, usually coordinated by an architect. An architect is a person trained in the planning, design and supervision of the construction of buildings. Professionally, an architect 's decisions affect public safety, and thus an architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a practicum (or internship) for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. In most of the world 's jurisdictions, the professional and commercial use of the term "architect '' is legally protected. Building engineering typically includes the services of electrical, mechanical and Structural engineers. A draftsperson or documenter is someone who has attained a certificate or diploma in architectural drafting (or equivalent training), and provides services relating to the preparation of construction documents rather than building design. Some draftspersons are employed by architectural design firms and building contractors, while others are self - employed. In many places, building codes and legislation of professions allow persons to design single family residential buildings and in some cases light commercial buildings without an architectural license. As such, "Building designer '' is a common designation in the United States, Canada and elsewhere for someone who offers building design services but is not a licensed architect or engineer. Anyone may use the title of "building designer '' in the broadest sense. In many places, a building designer may achieve certification demonstrating a higher level of training. In the U.S., the National Council of Building Designer Certification (NCBDC), an offshoot of the American Institute of Building Design, administers a program leading to the title of Certified Professional Building Designer (CPBD). In most cases, building designers are trained as architectural technologists or draftspersons; they may also be architecture school graduates that have not completed licensing requirements. Many building designers are known as "residential '' or "home designers '', since they focus mainly on residential design and remodeling. In the U.S. state of Nevada, "Residential Designer '' is a regulated term for those who are registered as such under Nevada State Board of Architecture, Interior Design and Residential Design, and one may not legally represent oneself in a professional capacity without being currently registered. In Australia where use of the term architect and some derivatives is highly restricted but the architectural design of buildings has very few restrictions in place, the term building designer is used extensively by people or design practices who are not registered by the relevant State Board of Architects. In Queensland the term building design is used in legislation which licences practitioners as part of a broader building industry licensing system. In Victoria there is a registration process for building designers and in other States there is currently no regulation of the profession. A Building Designers Association operates in each state to represent the interests of building designers. Building surveyors are technically minded general practitioners in the United Kingdom, Australia and elsewhere, trained much like architectural technologists. In the UK, the knowledge and expertise of the building surveyor is applied to various tasks in the property and construction markets, including building design for smaller residential and light commercial projects. This aspect of the practice is similar to other European occupations, most notably the geometra in Italy, but also the géomètre in France, Belgium and Switzerland. the building surveyors are also capable on establishment of bills of quantities for the new works and renovation or maintenance or rehabilitation works. The profession of Building Surveyor does not exist in the US. The title Surveyor refers almost exclusively to Land surveyors. Architects, Building Designers, Residential Designers, Construction Managers, and Home Inspectors perform some or all of the work of the U.K. Building Surveyor.

the adventure of the speckled band short story summary

The Adventure of the Speckled Band - wikipedia "The Adventure of the Speckled Band '' is one of the 56 short Sherlock Holmes stories written by Scottish author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. It is the eighth of the twelve stories collected in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. It is one of four Sherlock Holmes stories that can be classified as a locked room mystery. The story was first published in Strand Magazine in February 1892, with illustrations by Sidney Paget. It was published under the different title "The Spotted Band '' in New York World in August 1905. Doyle later revealed that he thought this was his best Holmes story. Doyle wrote and produced a play based on the story. It premiered at the Adelphi Theatre, London on 4 June 1910, with H.A. Saintsbury as Sherlock Holmes and Lyn Harding as Dr. Grimesby Roylott. The play, originally called The Stonor Case, differs from the story in several details, such as the names of some of the characters. Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson rise unusually early one morning to meet a young woman named Helen Stoner. Helen fears that her life is being threatened by her stepfather, Dr. Grimesby Roylott, a doctor who practiced in India and was married to Helen 's late mother who was a widow living in India. Dr. Roylott is the impoverished last survivor of what was a wealthy but violent, ill - tempered and amoral Anglo - Saxon aristocratic family of Surrey, and has already served a jail sentence in the past for killing his Indian butler in a rage. Helen 's twin sister had died almost two years earlier, shortly before she was to be married. Helen had heard her sister 's dying words, "The speckled band! '' but was unable to decode their meaning. Helen herself is now engaged, and she has begun to hear strange noises and observe strange activities around Stoke Moran, the impoverished and heavily mortgaged estate where she and her stepfather live. Dr. Roylott also keeps strange company at the estate: He is best friends with a band of Gypsies on the property, and has a cheetah and a baboon as pets. For some time, he has been making modifications to the home. Before Helen 's sister 's death, he had modifications made inside the house, and is now having the outside wall repaired, forcing Helen to move into the room where her sister died. Holmes listens carefully to Helen 's story and agrees to take the case. He plans a visit to the manor later in the day. Before he can leave, however, he is visited by Dr. Roylott himself, who threatens him should he interfere. Undaunted, Holmes proceeds, first to the courthouse, where he examines Helen 's late mother 's will, and then to the countryside. At Stoke Moran, Holmes inspects the premises carefully inside and out. Among the strange features that he discovers are a bed anchored to the floor, a bell cord that does not work, and a ventilator hole between Helen 's temporary room and that of Dr Roylott. Holmes and Watson arrange to spend the night in Helen 's room. In darkness they wait; suddenly, a slight metallic noise and a dim light through the ventilator prompt Holmes to action. Quickly lighting a candle, he discovers on the bell cord the "speckled band '' -- a venomous snake. He strikes the snake with a stick, driving it back through the ventilator. Agitated, it attacks Roylott, who had been waiting for it to return after killing Helen. Holmes then reveals to Watson the motive: the late wife 's will had provided an annual income of 750 GBP, of which each daughter could claim one third upon marriage. Thus, Dr. Roylott plotted to remove both of his stepdaughters before they married to avoid losing most of the fortune he controlled when the daughters took with them their share of money left for them by their mother from their birth father 's estate. Richard Lancelyn Green, the editor of the 2000 Oxford paperback edition of The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, surmises that Doyle 's source for the story appears to have been the article named "Called on by a Boa Constrictor. A West African Adventure '' in Cassell 's Saturday Journal, published in February 1891. In the article, a captain tells how he was dispatched to a remote camp in West Africa to stay in a tumbledown cabin that belonged to a Portuguese trader. On the first night in the cabin, he is awoken by a creaking sound, and sees "a dark queer - looking thing hanging down through the ventilator above it ''. It turns out to be the largest Boa constrictor he has seen (more likely a python because there are no boas in Africa). He is paralysed with fear as the serpent comes down into the room. Unable to cry out for help, the captain spots an old bell that hung from a projecting beam above one of the windows. The bell cord had rotted away, but by means of a stick he manages to ring it and raise the alarm. The name swamp adder is an invented one, and the scientific treatises of Doyle 's time do not mention any kind of adder of India. To fans of Sherlock Holmes who enjoy treating the stories as altered accounts of real events, the true identity of this snake has been a puzzle since the publication of the story, even to professional herpetologists. Many species of snakes have been proposed for it, and Richard Lancelyn Green concludes the Indian Cobra (Naja naja) is the snake which it most closely resembles, rather than Boa constrictor, which is not venomous. The Indian cobra has black and white speckled marks, and is one of the most lethal of the Indian venomous snakes with a neurotoxin which will often kill in a few minutes. It is also a good climber and is used by snake charmers in India. Snakes are deaf in the conventional sense but have vestiges to sense vibrations and low - frequency airborne sounds, making it remotely plausible to signal a snake by whistling. In The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson, the deafness inconsistency (while not the others) was solved by Dr. Roylott (suspecting the deafness of snakes) softly knocking on the wall in addition to whistling. While snakes are deaf, they are sensitive to vibration. Bitis arietans from Africa, Russell 's viper and saw - scaled viper also bear resemblance to the swamp adder of the story, but they have hemotoxin -- slow working venoms. The herpetologist Laurence Monroe Klauber proposed, in a tongue - in - cheek article which blames Dr. Watson for getting the name of the snake wrong, a theory that the swamp adder was an artificial hybrid between the Mexican Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) and Naja naja. His speculation suggests that Doyle might have hidden a double - meaning in Holmes ' words. What Holmes said, reported by Watson, was "It is a swamp adder, the deadliest snake in India ''; but Klauber suggested what Holmes really said was "It is a samp - aderm, the deadliest skink in India. '' Samp - aderm can be translated "snake - Gila - monster '': Samp is Hindi for snake, and the suffix aderm is derived from heloderm, the common or vernacular name of the Gila monster generally used by European naturalists. Skinks are lizards of the family Scincidae, many of which are snake - like in form. Such a hybrid reptile will have a venom incomparably strengthened by hybridization, assuring the almost instant demise of the victim. And it will also have ears like any lizard, so it could hear the whistle, and legs and claws allowing it to run up and down the bell cord with a swift ease. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle himself wrote a stage play based on "The Speckled Band ''. In December 1909, Conan Doyle had leased the Adelphi Theatre in the Strand for a production of his elaborate drama The House of Temperley. The play was not a smashing success. When King Edward VII died suddenly the following spring, the West End theatres closed in mourning. Temperley was already losing money weekly; the closing spelled its demise. Conan Doyle had refused an earlier offer to sublet the playhouse to a musical comedy. With a ruinously expensive theatre on his hands, Conan Doyle decided to play "a bold and energetic game. '' The American actor William Gillette had achieved considerable success portraying the famous detective in the stageplay Sherlock Holmes, which was based on an earlier Conan Doyle script. Conan Doyle was "charmed with the play, the acting, and the pecuniary result, '' and determined to cash in on its popularity. He wrote his own play in what he later referred to as "record time, '' and so saved the situation. "I shut myself up and devoted my whole mind to making a sensational Sherlock Holmes drama. I wrote it in a week and called it The Speckled Band after the short story of that name. I do not think I exaggerate if I say that within a fortnight of the one play shutting down I had a company working upon the rehearsals of a second one, which had been written in the interval. It was a considerable success. '' The Speckled Band was Arthur Conan Doyle 's third stageplay and was the second Holmes dramatization. It was based with some modifications on the short story of the same name which, according to Adrian Conan Doyle, was his father 's favorite Sherlock Holmes tale. Conan Doyle engaged the estimable H.A. Saintsbury, who had toured with the Gillette company, to portray Sherlock Holmes; Lyn Harding, a talented character actor of leering villains, to play Dr. Rylott (which was spelled "Roylott '' in the original short story); Claude King to play Doctor Watson; and a live snake as the title character. On 4 June 1910, less than a month after the other play 's closing, the Adelphi 's lights again kindled and Sherlock Holmes walked the stage. Holmes and Watson worked their usual magic on the audiences; but this time they were nearly overshadowed by the burly villain, Dr. Grimesby Rylott, who petted his snake in its wicker basket while the Hindu servant played eerie music on a pipe. Even Conan Doyle 's bow was upstaged when Lyn Harding appeared at curtain call with the snake draped around his neck. "Lyn Harding, as the half - epileptic and wholly formidable Doctor Grimesby Rylott, was most masterful, while Saintsbury as Sherlock Holmes was also very good. Before the end of the run, I had cleared off all that I had lost upon the other play, and I had created a permanent property of some value. It became a stock piece and is even now touring the country. '' The Speckled Band ran for 169 performances at the Adelphi Theatre before transferring to the Globe on 28 August. The play enjoyed a successful tour in England, with two touring - companies on the road by the end of August, while the New York presentation was marred by clumsy production. Conan Doyle 's financial difficulties were at an end, yet there were still problems to be resolved with the production. While the human cast was excellent, the live snake proved to be a rather poor performer. "We had a fine rock boa to play the title - rôle, a snake which was the pride of my heart, so one can imagine my disgust when I saw that one critic ended his disparaging review by the words, ' The crisis of the play was produced by the appearance of a palpably artificial serpent. ' I was inclined to offer him a goodly sum if he would undertake to go to bed with it. The real fault of the play was that in trying to give Holmes a worthy antagonist I overdid it and produced a more interesting personality in the villain. The terrible ending was also against it. '' However, it was a considerable success and saved a difficult -- almost a desperate -- situation. Another criticism of the play is that the form of the Sherlock Holmes short stories is missing. Holmes appears late in the narrative, while the ending is missing Holmes ' explanations of how he came to his deductions -- considered de rigueur among Holmes aficionados. The production moved to New York. There was a London revival of this play in 1921.

top 10 hindi tv shows of all time

List of longest - running Indian television series - Wikipedia This is a list of the longest - running Indian television serials in India. The series are listed as per the episode count and not by the year telecast. Swabhiman

who discovered the transmission of the rabies virus spread by vampire bats

Rabies transmission - wikipedia Rabies is mostly transmitted to humans, and between animals, through the saliva of infected animals. Transmission is generally through a bite from any infected animal. Transmission between humans is extremely rare, although it can happen through organ transplants, or through bites. After a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the peripheral nervous system. It then travels along the nerves towards the central nervous system. During this phase, the virus can not be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell - mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. Once the virus reaches the brain, it rapidly causes encephalitis and symptoms appear. This is called the "prodromal '' phase and at this time, treatment is usually unsuccessful. Rabies may also inflame the spinal cord producing myelitis. Any mammal may become infected with the rabies virus and develop symptoms, including humans. But dogs are, by far, the main source of human rabies deaths, contributing up to 99 % of all rabies transmissions to humans according to the World Health Organization. Infected monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, wolves, bats, and cats are also known to transmit rabies to humans. Rabies may also spread through exposure to infected domestic farm animals, groundhogs, weasels, bears and other wild carnivores. Small rodents such as squirrels, hamsters, guinea pigs, gerbils, chipmunks, rats, and mice and lagomorphs like rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected with rabies and are not known to transmit rabies to humans. Vampire bats can transmit rabies to humans in the ' new world ' tropics. The virus is usually present in the nerves and saliva of a symptomatic rabid animal. The route of infection is usually, but not necessarily, by a bite. In many cases the infected animal is exceptionally aggressive, may attack without provocation, and exhibits otherwise uncharacteristic behaviour. (Note that "uncharacteristic behaviour '' may include uncharacteristic friendliness as well as the stereotypically violent mode of rabies. Since rabies can be transmitted through contact with saliva, not just through bites, this "tame '' mode of rabies is no less dangerous.) It has been suggested that transmission may very rarely occur via an aerosol through mucous membranes; and that transmission in this form might conceivably endanger people exploring caves populated by rabid bats. However, non-bite transmission of rabies is very rare, and aerosol transmission has never been well documented in the natural environment.

how long does it take for a domesticated pig to become feral

Domestic pig - wikipedia The domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus or only Sus domesticus), often called swine, hog, or pig when there is no need to distinguish it from other pigs, is a large, even - toed ungulate. It is variously considered a subspecies of the wild boar or a distinct species. The domestic pig 's head - plus - body - length ranges from 0.9 to 1.8 m (35 to 71 in), and the adult can weigh between 50 and 350 kg (110 and 770 lb). Compared to other artiodactyls, its head is relatively long, pointed, and free of warts. Even - toed ungulates are generally herbivorous, but the domestic pig is an omnivore, like its wild relative. Domestic pigs are farmed primarily for the consumption of their meat called pork. The animal 's bones, hide, and bristles are also used in commercial products. Domestic pigs, especially the pot - bellied pig and micro pig, are sometimes kept as pets. The domestic pig typically has a large head, with a long snout which is strengthened by a special prenasal bone and a disk of cartilage at the tip. The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food, and is a very acute sense organ. The dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1. 4.3 3.1. 4.3, giving a total of 44 teeth. The rear teeth are adapted for crushing. In the male the canine teeth can form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by constantly being ground against each other. Four hoofed toes are on each foot, or trotter, with the two larger central toes bearing most of the weight, but the outer two also being used in soft ground. Most domestic pigs have rather a sparse hair covering on their skin, although woolly - coated breeds, such as the Mangalitsa, are raised. Pigs possess both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, although the latter appear limited to the snout and dorsonasal areas. Pigs, however, like other "hairless '' mammals (e.g. elephants, rhinos, and mole - rats), do not use thermal sweat glands in cooling. Pigs are also less able than many other mammals to dissipate heat from wet mucous membranes in the mouth through panting. Their thermoneutral zone is 16 to 22 ° C. At higher temperatures, pigs lose heat by wallowing in mud or water via evaporative cooling; although it has been suggested that wallowing may serve other functions, such as protection from sunburn, ecto - parasite control, and scent - marking. Pigs are one of four known mammalian species which possess mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α - neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent mutations. The domestic pig is most often considered to be a subspecies of the wild boar, which was given the name Sus scrofa by Carl Linnaeus in 1758; following from this, the formal name of the domestic pig is Sus scrofa domesticus. However, in 1777, Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben classified the domestic pig as a separate species from the wild boar. He gave it the name Sus domesticus, which is still used by some taxonomists. Archaeological evidence suggests that pigs were domesticated from wild boar as early as 13,000 -- 12,700 BC in the Near East in the Tigris Basin, Çayönü, Cafer Höyük, Nevalı Çori being managed in the wild in a way similar to the way they are managed by some modern New Guineans. Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC in Cyprus. Those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then. There was also a separate domestication in China which took place about 8000 years ago. DNA evidence from subfossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe had been brought from the Near East. This stimulated the domestication of local European wild boar, resulting in a third domestication event with the Near Eastern genes dying out in European pig stock. Modern domesticated pigs have involved complex exchanges, with European domesticated lines being exported, in turn, to the ancient Near East. Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In August 2015, a study looked at over 100 pig genome sequences to ascertain their process of domestication, which was assumed to have been initiated by humans, involved few individuals, and relied on reproductive isolation between wild and domestic forms. The study found that the assumption of reproductive isolation with population bottlenecks was not supported. The study indicated that pigs were domesticated separately in Western Asia and China, with Western Asian pigs introduced into Europe, where they crossed with wild boar. A model that fitted the data included a mixture with a now extinct ghost population of wild pigs during the Pleistocene. The study also found that despite back - crossing with wild pigs, the genomes of domestic pigs have strong signatures of selection at DNA loci that affect behavior and morphology. The study concluded that human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars and created domestication islands in the genome. The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of the wild boar allowed early humans to domesticate it readily. Pigs were mostly used for food, but early civilizations also used the pigs ' hides for shields, bones for tools and weapons, and bristles for brushes. In India, pigs have been domesticated for a long time, mostly in Goa and some rural areas, for pig toilets. Though ecologically logical as well as economical, pig toilets are waning in popularity as use of septic tanks and sewage systems is increasing in rural areas. Pigs were brought to southeastern North America from Europe by de Soto and other early Spanish explorers. Escaped pigs became feral and caused a great deal of disruption to Native Americans, who had no domesticated livestock. Feral pig populations in the southeastern United States have since migrated north and are a growing concern in the Midwest. Considered an invasive species, many state agencies have programs to trap or hunt feral pigs as means of removal. Domestic pigs have become feral in many other parts of the world (e.g. New Zealand and northern Queensland) and have caused substantial environmental damage. Feral hybrids of the European wild boar with the domestic pig are also very disruptive to both environment and agriculture (among the 100 most damaging animal species), especially in southeastern South America from Uruguay to Brazil 's Mato Grosso do Sul (Center - West Region), and São Paulo (state) (Southeast Region), where they are known as javaporcos (from javali and porco, thus "boar - pigs ''). With around 1 billion individuals alive at any time, the domesticated pig is one of the most numerous large mammals on the planet. Female pigs reach sexual maturity at 3 -- 12 months of age and come into estrus every 18 -- 24 days if they are not successfully bred. The gestation period averages 112 -- 120 days. Estrus lasts two to three days and the female 's displayed receptiveness to mate is known as standing heat. Standing heat is a reflexive response that is stimulated when the female is in contact with the saliva of a sexually mature boar. Androstenol is one of the pheromones produced in the submaxillary salivary glands of boars that will trigger the female 's response. The female cervix contains a series of five interdigitating pads, or folds, that will hold the boar 's corkscrew - shaped penis during copulation. Females have bicornuate uteruses and two conceptuses must be present in both uterine horns for pregnancy to be established. Maternal recognition of pregnancy in pigs occurs on days 11 to 12 of the pregnancy. In many ways, their behaviour appears to be intermediate between that of carnivores and artiodactyls. Domestic pigs seek out the company of other pigs, and often huddle to maintain physical contact, although they do not naturally form large herds. They typically live in groups of about 8 - 10 adult sows, some young individuals, and some single males. Because of their relative lack of sweat glands, pigs often control their body temperature using behavioural thermoregulation. Wallowing, which often consists of coating the body with mud, is a behaviour frequently exhibited by pigs. Pigs root to make wallows that sometimes contains sticky mud with which the pigs cover their body. Pigs do not submerge completely under the mud, but vary the depth and duration of wallowing depending on environmental conditions. Typically, adult pigs start wallowing once the ambient temperature is around 17 - 21 ° C. On hot days, pigs cover themselves from head to toe in mud. Pigs may also use mud as a sunscreen, protecting their skin from ultraviolet light, or as a method of keeping parasites away. If conditions permit, domesticated pigs feed continuously for many hours and then sleep for many hours, in contrast to ruminants which tend to feed for a short time and then sleep for a short time. Pigs are omnivores and are highly versatile in their feeding behaviour. They can survive well by scavenging on the same types of foods that humans and dogs can live on. In the wild, they are foraging animals, primarily eating leaves, grasses, roots, fruits and flowers. Domestic pigs are intelligent and can be trained to perform numerous tasks and tricks. A behavioural characteristic of domestic pigs which they share with carnivores is nest building and bed making (although modern production systems often prevent these). Pigs root out wallows or depressions (digging with their snout) and the females (sows) will build nests in which to give birth. First the sow digs a depression about the size of her body. She then collects twigs, grasses and leaves, and carries these in her mouth to the depression, building them into a mound. She digs in smaller, finer material to the centre of the mound using her feet. When the mound reaches the desired height, she places large branches, up to 2 metres in length, on the surface. She enters into the mound and roots around to create a depression within the gathered material. She then gives birth in a lying position, which again is different from other artiodactyls which usually give birth in a standing position. Nest - building behaviour is an important part in the process of pre and post-partum maternal behaviour. Nest building will occur during the last 24 hours before the onset of farrowing and becomes most intense during 12 to 6 hours before farrowing. Nest building is divided into two phases: one of which is the initial phase of rooting and pawing the ground while the second phase is the collecting, carrying and arranging of the nest material. One type of animal that does nest building are sows. The sow will separate from the group and seek a suitable nest site with some shelter from rain and wind, and which has well - drained soil. This nest building behaviour is performed to provide the offspring with shelter, comfort, and thermoregulation. The piglets need an increased environmental temperature otherwise they could die due to the cold. The nest will provide protection against weather and predators, while keeping the piglets close to the sow and away from the rest of the herd. This ensures they do not get trampled on and that other piglets are not stealing the milk from the sow (food resource). The nest building behaviour can be influenced by internal and external stimuli. Internal hormonal changes and the completion of one nesting phase are indicators of this maternal behaviour. The onset of nest building is triggered by the rise in prolactin levels, which is caused by a decrease in progesterone and an increase in prostaglandin. While the gathering of the nest material seems to be regulated more by external stimuli such as temperature or udder comfort. Nest building ends when the sow gathers softer material and distributes throughout nest by nodding head movements and pawing with the front legs. The longer time spent on nest building will increase pre-partum oxytocin, allowing for higher piglet weight gain. Nest building is related to the increased litter size, a higher responsiveness to piglet distress, and lower mortality rate in piglets. Letting the sow perform the nest - building behaviour can lead to better health and welfare for both the sow and piglet. Compared to most other mammals, pigs display complex nursing and suckling behaviour. Nursing occurs every 50 -- 60 minutes, and the sow requires stimulation from piglets before milk let - down. Sensory inputs (vocalisation, odours from mammary and birth fluids and hair patterns of the sow) are particularly important immediately post-birth to facilitate teat location by the piglets. Initially, the piglets compete for position at the udder, then each piglet massages around its respective teat with its snout, during which time the sow grunts at slow, regular intervals. Each series of grunts varies in frequency, tone and magnitude, indicating the stages of nursing to the piglets. The phase of competition for teats and of nosing the udder lasts for about one minute, and ends when milk flow begins. In the third phase, the piglets hold the teats in their mouths and suck with slow mouth movements (one per second), and the rate of the sow 's grunting increases for approximately 20 seconds. The grunt peak in the third phase of suckling does not coincide with milk ejection but rather the release of oxytocin from the pituitary into the bloodstream. Phase four coincides with the period of main milk flow (10 -- 20 seconds) when the piglets suddenly withdraw slightly from the udder and start sucking with rapid mouth movements of about three per second. The sow grunts rapidly, lower in tone and often in quick runs of three or four, during this phase. Finally, the flow stops and so does the grunting of the sow. The piglets may then dart from teat to teat and recommence suckling with slow movements, or nosing the udder. Piglets massage and suckle the sow 's teats after milk flow ceases as a way of letting the sow know their nutritional status. This helps her to regulate the amount of milk released from that teat in future sucklings. The more intense the post-feed massaging of a teat, the greater the future milk release from that teat will be. In pigs, dominance hierarchies can be formed at a very early age. Domestic piglets are highly precocious and within minutes of being born, or sometimes seconds, will attempt to suckle. The piglets are born with sharp teeth and fight to develop a teat order as the anterior teats produce a greater quantity of milk. Once established, this teat order remains stable with each piglet tending to feed from a particular teat or group of teats. Stimulation of the anterior teats appears to be important in causing milk letdown so it might be advantageous to the entire litter to have these teats occupied by healthy piglets. Using an artificial sow to rear groups of piglets, recognition of a teat in a particular area of the udder depended initially on visual orientation by means of reference points on the udder to find the area, and then the olfactory sense for the more accurate search within that area. Pigs have panoramic vision of approximately 310 ° and binocular vision of 35 ° to 50 °. It is thought they have no eye accommodation. Other animals that have no accommodation, e.g. sheep, lift their heads to see distant objects. The extent to which pigs have colour vision is still a source of some debate; however, the presence of cone cells in the retina with two distinct wavelength sensitivities (blue and green) suggests that at least some colour vision is present. Pigs have a well - developed sense of smell and use is made of this in Europe where they are trained to locate underground truffles. Olfactory rather than visual stimuli are used in the identification of other pigs. Hearing is also well developed, and localisation of sounds is made by moving the head. Pigs use auditory stimuli extensively as a means of communication in all social activities. Alarm or aversive stimuli are transmitted to other pigs not only by auditory cues but also by pheromones. Similarly, recognition between the sow and her piglets is by olfactory and vocal cues. Pigs are currently thought to be the best non-human candidates for organ donation to humans. The risk of cross-species disease transmission is decreased because of their increased phylogenetic distance from humans. They are readily available, their organs are anatomically comparable in size, and new infectious agents are less likely since they have been in close contact with humans through domestication for many generations. To date no xenotransplantation trials have been entirely successful due to obstacles arising from the response of the recipient 's immune system -- generally more extreme than in allotransplantations, ultimately results in rejection of the xenograft, and in some cases result in the death of the recipient -- including hyperacute rejection, acute vascular rejection, cellular rejection and chronic rejection. An early major breakthrough was the 1, 3 galactosyl transferase gene knockout. Examples of viruses carried by pigs include porcine herpesvirus, rotavirus, parvovirus, and circovirus. Of particular concern are PERVS (porcine endogenous retroviruses), vertically transmitted microbes that embed in swine genomes. The risks with xenosis are twofold, as not only could the individual become infected, but a novel infection could initiate an epidemic in the human population. Because of this risk, the FDA has suggested any recipients of xenotransplants shall be closely monitored for the remainder of their life, and quarantined if they show signs of xenosis. Pig cells have been engineered to inactivate all 62 PERVs in the genome using CRISPR Cas9 genome editing technology, and eliminated infection from the pig to human cells in culture. Pigs are exhibited at agricultural shows, judged either as stud stock compared to the standard features of each pig breed, or in commercial classes where the animals are judged primarily on their suitability for slaughter to provide premium meat. According to The Livestock Conservancy, as of 2016, three breeds of pigs are critically rare (having a global population of fewer than 2000). They are the Choctaw, the Mulefoot, and the Ossabaw Island pig. The domestic pig is mostly used for its meat, pork. Other food products made from pigs include pork sausage (casings made from the intestines), bacon, gammon, ham and pork scratchings (cracklings or rinds). The head of a pig can be used to make a preserved jelly called head cheese (sometimes known as brawn). Liver, chitterlings, blood (for blood pudding or black pudding), and other offal from pigs are also widely used for food. In some religions, such as Judaism and Islam, pork is a taboo food. The use of pig milk for human consumption does take place, but as there are certain difficulties in obtaining it, there is little commercial production. Pigskin is used to produce seat covers, apparel, pork rinds, and other items. In some developing and developed nations, the domestic pig is usually raised outdoors in yards or fields. In some areas, pigs are allowed to forage in woods where they may be taken care of by swineherds. In industrialized nations such as the United States, domestic pig farming has switched from the traditional pig farm to large - scale intensive pig farms. This has resulted in lower production costs, but can cause significant cruelty problems, and demand for pasture - raised pork in the United States has increased as consumers become concerned with humane treatment of livestock. Asian pot - bellied pigs, a small type of domestic pig, have made popular house pets in the United States beginning in the latter half of the twentieth century. Domestic farmyard pigs have also been known to be kept indoors, but due to their large size and destructive tendencies, they typically need to be moved into an outdoor pen as they grow older. Most pigs have a fear of being picked up by the stomach, but will usually calm down once placed back on the floor. Pigs are rarely used as working animals. An important exception is the use of truffle pigs -- ordinary pigs trained to find truffles. Miniature pigs, also called micro or teacup pigs, which are specifically bred to be small, may weigh from 12 -- 30 kg (26 -- 66 lb). They gained in popularity in late 2009 after several mainstream press articles claimed they were a popular pet to celebrities. Despite claims that the "teacup pigs '' will remain small their whole lives, these pigs grew to 50 kg, but Beijing Genomics Institute in Shenzhen have since engineered new micro pigs via TALEN genome editing to inactivate the growth hormone receptor gene (GHR); and these are just 15 kg at maturity. The domestic pig both as a live animal and source of post mortem tissues is one of the most valuable animal models used in biomedical research today because of its biological, physiological and anatomical similarities to human beings. Live porcine as well as post mortem tissues are used in finding treatments and cures for diseases and for teaching and education. Also they are used in the development of medical instruments and devices, surgical techniques and instrumentation and FDA approved research. As part of animal conservation (The Three Rs (animals)) live animals as well as post mortem porcine tissues contribute to the reduction and replacement methods for animal research as they supply more information from less animals or tissue used and also at a lower cost. Miss Piggy, Babe, and Porky Pig represent the domestic pig in entertainment, and "The Three Little Pigs '', Piglet in the stories of A.A. Milne, Charlotte 's Web, The Sheep - Pig, Zhu Bajie and Napoleon in George Orwell 's Animal Farm are prominent examples of the domestic pig in literature. In Western culture, the word "pig '' is often used as slang for a gluttonous person, due to the domestic pig 's eating habits. Because the domestic pig is a major domesticated animal, English has many terms unique to the species. Pig hand skeleton. Domestic pig heart. Pig kidney. Pig testis. Pig fetus. Pig testis. Pig scrotal sac. Female reproductive tract of a pig. Pig fetus.

where is the beauty and the beast castle in disney world

Be Our Guest restaurant - Wikipedia Coordinates: 28 ° 25 ′ 17 '' N 81 ° 34 ′ 51 '' W  /  28.421424 ° N 81.5808468 ° W  / 28.421424; - 81.5808468 Be Our Guest Restaurant is a quick service and table service restaurant in Fantasyland at Magic Kingdom in the Walt Disney World Resort. The restaurant has the theme and appearance of the Beast 's Castle from Disney 's 1991 animated film Beauty and the Beast. The name of the restaurant is a reference to "Be Our Guest '', one of the classic songs from that film. The restaurant was added as part of a large expansion and renovation to Fantasyland. It opened in late 2012, and the rest of Fantasyland was completed in 2014. "The New Fantasyland will be constructed in phases with most new experiences open by 2013. '' In September 2009, it was announced at the D23 Expo that Fantasyland would be expanded to incorporate Disney Princess characters, along with a larger 3 ring circus - themed Dumbo area. Recent conceptual artwork for the expansion shows several new additions and changes. Included is a new area themed to Disney 's Beauty and the Beast featuring the Beast 's Castle with a new dining experience, Gaston 's tavern, and Belle 's cottage. The castle features a full table service restaurant at night, and provides counter service dining by day, both requiring reservations. Cuisine is French - inspired. Three dining rooms are located within the castle, including the ballroom where Belle and the Beast danced, the West Wing where the rose is kept, and a gallery with paintings and a 7 ' wooden music box depicting Belle and Beast. The restaurant features medieval windows reaching the ceiling, and murals depicting the Enchanted Rose and characters from the film, including Belle, the Beast, Mrs. Potts, Chip, Lumière, and Cogsworth. The restaurant was the only publicly accessible Magic Kingdom venue to serve wine and beer (available exclusively at Dinner) prior to December 23, 2016, when additional restaurants at Magic Kingdom added it to their menus. On March 20, 2015, Be Our Guest Restaurant began to serve breakfast meals featuring foods such as eggs florentine and an open - faced - egg - and - poached - bacon sandwich. It was announced that the Beast 's Castle would be included as part of a meet - and - greet with Belle. The Storytime with Belle attraction which originally was located in the Fairytale Gardens is now performed in the library inside the Beast 's Castle. Guests can visit Belle 's father 's cottage, located at the former site of Ariel 's Grotto. They can explore the home and encounter a magic mirror (a gift from the Beast) in Maurice 's workshop which transports them to the Beast 's Castle. Inside, they meet an audio - animatronic Madame Wardrobe who casts some guests as objects. Guests then head to the library and meet an audio - animatronic Lumiere who surprises a live Belle with guests and he will tell the classic story with help from her the selected guests. This attraction opened in December 2012. Outside the castle and Belle 's house is Gaston 's tavern, another restaurant. It is themed to look like the tavern where Gaston sings his title song in the original film. The tavern features a portrait of Gaston over a large fireplace. Antlers and buckskins hang upon the wall, which is lined with barrels. Mugs and goblets can be purchased, but alcohol is not served. Instead, a non-alcoholic beverage has been created called "Lefou 's Brew '' which is an apple soda with a marshmallow foam topping, which looks like the beer served in Gaston 's tavern in the film during the song. Just outside is a water fountain of Gaston, holding barrels, with his foot on Le Fou, holding mugs. A gift shop inspired by the village where Belle lived in the film is also part of the area.

who dies in the last episode of season 6 walking dead

Last Day on Earth (the Walking Dead) - wikipedia "Last Day on Earth '' is the sixteenth and final episode of the sixth season, and 83rd episode overall of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead, which aired on AMC on April 3, 2016. The episode was written by Scott M. Gimple and Matthew Negrete, and directed by Greg Nicotero. This episode marks the first appearance of Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Negan, the mysterious leader of the Saviors that he rules in tyranny. After Maggie (Lauren Cohan) suffers pain from pregnancy, Rick (Andrew Lincoln) and the group urgently try to get her to the Hilltop Colony for medical attention from their RV. However, every one of the routes they take is blocked by a progressively larger number of Saviors, led by Simon (Steven Ogg), with increasingly frightening capabilities. Concurrently, Morgan (Lennie James) finds Carol (Melissa McBride) injured from a cut on her stomach and patches her up. While Morgan goes outside to kill a walker that is making noise, Carol flees and Morgan again pursues on horseback. Roman (Stuart Greer), the Savior who survived her attack, finds Carol first, shooting her in the right arm and leg, stating that she will suffer like his friends did. Morgan shows up just in time to save her, breaking his vow by killing Roman, and encounters two men wearing armor who approach on horseback: one of them is the mysterious survivor from the barn that Morgan saved from Rick. After the strangers offer them help, Morgan agrees to get Carol medical assistance. After nightfall, with time running out, Eugene (Josh McDermitt) volunteers to be bait to distract the Saviors by driving the empty RV by himself to lure them while the rest of the group carry Maggie to the Hilltop through the woods on foot. However, as the group carries a very weak Maggie on a stretcher, they end up running into the midst of a large group of Saviors, led by Simon from earlier, who were expecting and waiting for them all to arrive. They have already captured Eugene, along with Glenn (Steven Yeun), Michonne (Danai Gurira), Rosita (Christian Serratos), and a gravely wounded, but alive, Daryl (Norman Reedus). The entire group is disarmed and forced to their knees. As the group kneels helplessly on the ground, a man, holding a baseball bat wrapped in barbed wire, dubbed "Lucille '', steps out of the group 's RV. In an intimidating manner, he approaches and greets a nervous Rick, revealing himself to be Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan), the totalitarian leader of the Saviors. Unhappy, Negan berates Rick for killing many of his men and then goes on to explain the new world order: the group now works for him and half of their supplies now belong to him. He introduces the group to his barbed - wired baseball bat, dubbed "Lucille '', and reveals that the entire set up, including the roadblocks, was simply to decide "who gets the honor '' of dying as punishment for their actions. When Negan threatens to put Maggie out of her misery, Glenn lunges at him, but is pulled back in line by Dwight (Austin Amelio). Unable to choose a victim, Negan claims to have an idea; he starts a game of "eeny, meeny, miny, moe '', pointing Lucille down the line of survivors as he recites the rhyme. He eventually lands on "it '', making his choice. From the victim 's point - of - view, Negan prepares to beat them, telling his men to cut out Carl 's (Chandler Riggs) other eye and feed it to Rick should anyone move or say anything. Negan then slams Lucille down onto his victim 's head. To the horror of the other survivors, Negan continues to beat the victim over and over again. On November 10, 2015, it was announced that Jeffrey Dean Morgan had been cast as Negan and would make his debut in the season finale. This episode is the third in the sixth season to air in an expanded 90 - minute time slot. Director Greg Nicotero confirmed that they filmed two versions of Negan 's introduction -- one for broadcast with toned down language and the other for the Blu - ray release which has swearing to match his speech from the comics. "Last Day on Earth '' received mixed reviews from critics. While Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's performance as Negan was praised, the episode was mostly criticized for its pacing and cliffhanger ending. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 43 % with an average rating of 6.55 out of 10, based on 30 reviews. The critics ' consensus reads: Despite Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's deliciously evil turn as Negan, the meandering "Last Day on Earth '' -- and its manipulative cliffhanger ending -- make for a disappointing season finale. Matt Fowler of IGN gave it a 7.3 out of 10 in his review and commented, "For all that ' Last Day on Earth ' was really about, and what was important about it, it went on too long. And then failed to deliver a satisfying exclamation point. Instead, we got another fake out / cliffhanger. A technique this show is absolutely over indulging in. Jeffrey Dean Morgan was terrific as Negan though. '' Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C, the lowest grade given by the website for the show to date, faulting the episode for awkward, drawn - out writing and forced story arcs which could n't maintain an atmosphere of suspense as they moved inevitably toward a fixed ending everyone knew was coming. Todd VanDerWerff of Vox gave the episode a negative review, calling it the worst episode of the show so far, and commenting, "The extra-long episode spent its first hour dramatizing all the excitement of your GPS insisting that you take a road you already know is closed, and the last half - hour sank some nicely spooky moments with a too - long monologue and a completely botched cliffhanger. '' However, he gave a positive review on Negan 's introduction. In response to the backlash the cliffhanger received, showrunner Scott M. Gimple said: If you approach it from a place of skepticism or with the idea that there 's some kind of negative or cynical motivation behind it... it 's difficult to convince you otherwise. I do think we 've done enough on the show and we 've delivered a story that people have enjoyed (to warrant fans giving) us the benefit of the doubt. I truly hope that people will see (the Season 7 premiere) and feel it justifies the way we 've decided to tell the story. The episode received a 6.9 rating in the key 18 - 49 demographic with 14.19 million total viewers. This was a significant increase from the previous episode, "East '', which received a 5.9 rating and 12.38 million total, but also significantly lower than the ratings for the season 5 finale, which was watched by 15.8 million American viewers with an 18 - 49 rating of 8.2. Including live + 3 ratings, episode was watched by 18.42 million Americans.

who defined society as network of social relationship

Network society - wikipedia Network society is the expression coined in 1991 related to the social, political, economic and cultural changes caused by the spread of networked, digital information and communications technologies. The intellectual origins of the idea can be traced back to the work of early social theorists such as Georg Simmel who analyzed the effect of modernization and industrial capitalism on complex patterns of affiliation, organization, production and experience. The term network society was coined by Jan van Dijk in his Dutch book De Netwerkmaatschappij (1991) (The Network Society) and by Manuel Castells in The Rise of the Network Society (1996), the first part of his trilogy The Information Age. In 1978 James Martin used the related term ' The Wired Society ' indicating a society that is connected by mass - and telecommunication networks. Barry Wellman and the team of Starr Roxanne Hiltz and Murray Turoff also have done work on the concept of network society. Van Dijk defines the network society as a society in which a combination of social and media networks shapes its prime mode of organization and most important structures at all levels (individual, organizational and societal). He compares this type of society to a mass society that is shaped by groups, organizations and communities (' masses ') organized in physical co-presence. Wellman studied the network society as a sociologist at the University of Toronto. His first formal work was in 1973, "The Network City '' with a more comprehensive theoretical statement in 1988. Since his 1979 "The Community Question '', Wellman has argued that societies at any scale are best seen as networks (and "networks of networks '') rather than as bounded groups in hierarchical structures. More recently, Wellman has contributed to the theory of social network analysis with an emphasis on individualized networks, also known as "networked individualism ''. In his studies, Wellman focuses on three main points of the network society: community, work and organizations. He states that with recent technological advances an individual 's community can be socially and spatially diversified. Organizations can also benefit from the expansion of networks in that having ties with members of different organizations can help with specific issues. In 1978, Roxanne Hiltz and Murray Turoff 's The Network Nation explicitly built on Wellman 's community analysis, taking the book 's title from Craven and Wellman 's "The Network City ''. The book argued that computer supported communication could transform society. It was remarkably prescient, as it was written well before the advent of the Internet. Turoff and Hiltz were the progenitors of an early computer supported communication system, called EIES. According to Castells, networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies. When interviewed by Harry Kreisler from the University of California Berkeley, Castells said "... the definition, if you wish, in concrete terms of a network society is a society where the key social structures and activities are organized around electronically processed information networks. So it 's not just about networks or social networks, because social networks have been very old forms of social organization. It 's about social networks which process and manage information and are using micro-electronic based technologies. '' The diffusion of a networking logic substantially modifies the operation and outcomes in processes of production, experience, power, and culture. For Castells, networks have become the basic units of modern society. Van Dijk does not go that far; for him these units still are individuals, groups, organizations and communities, though they may increasingly be linked by networks. The network society goes further than the information society that is often proclaimed. Castells argues that it is not purely the technology that defines modern societies, but also cultural, economic and political factors that make up the network society. Influences such as religion, cultural upbringing, political organizations, and social status all shape the network society. Societies are shaped by these factors in many ways. These influences can either raise or hinder these societies. For van Dijk, information forms the substance of contemporary society, while networks shape the organizational forms and (infra) structures of this society. The space of flows plays a central role in Castells ' vision of the network society. It is a network of communications, defined by hubs where these networks crisscross. Élites in cities are not attached to a particular locality but to the space of flows. Castells puts great importance on the networks and argues that the real power is to be found within the networks rather than confined in global cities. This contrasts with other theorists who rank cities hierarchically. Van Dijk has defined the idea "network society '' as a form of society increasingly organizing its relationships in media networks gradually replacing or complementing the social networks of face - to - face communication. Personal and social - network communication is supported by digital technology. This means that social and media networks are shaping the prime mode of organization and most important structures of modern society. Van Dijk 's The Network Society describes what the network society is and what it might be like in the future. The first conclusion of this book is that modern society is in a process of becoming a network society. This means that on the internet interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication come together. People become linked to one another and have access to information and communication with one another constantly. Using the internet brings the "whole world '' into homes and work places. Also, when media like the internet becomes even more advanced it will gradually appear as "normal media '' in the first decade of the 21st century as it becomes used by larger sections of the population and by vested interests in the economy, politics and culture. It asserts that paper means of communication will become out of date, with newspapers and letters becoming ancient forms for spreading information. New media is the concept that new methods of communicating in the digital world allow smaller groups of people to congregate online and share, sell and swap goods and information. It also allows more people to have a voice in their community and in the world in general. The most important structural characteristic of new media is the integration of telecommunications technologies. The second structural new media characteristic of the current communications revolution is the rise of interactive media. Interactivity is a sequence of action and reaction. The downloaded link or the supply side of web sites, interactive television and computer programs is much wider that the uplink or retrieval made by their users. The third, technical, characteristic of new media is digital code. The new media are defined by all three characteristics simultaneously: "they are media which are both integrated and interactive and also use digital code at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. '' The network society is a social structure based on networks operated by information and communication technologies based on microelectronics and digital computer networks that generate, process and distribute information via the nodes of the networks. The network society can be defined as a social formation with an infrastructure of social and media networks enabling its prime mode of organization at all levels (individual, group, organizational and societal). Increasingly, these networks link all units or parts of this formation. In western societies, the individual linked by networks is becoming the basic unit of the network society. In eastern societies, this might still be the group (family, community, work team) linked by networks.In the contemporary process of individualisation, the basic unit of the network society has become the individual who is linked by networks. This is caused by simultaneous scale extension (nationalisation and internationalisation) and scale reduction (smaller living and working environments) Other kinds of communities arise. Daily living and working environments are getting smaller and more heterogenous, while the range of the division of labour, interpersonal communications and mass media extends. So, the scale of the network society is both extended and reduced as compared to the mass society. The scope of the network society is both global and local, sometimes indicated as "glocal ''. The organization of its components (individuals, groups, organizations) is no longer tied to particular times and places. Aided by information and communication technology, these coordinates of existence can be transcended to create virtual times and places and to simultaneously act, perceive and think in global and local terms. A network can be defined as a collection of links between elements of a unit. The elements are called nodes, units are often called systems. The smallest number of elements is three and the smallest number of links is two. A single link of two elements is called relationship. Networks are mode of organization of complex systems in nature and society. They are relatively complicated ways of organizing matter and living systems. The characteristic of units and elements, among them human individuals, and the way they are made up, are not the focus of attention. So, networks occur both in complicated matter and in living systems at all levels. Networks are selective according to their specific programs, because they can simultaneously communicate and incommunicate, the network society diffuses in the entire world, but does not include all people. In fact, in this early 21st century, it excludes most of humankind, although all of humankind is affected by its logic and by the power relationships that interact in the global networks of social organization. Networks are not new. What is new is the microelectronics - based, networking technologies that provide new capabilities to an old form of social organization: networks. Networks throughout history had a major problem vis - a-vis other forms of social organization. Thus, in the historical record, networks were the domains of the private life. Digital networking technologies enable networks to overcome their historical limits. They can, at the same time, be flexible and adaptive thanks to their capacity to decentralize performance along a network of autonomous components, while still being able to coordinate all this decentralized activity on a shared purpose of decision making. Networks are not determined by the industrial technologies but unthinkable without these technologies. In the early years of the 21st century, the network society is not the emerging social structure of the Information Age: it already configures the nucleus of our societies. There is an explosion of horizontal networks of communication, quite independent from media business and governments, that allows the emergence of what can be called self - directed mass communication. It is mass communication because it is diffused throughout the Internet, so it potentially reaches the whole planet. It is self - directed because it is often initiated by individuals or groups by themselves bypassing the media system. The explosion of blogs, vlogs, podding, streamin and other forms of interactive, computer to computer communication set up a new system of global, horizontal communication Networks that, for the first time in history, allow people to communicate with each other without going through the channels set up by the institutions of society for socialized communication. The network society constitutes socialized communication beyond the mass media system that characterized the industrial society. But it does not represent the world of freedom sung by the libertarian ideology of Internet prophets. It is made up both of an oligopolistic business multimedia system controlling an increasingly inclusive hypertext, and of an explosion of horizontal Networks of autonomous local / global communication - and, naturally, of the interaction between the two systems in a complex pattern of connections and disconnections in different contexts. The network society is also manifested in the transformation of sociability. Yet, what we observe is not the fading away of face - to - face interaction or the increasing isolation of people in front of their computers. We know, from studies in different societies, that are most instances Internet users are more social have more friends and contacts and re more socially politically active than non users. Moreover, the more they use the Internet, the more they also engage in face to - face interaction in all domains of their lives. Similarly, new forms of wireless communication, from mobile phone voice communication to SMSs, WiFi and WiMax, substantially increase sociability, particularly for the younger groups of the population. The network society is a hyper social society, not a society of isolation. People, by and large, do not face their identity in the Internet, except for some teenagers experimenting with their lives. People fold the technology into their lives, link up virtual reality and real virtuality; they live in various technological forms of communication, articulating them as they need it. However, there is a major change in sociability, not a consequence of Internet or new communication technologies but a change that is fully supported by the logic embedded in the communication networks. This is the emergence of networked individualism, as social structure and historical evolution induce the emergence of individualism as the dominant culture of our societies, and the new communication Technologies perfectly fit into the mode of building sociability along self - selected communication networks, on or off depending on the needs and moods of each individual. So, the network society is a society of networked individuals. What results from this evolution is that the culture of the network society is largely shaped by the messages exchanged in the composite electronic hypertext made by the technologically linked networks of different communication modes. In the network society, virtuality is the foundation of reality through the new forms of socialized communication. Society shapes technology according to the needs, values and interests of people who use the technology. Furthermore, information and communication technologies are particularly sensitive to the effects of social uses on technology itself. The history of the internet provides ample evidence that the users, particularly the first thousands of users, were, to a large extent, the producers of the technology. However, technology is a necessary, albeit not sufficient condition for the emergence of a new form of social organization based on networking, that is on the diffusion of networking in all realms of activity on the basis of digital communication networks. The concepts described by Jan van Dijk, Barry Wellman, Hiltz and Turoff, and Manuel Castells are embodied in much digital technology. Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, instant messaging and email are prime examples of the Network Society at work. These web services allow people all over the world to communicate through digital means without face - to - face contact. This demonstrates how the ideas of society changing will affect the persons we communicate over time. Network society does not have any confinements and has found its way to the global scale. Network society is developed in modern society that allows for a great deal of information to be traded to help improve information and communication technologies. Having this luxury of easier communication also has consequences. This allows for globalization to take place. Having more and more people joining the online society and learning about different techniques with the world wide web. This benefits users who have access to the internet, to stay connected at all times with any topic the user wants. Individuals without internet may be affected because they are not directly connected into this society. People always have an option to find public space with computers with internet. This allows a user to keep up with the ever changing system. Network society is constantly changing the "cultural production in a hyper - connected world. '' Social Structures revolve around the relationship of the "production / consumption, power, and experience. ''. These conclusively create a culture, which continues to sustain by getting new information constantly. Our society system was a mass media system where it was a more general place for information. Now the system is more individualized and custom system for users making the internet more personal. This makes messages to the audience more inclusive sent into society. Ultimately allowing more sources to be included to better communication. Our society system was a mass media system and is now a more individualized and custom system for users. This makes messages to the audience more inclusive sent into society. Ultimately allowing more sources to be included to better communication. Network society is seen as a global system that helps with globalization. This is beneficial to the people who have access to the internet to get this media. The negative to this is the people without access do not get this sense of the network society. These networks, that have now been digitized, are more efficient of connecting people. Everything we know now can be put into a computer and processed. Users put messages online for others to read and learn about. This allows people to gain knowledge faster and more efficiently. Networked society allows for people to connect to each other quicker and to engage more actively. This networks go away from having a central theme, but still has a focus in what it is there to accomplish.

the equation for the production of methane is c

Methane - wikipedia Methane (US: / ˈmɛθeɪn / or UK: / ˈmiːθeɪn /) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH (one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen). It is a group - 14 hydride and the simplest alkane, and is the main constituent of natural gas. The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel, though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure. Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor. When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere, it is known as atmospheric methane. The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750, and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long - lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases. In November 1776, methane was first scientifically identified by Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in the marshes of Lake Maggiore straddling Italy and Switzerland. Volta was inspired to search for the substance after reading a paper written by Benjamin Franklin about "flammable air ''. Volta collected the gas rising from the marsh, and by 1778 had isolated the pure gas. He also demonstrated that the gas could be ignited with an electric spark. The name "methane '' was coined in 1866 by the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann. The name was derived from methanol. Etymologically, the word "methane '' is coined from chemical suffix "- ane '' which represents the substance belonging to alkanes family and the word "methyl '' which is derived from German "methyl '' (A.D. 1840) or directly from French "méthyle '' which is a back - formation from French "méthylène '' (of which correspondence in English is "methylene '') the root of which is coined from Greek "methy '' (of which correspondence in English is "mead '') and "hyle '' (meaning "wood ''). The radical is named after this because it was first detected in wood alcohol. The chemical suffix "- ane '' is from the coordinating chemical suffix "- ine '' which is from Latin feminine suffix "- ina '' which is applied to represent abstracts. The coordination of "- ane '', "- ene '', "- one '', etc. is proposed in 1866 by German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann (1818 - 1892). Methane is a tetrahedral molecule with four equivalent C -- H bonds. Its electronic structure is described by four bonding molecular orbitals (MOs) resulting from the overlap of the valence orbitals on C and H. The lowest energy MO is the result of the overlap of the 2s orbital on carbon with the in - phase combination of the 1s orbitals on the four hydrogen atoms. Above this energy level is a triply degenerate set of MOs that involve overlap of the 2p orbitals on carbon with various linear combinations of the 1s orbitals on hydrogen. The resulting "three - over-one '' bonding scheme is consistent with photoelectron spectroscopic measurements. At room temperature and standard pressure, methane is a colorless, odorless gas. The familiar smell of natural gas as used in homes is achieved by the addition of an odorant, usually blends containing tert - butylthiol, as a safety measure. Methane has a boiling point of − 164 ° C (− 257.8 ° F) at a pressure of one atmosphere. As a gas it is flammable over a range of concentrations (5.4 -- 17 %) in air at standard pressure. Solid methane exists in several modifications. Presently nine are known. Cooling methane at normal pressure results in the formation of methane I. This substance crystallizes in the cubic system (space group Fm 3m). The positions of the hydrogen atoms are not fixed in methane I, i.e. methane molecules may rotate freely. Therefore, it is a plastic crystal. The primary chemical reactions of methane are combustion, steam reforming to syngas, and halogenation. In general, methane reactions are difficult to control. Partial oxidation to methanol, for example, is challenging because the reaction typically progresses all the way to carbon dioxide and water even with an insufficient supply of oxygen. The enzyme methane monooxygenase produces methanol from methane, but can not be used for industrial - scale reactions. Some homogeneously catalyzed systems and heterogeneous systems have been developed, but all have significant drawbacks. These generally operate by generating protected products which are shielded from overoxidation. Examples include the Catalytica system, copper zeolites, and iron zeolites stabilizing the Alpha - Oxygen active site. Like other hydrocarbons, methane is a very weak acid. Its pKa in DMSO is estimated to be 56. It can not be deprotonated in solution, but the conjugate base is known in forms such as methyllithium. A variety of positive ions derived from methane have been observed, mostly as unstable species in low - pressure gas mixtures. These include methenium or methyl cation CH, methane cation CH, and methanium or protonated methane CH. Some of these have been detected in outer space. Methanium can also be produced as diluted solutions from methane with superacids. Cations with higher charge, such as CH and CH, have been studied theoretically and conjectured to be stable. Despite the strength of its C -- H bonds, there is intense interest in catalysts that facilitate C -- H bond activation in methane (and other lower numbered alkanes). Methane 's heat of combustion is 55.5 MJ / kg. Combustion of methane is a multiple step reaction summarized as follows: Given appropriate conditions, methane reacts with as follows: where X is a halogen: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), or iodine (I). This mechanism for this process is called free radical halogenation. It is initiated with UV light or some other radical initiator. A chlorine atom is generated from elemental chlorine, which abstracts a hydrogen atom from methane, resulting in the formation of hydrogen chloride. The resulting methyl radical, CH, can combine with another chlorine molecule to give methyl chloride (CH Cl) and a chlorine atom. This chlorine atom can then react with another methane (or methyl chloride) molecule, repeating the chlorination cycle. Similar reactions can produce dichloromethane (CH Cl), chloroform (CHCl), and, ultimately, carbon tetrachloride (CCl), depending upon reaction conditions and the chlorine to methane ratio. Methane is used in industrial chemical processes and may be transported as a refrigerated liquid (liquefied natural gas, or LNG). While leaks from a refrigerated liquid container are initially heavier than air due to the increased density of the cold gas, the gas at ambient temperature is lighter than air. Gas pipelines distribute large amounts of natural gas, of which methane is the principal component. Methane is used as a fuel for ovens, homes, water heaters, kilns, automobiles, turbines, and other things. Activated carbon is used to store methane. Methane is important for electricity generation by burning it as a fuel in a gas turbine or steam generator. Compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, methane produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released. At about 891 kJ / mol, methane 's heat of combustion is lower than any other hydrocarbon but the ratio of the heat of combustion (891 kJ / mol) to the molecular mass (16.0 g / mol, of which 12.0 g / mol is carbon) shows that methane, being the simplest hydrocarbon, produces more heat per mass unit (55.7 kJ / g) than other complex hydrocarbons. In many cities, methane is piped into homes for domestic heating and cooking. In this context it is usually known as natural gas, which is considered to have an energy content of 39 megajoules per cubic meter, or 1,000 BTU per standard cubic foot. Methane in the form of compressed natural gas is used as a vehicle fuel and is claimed to be more environmentally friendly than other fossil fuels such as gasoline / petrol and diesel. Research into adsorption methods of methane storage for use as an automotive fuel has been conducted. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH) that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. Liquefied natural gas occupies about 1 / 600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing, and asphyxia. The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure (maximum transport pressure set at around 25 kPa or 3.6 psi) by cooling it to approximately − 162 ° C (111 K). LNG achieves a higher reduction in volume than compressed natural gas (CNG) so that the energy density of LNG is 2.4 times greater than that of CNG or 60 % that of diesel fuel. This makes LNG cost efficient to transport over long distances where pipelines do not exist. Specially designed cryogenic sea vessels (LNG carriers) or cryogenic road tankers are used for its transport. Even if pressurized, methane must be cooled below its critical temperature of − 82.3 ° C (190.8 K) in order to be liquefied. LNG, when it is not highly refined for special uses, is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets, where it is regasified and distributed as pipeline natural gas. It can be used in LNG - fueled road vehicles. However, it remains more common to design vehicles to use compressed natural gas. As of 2002, the relatively higher cost of LNG production and the need to store LNG in more expensive cryogenic tanks had slowed widespread commercial use. Natural gas located far from its user base is often released into the atmosphere or flared. Some is subjected to gas to liquids technologies (GTL) to produce liquid fuels, which are more readily transported than methane. Refined liquid methane is used as a rocket fuel. Methane is reported to offer the advantage over kerosene of depositing less carbon on the internal parts of rocket motors, reducing the difficulty of re-use of boosters. Methane is abundant in many parts of the Solar system and potentially could be harvested on the surface of another solar - system body (in particular, using methane production from local materials found on Mars or Titan), providing fuel for a return journey. Methane is converted to synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, by steam reforming. This endergonic process (requiring energy) utilizes catalysts and requires high temperatures, around 700 -- 1100 ° C: Methane is also subjected to free - radical chlorination in the production of chloromethanes, although methanol is a more typical precursor. There are two main routes for geological methane generation, organic (thermogenic), and inorganic (abiotic, meaning non-living). Thermally generated methane, referred to as thermogenic, originates from deeper sedimentary strata. Thermogenic methane (CH) formation occurs due to the breakup of organic matter, forced by elevated temperatures and pressures. This type of methane is considered to be the primary methane type in sedimentary basins, and from an economical perspective the most important source of natural gas. Thermogenic methane components are generally considered to be relic (from an earlier time). Generally, formation of thermogenic methane (at depth) can occur through organic matter breakup, or organic synthesis. Both ways can involve microorganisms (methanogenesis) but may also occur inorganically. The involved anaerobic and aerobic processes can also consume methane, with and without microorganisms. The more important source of methane at depth (crystalline bedrock) is abiotic. Abiotic means that the methane formation took place involving inorganic compounds, without biological activity, magmatic or created at low temperatures and pressures through water - rock reactions. Naturally occurring methane is mainly produced by microbial methanogenesis. This multistep process is used by microorganisms as an energy source. The net reaction is The final step in the process is catalyzed by the enzyme Coenzyme - B sulfoethylthiotransferase. Methanogenesis is a form of anaerobic respiration used by organisms that occupy landfill, ruminants (for example cows or cattle), and the guts of termites. It is uncertain whether plants are a source of methane emissions. There are many technological methane production methods. Methane created from biomass in industrial plants via biological route is called biogas. A more synthetic method to produce methane is hydrogenating carbon dioxide through the Sabatier process. Methane is also a side product of the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide in the Fischer -- Tropsch process, which is practiced on a large scale to produce longer - chain molecules than methane. Example of large - scale coal - to - methane gasification is the Great Plains Synfuels plant, started in 1984 in Beulah, North Dakota as a way to develop abundant local resources of low - grade lignite, a resource that is otherwise very hard to transport for its weight, ash content, low calorific value and propensity to spontaneous combustion during storage and transport. Power to methane is a technology that uses electrical power to produce hydrogen from water by electrolysis and uses the Sabatier reaction to combine hydrogen with carbon dioxide to produce methane. As of 2016, this is mostly under development and not in large - scale use. Theoretically, the process could be used as a buffer for excess and off - peak power generated by highly fluctuating wind generators and solar arrays. The conversion efficiency of power to methane is 49 -- 65 %, and full power -- methane -- power cycle is 30 -- 38 %. Although methane can in principle be produced by a variety of forcing methods, it is conveniently generated by protonation of methyl lithium and methylmagnesium iodide. Methane was discovered and isolated by Alessandro Volta between 1776 and 1778 when studying marsh gas from Lake Maggiore. It is the major component of natural gas, about 87 % by volume. The major source of methane is extraction from geological deposits known as natural gas fields, with coal seam gas extraction becoming a major source (see Coal bed methane extraction, a method for extracting methane from a coal deposit, while enhanced coal bed methane recovery is a method of recovering methane from non-mineable coal seams). It is associated with other hydrocarbon fuels, and sometimes accompanied by helium and nitrogen. Methane is produced at shallow levels (low pressure) by anaerobic decay of organic matter and reworked methane from deep under the Earth 's surface. In general, the sediments that generate natural gas are buried deeper and at higher temperatures than those that contain oil. Methane is generally transported in bulk by pipeline in its natural gas form, or LNG carriers in its liquefied form; few countries transport it by truck. Apart from gas fields, an alternative method of obtaining methane is via biogas generated by the fermentation of organic matter including manure, wastewater sludge, municipal solid waste (including landfills), or any other biodegradable feedstock, under anaerobic conditions. Rice fields also generate large amounts of methane during plant growth. Methane hydrates / clathrates (ice - like combinations of methane and water on the sea floor, found in vast quantities) are a potential future source of methane. Cattle belch methane accounts for 16 % of the world 's annual methane emissions to the atmosphere. One study reported that the livestock sector in general (primarily cattle, chickens, and pigs) produces 37 % of all human - induced methane. Early research has found a number of medical treatments and dietary adjustments that help slightly limit the production of methane in ruminants. A 2009 study found that at a conservative estimate, at least 51 % of global greenhouse gas emissions were attributable to the life cycle and supply chain of livestock products, meaning all meat, dairy, and by - products, and their transportation. More recently, a 2013 study estimated that livestock accounted for 44 percent of human - induced methane and 14.5 percent of human - induced greenhouse gas emissions. Many efforts are underway to reduce livestock methane production and trap the gas to use as energy. The state of California has been particularly active in this area. Paleoclimatology research published in Current Biology suggests that flatulence from dinosaurs may have warmed the Earth. In 2010, methane levels in the Arctic were measured at 1850 nmol / mol. This level is over twice as high as at any time in the last 400,000 years. Historic methane concentrations in the world 's atmosphere have ranged between 300 and 400 nmol / mol during glacial periods commonly known as ice ages, and between 600 and 700 nmol / mol during the warm interglacial periods. The Earth 's oceans are a potential important source of Arctic methane. Methane is an important greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 34 compared to CO over a 100 - year period, and 72 over a 20 - year period. The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750, and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long - lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases (these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect). Methane is essentially insoluble in water, but significant deposits of methane clathrate have been found under sediments on the ocean floors of Earth at large depths. Estimates consider up to 15,000 gigatonnes of carbon may be stored in the form of clathrates (hydrates) in the ocean floor, not accounting for abiotic methane, a relatively newly discovered source of methane, formed below the ocean floor, in the earth crust. It has been suggested, that today 's methane emission regime from the ocean floor, is potentially similar to that during the PETM. Arctic methane release from permafrost and methane clathrates is an expected consequence and further cause of global warming. There is a group of bacteria that drive methane oxidation with nitrite as the oxidant, the anaerobic oxidation of methane. Methane is nontoxic, yet it is extremely flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below about 16 % by displacement, as most people can tolerate a reduction from 21 % to 16 % without ill effects. The concentration of methane at which asphyxiation risk becomes significant is much higher than the 5 -- 15 % concentration in a flammable or explosive mixture. Methane off - gas can penetrate the interiors of buildings near landfills and expose occupants to significant levels of methane. Some buildings have specially engineered recovery systems below their basements to actively capture this gas and vent it away from the building. Methane gas explosions are responsible for many deadly mining disasters. A methane gas explosion was the cause of the Upper Big Branch coal mine disaster in West Virginia on April 5, 2010, killing 29. Methane has been detected or is believed to exist on all planets of the solar system and most of the larger moons. With the possible exception of Mars, it is believed to have come from abiotic processes. On June 7th of 2018, NASA disclosed in a press conference that its Curiosity rover had documented seasonal fluctuations of atmospheric methane levels on Mars. These fluctuations peaked at the end of the Martian summer at 0.6 parts per billion. Methane has been proposed as a possible rocket propellant on future Mars missions due in part to the possibility of synthesizing it on the planet by in situ resource utilization. An adaptation of the Sabatier methanation reaction may be used with a mixed catalyst bed and a reverse water - gas shift in a single reactor to produce methane from the raw materials available on Mars, utilizing water from the Martian subsoil and carbon dioxide in the Martian atmosphere. Methane could be produced by a non-biological process called ' ' serpentinization involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars.

how many times is the f word used in deadpool

List of films that most frequently use the word "fuck '' - wikipedia The use of profanity in films has always been controversial, but has increased significantly in recent years. The use of the word fuck in film draws particular criticism; in 2005, the documentary Fuck dealt entirely with this phenomenon. The word fuck is thought to be the taboo term used most in American film. The 1927 Motion Picture Production Code, better known as the "Hays Code '', banned the use of profanity outright. The modern MPAA rating system assigns a PG - 13 rating if a film contains the word. The R rating is normally required if the film contains two utterances or if the word is used in a sexual context. There are exceptions to the rule that one sexual use or two non-sexual uses of "fuck '' results in an R rating. In some cases, filmmakers appealed the rating because their target audience might avoid an R - rated film. Censors have been more lenient about the word in films that portray historical events. This is a list of non-pornographic, English language films containing at least 150 spoken uses of the word fuck (or one of its derivatives), ordered by the number of such uses. The data in this list are derived from various sources:

where is the tv show get up filmed

Get up! (ESPN program) - wikipedia Get Up! is an American sports talk morning television show on ESPN hosted by Mike Greenberg. Greenberg is joined by Michelle Beadle and Jalen Rose. It premiered on April 2, 2018. The program features news, opinion and analysis from the hosts and guests. The show airs live weekdays from 7am - 10am ET with reruns from 10am - 1pm ET on ESPN2, and also airs on Sirius XM. Prior to Get Up!, Greenberg co-hosted the Mike & Mike radio show with Mike Golic but left in November 2017 after an 18 - year run together. Golic now hosts a successor show called Golic and Wingo, with Trey Wingo serving as his co-host. The show originates from a newly built studio in Pier 17 at New York 's South Street Seaport. The premiere was originally set for New Year 's Day 2018, but construction delays at the new studio pushed it back. The ratings for the show 's live debut netted 283,000 viewers and dropped to 233,000 the next day.

who played faith on buffy the vampire slayer

Eliza Dushku - wikipedia Eliza Patricia Dushku (/ ˈdʊʃkuː /; born December 30, 1980) is an Albanian - Danish - American actress and model known for her television roles, including starring as Faith on Buffy the Vampire Slayer and its spinoff series Angel. She starred in two Fox series, Tru Calling and Dollhouse. She is also known for her roles in films, including True Lies, The New Guy, Bring It On, Wrong Turn and Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, as well as her voice work on video games. Dushku was born in Watertown, Massachusetts, the daughter of Philip Richard George Dushku, an administrator and teacher in the Boston Public Schools, and Judith Ann "Judy '' Dushku (née Rasmussen), a political science professor. Dushku 's father is an Albanian from the city of Korçë and her mother is of Danish and English descent. Dushku has three brothers, and was raised Mormon. She attended Beaver Country Day School in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, and graduated from Watertown High School. Dushku came to the attention of casting agents when she was 10. She was chosen in a five - month search for the lead role of Alice in the film That Night. In 1993, Dushku landed a role as Pearl alongside Robert De Niro and Leonardo DiCaprio in This Boy 's Life, a role that she said opened a lot of doors. The following year, she played the teenage daughter of Arnold Schwarzenegger and Jamie Lee Curtis in True Lies. She had parts as Paul Reiser 's daughter in Bye Bye Love, as Cindy Johnson in Race the Sun, and roles in the television movie Journey and the short film Fishing with George. Dushku intended to attend Suffolk University in Boston, where her mother taught at the time, but her agent asked her to submit a videotape audition for a show starring another of his clients, Sarah Michelle Gellar. After reading the script, Dushku rushed to a local Claire 's to purchase dark makeup and other appropriate accessories for the part, Faith on Buffy the Vampire Slayer. When she began her work on that series, Dushku was still a minor, and had to receive emancipation to work the production 's long hours. She later recalled with amusement that the judge who handled her emancipation case, who was an avid fan of that show, jokingly said that she would sign the emancipation order if she could get a signed photo from Dushku. After completing high school, Dushku returned to acting with the role of Faith Lehane on Buffy the Vampire Slayer, a Slayer much more troubled than the main character Buffy Summers. Though initially planned as a five - episode role, the character became so popular that she stayed on for the whole third season and returned for a two - part appearance in season four, after which the remainder of her original story arc was played out as part of the first season of the Buffy spin - off series Angel. Repentant and rededicated, Faith returned as a heroine in other episodes of Angel and in the last five episodes of Buffy. Dushku was inundated with piles of fan mail from legions of prisoners. She said: I 've been getting fan mail from maximum security penitentiaries and death row. What are the authorities thinking of in playing a show with young teenage girls to Death Row inmates? They write everything -- disgusting things that you do n't even want to know about. And they send me pictures -- "Oh, here 's a picture of me before I was incarcerated! '' -- and there 's some guy sat on the sofa with a bottle of beer and a moustache, and a big gut. It 's so creepy. Way more creepy than Buffy. In 2000, Dushku starred in the hit cheerleader comedy Bring It On. She followed that up with Soul Survivors, reuniting her with Race the Sun co-star Casey Affleck. In 2001, she appeared in The New Guy with DJ Qualls and City by the Sea with Robert De Niro and James Franco. The latter film garnered attention from a wider adult audience and several good reviews. The same year, Kevin Smith invited Dushku to be a part of Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back. In 2003, Dushku starred in the horror film Wrong Turn and The Kiss, an independent comedy - drama. Starting that same year, she starred in a new Fox supernatural drama, Tru Calling, where she played the main character, medical student Tru Davies. After having a grant pulled out from under her, Tru is forced to take a job at a local morgue where she discovers her power to "re-live '' the previous day over again if one of the deceased asks for her help to change what has happened. Dushku turned down a role in a spin - off of Buffy The Vampire Slayer which would have been about Faith. She has had many roles as a "bad girl '' in movies and relishes the opportunities. In an interview with Maxim in May 2001, Dushku says of her roles, "It 's easy to play a bad girl: You just do everything you 've been told not to do, and you do n't have to deal with the consequences, because it 's only acting. '' Dushku starred in an Off - Broadway production entitled Dog Sees God from December 2005, playing "Van 's sister '', a character paralleled with Lucy Van Pelt from the Peanuts comic strip on which the play production is based. She quit in February 2006 along with other members of the cast amidst rumors of abuse from the producer, which were latery - drama for Fox. This was the second Fox pilot in which she was cast, but not broadcast. She appeared in the Simple Plan music video, "I 'm Just a Kid '', as the band 's love interest, as well as Nickelback 's video for "Rockstar ''. On October 1, 2005, she announced at Wizard World Boston that shooting had begun for Nobel Son in which she would star with Alan Rickman, Danny DeVito and Bill Pullman. The movie was released at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival. Another project is On Broadway, an independent movie filmed in her native Boston. The movie received positive reviews, with a few of them highlighting Dushku 's performance. Dushku has had roles in five video games. She voiced the role of Yumi Sawamura in the English language version of Yakuza for the PlayStation 2, which was published and developed by Sega, and released in September 2006. Dushku also stars as Shaundi, one of the lead characters in Saints Row 2, which was developed by Volition, Inc. and published by THQ. It was released in North America on October 14, 2008, for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. She was the voice talent for the role of Rubi Malone, the main character in the game WET. She appeared at Spike TV 's 2008 Video Game Awards in December 2008. Danielle Nicolet took over the role of Shaundi in Saints Row: The Third. Variety announced on August 2, 2006, that Dushku would co-star with Macaulay Culkin in Sex and Breakfast, a dark comedy written and directed by Miles Brandman. A reviewer described Dushku as "charming '' and giving the character "an edge ''. The movie was released in Los Angeles on November 30, 2007, and on DVD on January 22, 2008. She starred in Open Graves, a 2008 horror - thriller about a satanic game co-starring Mike Vogel. She played the main character in The Thacker Case and The Alphabet Killer, both thrillers based on real - life events, one of them directed by Rob Schmidt, with whom she had worked on Wrong Turn. Both movies were released in 2008. The Alphabet Killer contains Dushku 's first topless scene. The film earned mixed reviews, but reviewers praised Dushku 's performance, commenting "Eliza Dushku commands the screen but can not reconcile the script 's conflicted and increasingly idiotic agendas. '' She appeared in Bottle Shock, a drama about Napa valley wine. The film was directed by Randall Miller, who helmed Nobel Son. On August 26, 2007, Dushku signed a development deal with Fox Broadcasting Company and 20th Century Fox. Under the pact, the network and the studio would develop projects tailor - made for the actress as well as approach her with existing pitches and scripts. Subsequently, it was announced on October 31 that Dushku had lured Joss Whedon, of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, back to TV, as they agreed to create a show called Dollhouse. Dushku produced the show and played the main character, ' Echo ', which aired on Fox during the 2008 -- 09 TV Season. In an interview, Dushku talked about how Dollhouse and her reconnection with Whedon came about: I invited Joss Whedon to lunch after I did the business deal with Fox. We 'd had a cool relationship in the past and I so wanted to do something else, and I wanted to get back into a television show. I had him on the brain for sure but I had n't called him yet, but I sort of took a leap of faith and set things up with Fox and then called Joss. We went to a four - hour lunch where I just sort of used my womanly wiles. No, we 've become such good friends, kind of like brother and sister and kind of like he was my watcher, my handler from when I first moved out to L.A. when I was 17 and I was a little bit of a wild child. He 's watched me and helped me and taught me over the years. I told him how bad I wanted and needed him back and he accepted and here we are. Dushku described Whedon as "my favorite genius... favorite friend... big brother... and the only person out here I 've ever wholeheartedly trusted, because he 's never let me down. '' Dollhouse was renewed for a second season. The producers cited their confidence in the strength of Joss Whedon 's fan base and high DVR numbers as their reasons for keeping the show. Fox cancelled Dollhouse on November 11, 2009. The show officially wrapped filming on the second and final season on December 16, 2009. Dushku was the voice actor for contract killer "Rubi Malone '' in the action video game Wet. She also secured exclusive rights to make The Perfect Moment, a film based on the life of photographer Robert Mapplethorpe and enlisted the help of Ondi Timoner. In 2010, Dushku provided her voice for Noah 's Ark: The New Beginning and appeared in the film Locked In. She also guest - starred in an episode of CBS ' comedy The Big Bang Theory which aired on November 4, 2010. In 2011, Dushku featured alongside Jayson Floyd in "One Shot '', a short action clip on YouTube directed by and starring Freddie Wong, which was released on May 13, 2011. In August of the same year, Dushku visited Albania with a crew from the Travel Channel and Lonely Planet to film a documentary entitled Dear Albania, promoting tourism in her father 's country of origin. Dushku had a lead role in an online animated "motion comic '' series, titled Torchwood: Web of Lies, based on the BBC series Torchwood: Miracle Day. In June 2012, Dushku starred with Katie Cassidy, Gina Gershon and Michelle Trachtenberg in The Scribbler directed by John Suits and produced by Gabriel Cowan. In 2013, she was cast as Patricia Holm in a pilot film for a proposed TV revival series of The Saint, but the series was not commissioned. In July 2017 the pilot was released on digital HD / VOD. From 2013 to 2015, Dushku voiced the role of She - Hulk in the Disney XD animated series Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.. In 2016, she had a recurring role in the fourth and final season of the Cinemax TV series Banshee. In 2017, she had a recurring guest role in the last three episodes of the first season of the CBS drama series Bull with the option of becoming a series regular in season two. Additionally, her production company in association with IM Global Television was reported to be developing Glen Cook 's The Black Company series of books for a television series with Dushku starring as The Lady. Dushku was raised in the Mormon faith. Dushku visited her father 's family in Albania in 2006 after receiving an invitation from Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha. She visited Kosovo and received an Albanian Eagle tattoo on the back of her neck. While on her second visit to Albania in 2011, she applied for Albanian citizenship and obtained the Albanian passport and ID Card. She became an honorary citizen of Tirana, and was given the honorary title of Tirana Ambassador of Culture and Tourism in the World by Tirana mayor Lulzim Basha. Additionally, she was given honorary citizen status in her father 's home town of Korçë, Albania. She is the founder and CEO of Boston Diva Productions and serves on the board of directors of the THRIVEGulu organization (The Trauma Healing and Reflection Center in Gulu), an organization dedicated to helping the survivors of war (including former child soldiers) in Northern Uganda. As a role model to campus leaders for her activism, Dushku was invited by the Millennium Campus Network (MCN) as a national keynote speaker and honored as a Global Generation Award winner alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry at MCN events in 2011. Dushku has stated that she has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). She began dating former Los Angeles Lakers basketball player Rick Fox in October 2009, and in August 2010 the couple confirmed that they were living together. It was announced on June 24, 2014 that the pair had split. Dushku announced in December 2011, that she had decided to switch to a vegan diet after watching the documentary Forks over Knives. In December 2014 she said on her Twitter page she was no longer a vegetarian. Dushku, who had originally intended to attend college in Boston before her big break on Buffy altered those plans, announced in March 2014 at the Emerald City Comicon that she would be attending college later that year. Dushku previously resided in Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles, California. On June 22, 2014, The Boston Globe reported that Dushku had left Los Angeles, moved back to Boston, and was planning to attend college. She is currently a student at Suffolk University, studying sociology. Dushku is politically active and campaigned for Bernie Sanders in the U.S. presidential election of 2016. In June of 2017, she became engaged to Peter Palandjian. Her performance in Tru Calling garnered her two nominations in 2004: for a Teen Choice Award as Choice Breakout Star -- Female, and for a Saturn Award as Best Actress in a Television Series. Maxim magazine ranked Dushku 6th on the "Hot 100 Women of 2009 '' list. Dushku was nominated in 2009 for a Scream Award for Best Science Fiction Actress for her role of Echo, and she was named Ambassador for the 2012 Consumer Electronics Show Entertainment Matters program in October 2011.

how does a company make the fortune 500 list

Fortune 500 - wikipedia The Fortune 500 is an annual list compiled and published by Fortune magazine that ranks 500 of the largest United States corporations by total revenue for their respective fiscal years. The list includes publicly held companies, along with privately held companies for which revenues are publicly available. The concept of the Fortune 500 was created by Edgar P. Smith, a Fortune editor, and the first list was published in 1955. The Fortune 500 is more commonly used than its subset Fortune 100 or wider list Fortune 1000. The original Fortune 500 was limited to companies whose revenues were derived from manufacturing, mining, and energy exploration. At the same time, Fortune published companion "Fortune 50 '' lists of the 50 largest commercial banks (ranked by assets), utilities (ranked by assets), life insurance companies (ranked by assets), retailers (ranked by gross revenues) and transportation companies (ranked by revenues). Fortune magazine changed its methodology in 1994 to include service companies. With the change came 291 new entrants to the famous list including three in the Top 10. The Fortune 500 was first published in 1955; created by Edgar P. Smith. The original top ten companies were General Motors, Jersey Standard, U.S. Steel, General Electric, Esmark, Chrysler, Armour, Gulf Oil, Mobil and DuPont.

where did the saying dressed up to the nines come from

To the nines - wikipedia "To the nines '' is an English idiom meaning "to perfection '' or "to the highest degree '' or to dress "buoyantly and high class ''. In modern English usage, the phrase most commonly appears as "dressed to the nines '' or "dressed up to the nines ''. The phrase is said to be Scots in origin. The earliest written example of the phrase is from the 1719 Epistle to Ramsay by the Scottish poet William Hamilton: The bonny Lines therein thou sent me, How to the nines they did content me. Robert Burns ' "Poem on Pastoral Poetry '', published posthumously in 1800, also uses the phrase: Thou paints auld nature to the nines, In thy sweet Caledonian lines.

is windows movie maker used for development or playback

Windows Movie Maker - wikipedia Windows Movie Maker (formerly known as Windows Live Movie Maker in Windows 7) is a discontinued video editing software by Microsoft. It is a part of Windows Essentials software suite and offers the ability to create and edit videos as well as to publish them on OneDrive, Facebook, Vimeo, YouTube, and Flickr. Movie Maker was officially discontinued in January 10, 2017 and it was replaced by Windows Story Remix in late 2017. The first release of Windows Movie Maker was included with Windows ME in 2000. Version 1.1 was included in Windows XP a year later, and included support for creating DV AVI and WMV 8 files. Version 2.0 was released as a free update in November 2002, and added a number of new features. Version 2.1, a minor update, is included in Windows XP Service Pack 2. The Movie Maker in Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005 had more transitions and support for DVD burning. The next version of Movie Maker was released as part of Windows Vista and -- like most Windows components -- reported version number 6.0. 6000, same as Windows Vista itself. It included new effects and transitions, support for playback on the Xbox 360, and support for the DVR - MS file format that Windows Media Centre records television in. The HD version in Premium and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista also added support for capturing from HDV camcorders. The capture wizard also created DVR - MS type files from HDV tapes. However, the Windows Vista version of Windows Movie Maker removed support for importing video from an analog video source such as an analog camcorder, VCR or from a webcam. As some older systems might not be able to run the new version of Windows Movie Maker, Microsoft also released an updated older version 2.6 for Windows Vista on Microsoft Download Centre. This version included the old effects and transitions, and is basically the same as Windows Movie Maker 2.1, but without the ability to capture video. Installation requires Windows Vista and is only intended for use on computers where the hardware accelerated version can not be run. A Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) version of Windows Movie Maker was also included in some development builds of Vista (at the time codenamed "Longhorn ''), but was removed in the development reset in August 2004. After the development reset, the interface for the WPF - based Windows Movie Maker was retained in Windows Vista. A new version of the software, renamed Windows Live Movie Maker 2009, was released as a beta on September 17, 2008, and officially released as a standalone product through Windows Live Essentials suite on August 19, 2009. This was effectively a completely new software, as it could not read projects created by earlier versions and did not support custom XML transitions written for the previous versions. In addition, a great many features were removed. Also, Movie Maker 's interface was redesigned in the Windows Live version to use a ribbon toolbar similar to Office 2007; it also added features such as "Auto Movie '' and the ability to export videos directly to DVDs and YouTube. Certain advanced features were also removed from the software, such as image stabilisation and the ability to record voice - overs. Movie Maker 2009 supported both Windows Vista and Windows 7. As the previous version of Windows Movie Maker was no longer included with the operating system, the only way to obtain Movie Maker on Windows 7 and later was through the Windows Live Essentials suite, although some manufacturers pre-installed the application on new PCs. An updated version, Windows Live Movie Maker 2011, was released on August 17, 2010, adding features such as webcam capture, support for high - definition video, the ability to upload videos directly to SkyDrive and Facebook, and the ability to add media files stored on network shares to projects. With the discontinuation of the Windows Live brand (and the re-branding of the Windows Live suite as Windows Essentials), Windows Movie Maker 2012 was released in April 2012. Support for recording voice - overs was restored, along with an audio mixer and integration with several free stock music services. H. 264 / MP4 became the default export format (replacing Windows Media Video, but still can be used), support for uploading to Vimeo was introduced, and hardware accelerated video stabilisation was also added as an exclusive feature for Windows 8 users. Movie Maker was officially removed for download on January 10, 2017. Like other Windows Essentials apps, Movie Maker is now replaced by Story Remix, which will arrive in Windows 10 Fall Creators Update. The layout consists of a storyboard view and a timeline view, collections for organizing imported video, and a preview pane. When in Storyboard view, the video project appears as a film strip showing each scene in clips. The storyboard / timeline consists of one ' Video ' (with accompanying ' Audio ' bar), one ' Music / Audio ' bar, and one ' Titles / Credits ' bar. In each bar, clips can be added for editing (e.g., a. WAV music file will belong on the ' Music / Audio ' bar). Still images can also be imported into the timeline and "stretched '' to any desired number of frames. The Video and Music / Audio bars can be "cut '' to any number of short segments, which will play together seamlessly, but the individual segments are isolated editing-wise, so that for example, the music volume can be lowered for just a few seconds while someone is speaking. When importing footage into the program, a user can either choose to Capture Video (from camera, scanner or other device) or Import into Collections to import existing video files into the user 's collections. The accepted formats for import are. WMV /. ASF,. MPG (MPEG - 1),. AVI (DV - AVI),. WMA,. WAV, and. MP3. Additionally, the Windows Vista Home Premium and Ultimate editions of Movie Maker support importing MPEG - 2 Program streams and DVR - MS formats. Importing of other container formats such as MP4 / 3GP, FLV and MOV, and AAC are also supported if the necessary codecs are installed and the system is running Windows 7 or later. In the Windows XP version, import and real - time capture of video from an analog source such as a VCR, tape - based analog camcorder or webcam is possible. This feature is based on Windows Image Acquisition. Video support in Windows Image Acquisition was removed in Windows Vista, as a result importing analog footage in Windows Movie Maker is no longer possible. When importing from a DV tape, if the "Make Clips on Completion '' option is selected, Windows Movie Maker automatically flags the commencement of each scene, so that the tape appears on the editing screen as a collection of short clips, rather than one long recording. That is, at each point where the "Record '' button was pressed, a new "clip '' is generated, although the actual recording on the hard drive is still one continuous file. This feature is also offered after importing files already on the hard drive. In the Windows Vista version, the "Make clips on completion '' option has been removed -- the clips are now automatically created during the capture process. The efficiency of the importing and editing process is heavily dependent on the amount of file fragmentation of the hard disk. The most reliable results can be obtained by adding an extra hard disk dedicated for scratch space, and regularly re-formatting / defragmenting it, rather than simply deleting the files at the end of the project. Fragmented AVI files result in jerky playback on the editing screen, and make the final rendering process much longer. Although it is possible to import digital video from cameras through the USB interface, most older cameras only support USB version 1 and the results tend to be poor -- "sub VHS '' -- quality. Newer cameras using USB 2.0 give much better results. A FireWire interface camera will allow recording and playback of images identical in quality to the original recordings if the video is imported and subsequently saved as DV AVI files, although this consumes disk space at about 1 gigabyte every five minutes (12 GB / Hr). Alternatively, most DV cameras allow the final AVI file to be recorded back onto the camera tape for high quality playback. Some standalone DVD recorders will also directly accept DV inputs from video cameras and computers. After capture, any clip can be dragged and dropped anywhere on the timeline. Once on the timeline, clips can be duplicated, split, repositioned or edited. An AutoMovie feature offers predefined editing styles (titles, effects and transitions) for quickly creating movies. The original camera file on the hard drive is not modified; the project file is just a list of instructions for reproducing a final output video file from the original file. Thus, several different versions of the same video can be simultaneously made from the original camera footage. Earlier versions of Windows Movie Maker could only export video in Windows Media Video or DV AVI formats. It includes some predefined profiles, but users can also create custom profiles. Windows XP Media Centre Edition bundled Sonic DVD Burning engine, licensed from Sonic Solutions, allowing video editors to burn their project in DVD - Video format on a DVD. In Windows Vista, Windows Movie Maker passes the video project to Windows DVD Maker. Windows Movie Maker 2012 introduced the default ability to export in H. 264 MP4 format. Video can be exported back to the video camera if supported by the camera. Movie Maker also allows users to publish a finished video on video hosting websites. Windows Movie Maker can also be used to edit and publish audio tracks. If no video or image is present, Movie Maker allows exporting the sound clips in Windows Media Audio format. Windows Movie Maker supports a large variety of titles, effects and transitions. Versions 2. x included in Windows XP includes 60 transitions, 37 effects, 34 title and 9 credits animations. The Windows Vista version includes a different set of transitions, effects and title / credits animations while dropping a few older ones. There are in all 49 effects and 63 transitions. They are applied by using a drag and drop interface from the effects or transitions folders. Early versions (V2 onwards) of Windows Movie Maker had a flexible interface so programming custom effects and other content were possible via XML. The Windows Vista version supports Direct3D - based effects. Microsoft also provides SDK documentation for custom effects and transitions. Since the effects are XML based, users could create and add custom effects and transitions of their own with XML knowledge. Many custom transitions were commercially available and created additional features such as picture - in - picture. Windows Movie Maker V6 did not support customisations to effects and transitions in the same way as V2. x and so many customisations had to be re-written. Versions after V6 do not support custom transitions and effects at all. Movie Maker 1.0, introduced with Windows Me, was widely criticised for being "bare bones '' and suffering "a woeful lack of features ''; and saving movies only in Microsoft 's ASF file format. Critical reception of versions 2.0 and 2.6 has been slightly more positive. Many long standing users were disappointed by the removal of so many features in the effective re-writing of the software in Live Movie Maker 2009. Some of those features (such as visualisation of the audio levels) have subsequently been re-added. In June 2008, a memo purportedly by Bill Gates from January 2003 was circulated on the Internet in which he heavily criticized the downloading process for Movie Maker at the time. The memo was originally made available online as part of the plaintiffs ' evidence in Comes v. Microsoft Corp., an antitrust class - action suit, and was submitted as evidence in that case on January 16, 2007.

what is mitchell's job in modern family

List of Modern family characters - wikipedia Modern Family, an American TV comedy series, revolves around three families that are interrelated through Jay Pritchett, his son Mitchell Pritchett, and his daughter Claire Dunphy. The families meet for family functions, around the neighborhood, and cross-family bonding. Philip Humphrey "Phil '' Dunphy (Ty Burrell) is Claire 's husband of 20 years who sees himself as the "cool dad. '' He dotes on his wife Claire and constantly tries to find ways to bond with his three kids. He is seen as very competitive, one example being his nature of always beating his son at basketball. He has a very juvenile attitude, and is referred to by Claire as the "kid (she 's) married to. '' He uses a parenting method that he calls "peerenting '', which is a combination of talking like a peer but acting like a parent. Phil is a real estate agent who is very confident in his work, once saying "I could sell a fur coat to an Eskimo. '' Phil has a severe case of coulrophobia, which is first revealed when despite Mitchell 's objection, Cameron comes to Luke 's party dressed as a clown. This may stem from Phil 's having found a dead clown in the woods when he was a child. Phil appears to love home repair yet never seems to get around to any of the jobs requested by Claire. Throughout season 1, his ongoing project is fixing the step. He at times shows a sort of crush - like affection for Gloria. He says, however, he "would never stray from Claire, '' although Gloria did kiss him during a "kisscam '' segment at a basketball game in the final episode of season 1, "Family Portrait ''. He is also staring at her when she does something that makes Phil think she is sexy. In college, he was a cheerleader at Fresno State and his birthday is on April 3. Phil seems oblivious as to what he says by miscalculating (if at all) the consequences of his expressions, such as "Phil Dunphy is no straight guy '' (when he is referring to not being a straight man) or "If you ai n't white, you ai n't right '' (referring to the color of a team that he was playing on). He is often looking for approval from Jay because Jay generally does not openly show approval of anyone, often causing Phil to fear for his approval in Jay 's eyes. Phil is always reminding Jay of when he fixed his wireless printer, trying to show Jay that he can be manly. In the season 3 episode "Dude Ranch '', Phil shows considerable skill both on horseback and with a shotgun. In moments of acute adversity or shock in which most people would curse or swear, Phil utters humorous exclamations: references to food such as, "Sweet Potato Fries! '' or "Chicken in a basket! '', etc. or he might make a historical reference such as "John Philip Sousa! ''. It is revealed in "Tableau Vivant '' that Phil had once tried to break up with Claire but did n't have the courage to do so. A running gag in the show has Phil is running up the stairs (often when carrying an object) and tripping on a loose step, which causes him to quickly and hastily say: "Gotta fix that step! '' Ty Burrell had received many positive reviews for his performance. Hank Stuever from the Washington Post wrote, "A standout performance from Ty Burrell 's new twist on the doofus - dad stereotype. '' Paige Wiser, a reporter for the Chicago Sun Times, wrote, "Ty Burrell is a genius as a dad who stays hip by keeping up with the numbers from High School Musical. '' Robert Canning of IGN in a review of the season loved Ty Burrell 's performance of Phil Dunphy and named him one of two characters that stood out to him saying "actor Ty Burrell owned this part, and his well - intended faux pas throughout the season were stellar. '' In 2010, Ty Burrell received a nomination for the Television Critics Association Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy, winning in 2011. In 2011 and 2014, Burrell won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series, also receiving nominations in 2010, 2012, and 2013. In 2012, Burrell won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. In 2014, Burrell won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series, receiving nominations in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015 and 2016. In 2010 and 2011, Burrell was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film. On May 4, 2016, Phil appeared in the first commercials for the National Association of Realtors telling about his "Phil 's - osophies ''. Arnold Worldwide executive creative director Sean McBride said Phil was written as a Realtor on his show and "embodies many of the attributes that are important in a Realtor: He 's honest, he 's helpful, he 's sincere. '' Claire Melinda Dunphy (Julie Bowen), née Pritchett, is the wife of Phil Dunphy, the daughter of Jay, Mitchell 's older sister, Gloria 's step - daughter, Manny 's step - sister, Joe 's half - sister and the helicopter soccer mom of the Dunphy family and its three very different kids. She was once a wild child who made a lot of mistakes over the years, and she is fearful that her children could make the same mistakes, especially her oldest daughter, Haley. She is often exhausted from stress created by her family but is still a loving mother. When it comes to her kids she has difficulty controlling Haley 's independence and irresponsibility, Alex 's manipulative nature, and Luke 's lack of common sense. She also gets annoyed with her husband, Phil, constantly. Claire is very competitive especially in her obsession of being right, much like her husband, and has a brittle personality that causes her to get angry, paranoid, and freak out easily. She is very strict about a clean house. She is seen as an experienced parent by Cameron and Mitchell, so she is called upon for her parenting advice. She enjoys running and reading. She is also very attached to Halloween and describes it as her "crazy lady holiday ''. In the episode "Open House of Horrors '' it is revealed that the neighbors are frightened of Claire 's very graphic and realistic decorations around the house. Claire is also the most active family member when organizing family get - togethers. When a former co-worker (Minnie Driver) visits, it is revealed that Claire had a successful job in hospitality management but left her job and married Phil a few months after she became pregnant with Haley. She shows resentment towards the abandonment of her working career due to seeing the success of one of her former peers, but later realizes her family is more important. Claire is a perfectionist; according to Phil, "when everybody else sees something beautiful, all she sees is the teeny - tiny flaw. '' She is also terrible at giving gifts. As her husband Phil once bought her a bracelet for their anniversary, she made him coupons for five free hugs. Her step - brother is Manny Delgado. Claire received another sibling through Jay 's second wife Gloria -- Fulgencio "Joe ''. She often despises the attention that Gloria gets for her voluptuous figure, and was thrilled to learn that Gloria was pregnant because of all the weight that Gloria would be gaining. Julie Bowen 's performance was praised by Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly who said, "Bowen 's Claire could have been a blank blonde cipher. Far from it: Bowen 's wide array of silent gazes at the camera, her slow - burns at her clan 's bad behavior, and her ability to freak out without seeming nutso crazy makes her an essential, stand - out part of TV 's best freshman ensemble cast. '' In 2011 and 2012, Julie Bowen won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, receiving nominations in 2010 and 2013. In 2012, Bowen won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She has also been nominated twice for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series in 2012 and 2014. In 2009, Bowen was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Television Series -- Musical or Comedy, and then for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film in 2010. Haley Gwendolyn Dunphy (Sarah Hyland) is the eldest daughter of Claire and Phil, who is portrayed as the stereotypical teenager. Haley was born on December 10, 1993. At the start of the series Haley is a high school sophomore, (we discover in episode 1.14 that Claire was four months pregnant with Haley when she married Phil). Haley is depicted as being a bit of a flirt, who focuses more on social status than studies. She is a little naive, especially when it comes to arguing with her parents. However, she is at times surprisingly cunning, such as when she carves a cell phone out of soap to win a contest to see who can go the longest without using technology. Haley is embarrassed by her dad, especially when he tries to be friends with her boyfriend Dylan (to whom she lost her virginity, as revealed in season 3). She is concerned about her popularity at school, as well as her social and sexual life, which contributes to her being embarrassed by her parents. Haley contemplated moving in with Dylan before learning that she got into college in the final episode of the third season. After a run - in with the law on campus in Season 4, she is expelled from college and moves back into the Dunphy home. She begins a fashion blog and goes to community college to study business and photography, eventually showing her photos in an exhibit at which she sells them. In season 6, she gets a job working for fashion designer Gavin Sinclair as his assistant, doing some of her own design work. Throughout season 6, Haley develops feelings for Andy (Jay and Gloria 's hired nanny) and they begin hanging out often. In the episode "White Christmas '' Andy and Haley begin a relationship. At the end of season 7, Andy is offered a job in his hometown in Utah and initially turns it down, but Haley encourages him to pursue it, insisting that they will figure out a way to be together. As they say goodbye at the airport, she admits that Andy is the first man she has ever really loved. As of "Weathering Heights '', she is dating weatherman Rainer Shine. Although they broke up later in the season after he proposed and they both realized they were n't ready. In 2013, Sarah Hyland was nominated for the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. Alexandra Anastasia "Alex '' Dunphy (Ariel Winter) begins as the 13 - year - old daughter of Claire and Phil and turns 17 in season five. Characteristically nerdy but still cute nonetheless, Alex is the most intelligent of the three siblings and a polar opposite of Haley. She is very bright and cares much more about her studies than friends / social life and boys. As the middle child to a shallow big sister and a goofy younger brother, she enjoys messing with them. Often taking advantage of their naïveté by fooling them into believing unrealistic things, she at one time convinced Haley and Luke that they could charge electronics by rubbing the battery on their heads (Haley) and putting it in their mouths (Luke). She also convinced Luke that he was actually Phil 's old girlfriend son and that Jay was dying. Alex, as a stereotypical precocious kid, displays a sense of superiority because of her intelligence constantly putting her accomplishments on display and demanding recognition for them. An overachiever, she plays the cello and practices lacrosse; she chose to play the cello because she would have a better chance at being in a university orchestra than if she played the violin as cellos are more in demand. While she has sometimes felt isolated from her peers (once sadly telling her parents "I have no friends ''), she has a group of nerdy "fans '' at school who idolize her. Haley sincerely tells her at one point she is smart and attractive in a successful effort to get Alex to give a light - hearted graduation speech instead of a harsh one (it worked well enough that Alex was invited to a post-ceremony party by her classmates). At the beginning of Season 3, she was in a long - distance relationship with a boy she met in Wyoming. Later in the season she went to her prom with a classmate who everyone but himself knows is gay. It was established in the episode "Tableau Vivant '' that Alex is a light sleeper, as she was surprisingly energetic when staying awake nearly a whole night thinking about her upcoming art project. It was revealed in the episode "Heart Broken '' that Alex faints every time she sees blood. In the second episode of season 5 onwards she started wearing new glasses. In season 6, Alex is currently seeking for the best college to enroll in and have a thought about getting away from her family for a while. While Alex was not accepted into Harvard, she was accepted into Caltech, where she has been attending since the start of season 7. She had to leave for a bit due to getting mono. She was seen to be dating Sanjay Patel until he broke up with her in "The Closet Case ''. Lucas Philip "Luke '' Dunphy (Nolan Gould) is Claire and Phil 's rambunctious son, who is often doing his own thing. He was named after his great - grandfather, Lucas (DeDe 's father). At times, he can be a troublemaker, once shooting his sister with a toy gun and getting into a fight with Manny at school. Luke is playful, very innocent and does not always understand the repercussions of his actions, like most children; he once announced at a family gathering that his mom thought her dad 's new wife was a "gold digger '', although he had misheard it as "coal digger ''. Luke is also thought to be a bit vacuous because of many questionable actions, such as getting his head stuck in the banister and jumping on the trampoline wearing only underwear and a box on his head. Both parents agree that they "dropped the ball '' in regard to raising Luke; Phil once tells Claire that he considers Luke to be their dumbest child (although he conceded to Claire 's assertion that Haley was, in fact, dumber than Luke). A psychologist who evaluated him said his type of behavior was normal for someone with above - average intelligence; afterwards, Phil and Claire accidentally left a wandering Luke behind when they left the psychologist 's office, but they ended up being impressed by how calmly he made his way back home (in a limo) and decided he would do just fine in life. Subsequent events have borne this out, as he only got into one college he applied to (and did so because Phil gave up some magic secrets to his former rival - turned - Dean of Admissions) but has become a well - paid social fixture at Jay 's country club and shows he can use his connections to help his family. He is frequently seen playing a Nintendo 3DS. Throughout the series, he is often seen playing with Manny. Often, they do not just play, but develop plans, plots, and ploys. Being that Luke 's birthday is November 28, it usually coincides with Thanksgiving. Jay Francis Pritchett (Ed O'Neill) is the father of Claire, Mitchell, and Joe; husband of Gloria; maternal grandfather of Haley, Alex and Luke; adoptive grandfather of Lily; father - in - law of Phil and Cam; and step - father of Manny. He is the owner of a closet company and is presumably the wealthiest family member as well occasionally the chieftain of the family in many situations. Jay has a dry and sarcastic sense of humor. Like his son and daughter, Jay is generally more realistic, mild - mannered, and sensible than his partner, Gloria, who is unashamed of the fact Jay is many years her senior. A recurring plot involves Jay 's relationship with his son Mitchell, which became more complicated due to Jay 's reaction to Mitchell 's sexual orientation. Humor and plot points are also derived from Jay 's relationship with his son - in - law Phil; Jay often mistreats and antagonizes him despite Phil 's constant attempts to gain Jay 's approval. Nevertheless, Jay thinks very highly of Phil, despite their differences, and said so in Season 3 Jay has several masculine character attributes including fondness for sports and model airplanes. Jay is shown also to occasionally be compassionate, showing affection for members of the extended family particularly to Manny, his step - son; their relationship seems to become more positive as the series progresses, eventually becoming a typical father - son relationship. In the finale of the third season it is revealed that Gloria is pregnant, but Jay does not know yet. In the first episode of the fourth season, Gloria tells Jay and he tells her that it 's the greatest news he has heard. The baby was male, which relieved Jay because it says in the episode "Snip '' that he was afraid of having a girl. Jay is a dog - lover. He sometimes goes overboard in treating his dog Stella as his favorite member of the family much to Gloria 's chagrin, and Jay was extremely happy when he realized that Joe was not allergic to Stella, but to Gloria 's face cream, in the episode "Rash Decisions ''. Jay is farsighted (hyperopia). Jay evidently served in the U.S. Navy during the Vietnam War. His birthday is April 1, as shown in the episode "Grill, Interrupted ''. Ed O'Neill has been consecutively nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 2011, 2012, and 2013. In 2011, he was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series and Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. Gloria Maria Ramírez - Pritchett (Sofía Vergara), formerly Delgado and née Ramírez, is Jay 's second wife and mother to Manny and Joe. She is from Barranquilla, a city in Colombia (as is Sofía Vergara herself). She is a very loving wife and mother. At first, the family (specifically Claire) does not accept her because of her age difference to Jay. In the episode Coal Digger, Luke calls her a coal digger which is mocking when Claire called her a gold digger. The most frequent running gag involving the character is her mispronunciation of common English words and phrases, and Vergara confirmed that many of these mispronunciations are improvised. Gloria often supports Manny when Jay tries to tell him to be less sensitive or hide his cultural background. However, she does occasionally display some odd parenting techniques. For example, when Manny was first born, she had wanted a daughter, and therefore for the first year of his life dressed him like one and told all her friends he was a girl. She later told Manny (after he found the pictures of himself like this) that the child in question was his "twin sister who died at the age of one. '' In the sixth episode of Season One, she chastizes Jay for forcing Manny to remove his poncho for school. When they get to the school to return the poncho and realize that Manny has a plan to play folk music to his classmates with his pan flute (which was inside the poncho), Gloria tells Jay to break the flute, saying in her interview that "the poncho by itself is fine. The poncho, plus the flute, plus the stupid dance? My son will die a virgin. '' Gloria is a terrible driver, though she is oblivious to this. She is also very comfortable with death (on one occasion killing and beheading a rat with a shovel right before she left for church and leaving the head "as a warning to the other rats ''), on account of a couple of her relatives being butchers. She is an excellent markswoman, often just using one hand and never misses a shot, even saying to Manny that she could 've unbuttoned his shirt if she wanted to with her gun (formerly Manny 's BB gun). She has a very high tolerance for spicy food, and has perhaps the strongest religious views of any member of the family. She loves her family and spends a lot of time with Lily because of her fixation in having a daughter. Mitchell and Cameron asked her and Jay to become guardians of Lily if anything were to happen to them. Gloria has something of a shady past. Doubts have also been raised as to her income: her only mentioned employment was as a hairdresser (and later as a taxi driver), and Claire, Jay 's daughter, originally labeled Gloria as a "gold - digger '' for marrying her wealthy father. It seems likely that Jay is her major source of income. However, in the Season 5 episode "A Hard Jay 's Night '', the hairshop where she used to work is shown, and it is clarified that Jay is indeed her current major source of income. In the final episode of Season 3, it was revealed that she is pregnant. Her newest son Fulgencio a.k.a. Joe was born in the Season 4 episode "Party Crasher ''. In the episode "Fifteen Percent '' she reveals that she comes from a neighborhood of prostitutes after she said her neighborhood had a saying that "Love is just around the corner ''. The Hispanic American character of Gloria was based on the character of Angela in the 1991 Jim Jarmusch film Night on Earth, played by American actress Rosie Perez. In season 6 Gloria officially became an American citizen. Sofía Vergara has been nominated four times for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film. In 2011, Vergara was nominated for the Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film and Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She was also nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series in 2011, 2012, and 2013. Manuel Alberto "Manny '' Delgado (Rico Rodriguez), Gloria 's son from her first marriage to Javier, is very outgoing and not the least bit self - conscious, although he has become somewhat self - conscious in Season 5. He is very intelligent, probably second after Alex, but much in a street smart way. He is also mature and intuitive for his age and is often shown doing adult - like things, such as having conversations with Claire about her marriage and kids, and drinking coffee. He even engaged in stock market business and briefly considered following in his biological father 's footsteps by becoming a professional gambler. Manny has inherited his mother 's passion for life (although he is terrified of butterflies), though Gloria has also said, "Manny is passionate, just like his father. '' This causes Manny to be very romantic. Manny is not afraid to take chances, leading him to ask out older girls, and develops a crush on his step - niece Haley, to whom he gave flowers on "Pilot '' an even kissed in "Three Turkeys ''. He idolizes his absentee father, often speaking about him in a positive light, even after being repeatedly disappointed by his father 's broken promises. He plays for a football team, fences, and is a skilled chess player. He is often seen wearing or intending to wear his "burgundy dinner jacket. '' Manny was in the fifth grade in Season 1, the ninth grade in Season 5 and attends his first year of college in Season 9. Manny and his step - nephew Luke are good friends who each admire the strengths of the other although they spend a lot of scheming against / fighting with each other as well. Fulgencio Joseph "Joe '' Pritchett is Gloria and Jay 's son. Gloria announced she was pregnant with him in the final episode of season 3, his existence was revealed to the rest of the cast in the first episode of season 4, and he was born in "Party Crasher ''. Joe 's christening took place in "Fulgencio ''. In the Season 5 episode "Spring - a-Ding - Fling '', he begins walking. In episode "Larry 's Wife '' Gloria calls over the priest believing that there is evil in Joe. The priest does a blessing on Joe but leaves when Joe pick - pocketed the priest 's wallet. Gloria returns the wallet and apologizes. Later in the Season 5 episode "And One to Grow On '', it is Joe 's birthday and Jay wants to reuse birthday decorations from Manny 's birthday party the day before but Gloria refuses. In episode "Queer Eyes, Full Hearts '', Manny 's Spanish teacher teaches Joe to swim. Stella (Brigitte) is the French bulldog of the Pritchett family, introduced in the second season. She was the dog of a man named Guillermo (Lin - Manuel Miranda), an inventor, but when Jay convinced him to abandon his idea and return to school, Guillermo gave Stella to the family. She is very problematic, and often destroys things, mostly Gloria 's belongings. However, Jay has a great affection for her (letting her sleep in his bed and feeding her from the dinner table), which infuriates Gloria because Jay seems to pay more love and attention to the dog than his own wife. Mitchell Vincent Pritchett (Jesse Tyler Ferguson), also referred to as Mitch, is Jay 's son; Claire 's younger brother, Manny 's step - brother, Joe 's half - brother, Luke, Alex and Haley 's uncle; one of Lily 's fathers; and partner of eight years to Cameron. He is a low - key, mild - mannered person, but has many sensitive qualities. At most times he is the exact opposite of Cameron which usually causes disagreements. Cameron acts as a counterbalance to Mitchell 's uptight, worrying ways. Because of his mild - mannered, uptight nature, he is sometimes embarrassed by Cameron 's flamboyance. He is uncomfortable with public displays of affection, as well as invasion of his personal space. He is an overprotective and cautious father. He is shown to be a capable lawyer, even representing an entire building full of people one - by - one with no prior notice. A recurring theme on the show is Mitchell 's relationship with his father, which was strained by the revelation of Mitchell 's homosexuality. Mitchell is a musical theater fan and enjoyed ice skating as a kid, though he later admitted that he liked working with his sister as a team more than the ice skating itself. Although he fancies himself as a handyman, everybody is afraid of him around tools. From his degrees hanging in his office, it is apparent that Mitchell attended undergrad at Cornell University and law school at Columbia University. TV.com has named Mitchell and Cameron one of the "Five Best TV Dads, '' saying, "Cam and Mitchell adopted baby Lily from Vietnam way back in Modern Family 's pilot episode, and have been inadvertently Americanizing her ever since. '' Jesse Tyler Ferguson has been nominated five times for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. Cameron Scott "Cam '' Tucker (Eric Stonestreet), also referred to as Cam, is Mitchell 's husband of eight years, and one of Lily 's fathers, who has a very big dramatic personality. He frequently behaves like a drama queen. His bubbly outgoing personality contrasts to Mitchell 's uptight manner, which causes them to have opposing character traits. Cameron was born on February 29, 1972 and grew up on a farm in Missouri. He was a starting center for the University of Illinois football team (which he and Jay bond over, much to Mitchell 's envy) and is a very big sports fan. Because of this, he is physically quite imposing, and capable of scaring off anyone who threatens Mitchell. Cameron also fosters many unusual hobbies such as collecting antique fountain pens, being adept in Japanese flower arrangement, and is a classically trained Auguste clown named Fizbo. Cameron prides himself in shooting home films, not movies, and takes that role very seriously. Currently, he acts as a stay - at - home dad to Lily, though it is mentioned that he had taught music prior to this. Cameron is also an experienced rock drummer and as a result was brought in at the last minute to play in Dylan 's band when they needed a replacement percussionist. It is also mentioned that Cameron was considerably thinner and in better shape when he first started dating Mitchell. For the first few episodes, his relationship with Mitchell was somewhat strained (as they disagreed on almost everything and showed very different parenting techniques). But in more recent episodes the relationship is much happier. Cameron and Mitchell met at one of Pepper Saltzman 's "legendary '' soirees, where during a game of charades, Cameron immediately knew the answer, "Casablanca, '' based on a subtle gesture Mitchell made with his hands. Common interests, like art, led them to form a relationship. Mitchell is impressed by Cameron 's quirks, such as speaking French (to which Cameron replies, "un peu, '' or "a little ''). Cameron is also said to be a fan of the movie The Wizard of Oz in the episode "Leap Day '' when Mitchell plans him a surprise birthday party. During season 4, Cameron goes back to work as a music teacher at Luke and Manny 's school. In season 5, his music teacher job is eliminated, but he becomes the freshman football coach and physical education teacher. In season 6, he is promoted to varsity coach and his undefeated record and open homosexuality earned him a story on the local TV news. Eric Stonestreet has received positive reviews for his characters. In a review of the first season, Robert Canning of IGN named Cameron Tucker the best character of the season saying, "Cameron 's many talents and passions revealed over the course of this first year became an ever - building running gag. But it will be hard to top the sheer joy that was ' Fizbo '. '' He also called Fizbo, the episode and the clown, the highlight of the season. The reception of Cameron and Mitchell has led to the idea of a spin - off of the two titled Mitchell and Cam. In 2010, Eric Stonestreet was nominated for the Television Critics Association Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy. Stonestreet has won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series twice in 2010 and 2012. He was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries, or Television Film in 2011, 2012, and 2013, along with receiving nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series in 2011, 2012, and 2013. In 2011, along with Ed O'Neill and Ty Burrell, Stonestreet was nominated for the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. Lillian Elizabeth "Lily '' Tucker - Pritchett (Aubrey Anderson - Emmons) is the adoptive daughter of Cameron and Mitchell. She is named after the daughter of Charlotte from the HBO series Sex and the City, and Cam 's pig "Aunt Lily ''. When she was introduced to the family, they accepted her with open arms, although Mitchell originally wanted to wait to tell them about her. She is at times doing activities with both of her fathers but remains with Cam at home while Mitchell works. Cameron often dresses her up as famous people, such as Diana Ross, Olivia Newton - John, Madonna, and Stevie Wonder for the purpose of taking photographs. Cameron and Mitchell practiced the Ferber method on Lily when she was a baby, but Cameron usually could n't resist catering to her during the night, sometimes even watching movies such as Scarface, which Cam claims she likes possibly because of the bright colors, particularly the club shooting scene. Lily did not speak for the first two seasons and was portrayed by twins Ella Hiller and Jaden Hiller. For season three, the twins "retired '', their mother claiming they did not enjoy acting. The role was recast to Aubrey Anderson - Emmons, who is older, and has a speaking role. Since she has been able to speak, Lily has displayed a penchant for precocious sarcasm and theatricality, which can be attributed to the influence from each of her fathers. She was born February 19, 2008. Larry is the pet cat of Lily, Cameron, and Mitchell. They adopted him after Cameron and Mitchell failed to adopt a second child. DeDe Williams (Shelley Long) (formerly Pritchett) is Mitchell and Claire 's mother, Haley, Alex and Luke 's maternal grandmother, Lily 's adoptive grandmother, Phil and Cam 's mother - in - law and Jay 's ex-wife. It has been implied that she may be mentally ill due to her somewhat manipulative and sometimes aggressive ways. It is implied that she was initially more accepting of Mitchell 's sexual orientation than Jay was when he first came out. She often uses her close relationship with Mitchell to get him to do things he does not want to do. Jay wanted to divorce her after a spectacular fight they had while their kids were still in school (he taped over an episode of Dallas to record an NFL game that, ironically, featured the Dallas Cowboys) but was inspired by an animatronic Abraham Lincoln exhibit at Disneyland to stick things out until Claire and Mitchell reached adulthood. She is still bitter over Jay 's remarriage to Gloria and even attempted to ruin their wedding, which she convinced Mitchell to talk Jay and Gloria into inviting her to; she got drunk and made rude and inappropriate toasts and eventually had to be dragged out of the reception, in the process ruining the wedding cake. She is very aggressive towards Gloria, often trying to physically attack her. DeDe is also passive aggressive toward Cameron about his weight, and is often critical of Claire, especially her appearance. She also seems to be very good friends with Manny as they write letters to each other talking about their personal issues. DeDe is also a famous author and poet. A running gag throughout the series is that DeDe 's arrival is always forewarned by bad omens, (birds crashing into the window or peaceful scenarios spontaneously turning chaotic). Her antagonistic and aggressive relationship to Gloria surprisingly changes in the episode "Arrested. '' When DeDe sees that Gloria is pregnant, she finds it so fantastic that her ex-husband is going to be a father again at his age. It also seemed to have fixed her uterus which she claimed was telescopic and they both bonded over Jay - bashing when DeDe tells Gloria that she was always the one having to change diapers, clean spit - up and getting baby equipment. Gloria was sympathetic explaining that it makes sense to why DeDe became so crazy to which DeDe answered "Right? ''. Francis Allen "Frank '' Dunphy (Fred Willard) is Phil 's father and Haley, Alex, and Luke 's paternal grandfather. On Christmas, the family shared a webcam chat with him. Frank returns in "Travels with Scout '' when he travels cross country without Phil 's mother and shows up with a dog that he says she has allergies to. He ends up taking the dog back with him. Frank is kind of a polar opposite of Jay 's (Claire 's father) grumpiness and dry manner, as he is seen being laid back, funny and cool most of the time. This is clearly mentioned by Claire in "Closet, You 'll Love it! '' when most family members refer to Jay as ' Grump - pa ' while Frank is referred to as ' Fun - pa '. His attitude is a near carbon copy of Phil 's personality. At the end of season 4, it is revealed that Frank 's wife (Phil 's mother) had died. In season 8, Frank starts dating Lorraine, Phil 's childhood babysitter and crush. Later, he proposes to her and in episode 19, they get married. In 2010, Fred Willard was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. Javier Delgado (Benjamin Bratt) is Manny 's biological father and Gloria 's ex-husband. He and Gloria were divorced; in the pilot, Gloria says all they did was "fight and make love, '' at one point leading them to fall out of a window. Manny looks up to him, but Javier always lets him down, while Jay is left downcast by the reminders that Manny has another dad. He is oddly gifted when it comes to betting on horse racing. In the episode "Flip Flop, '' he has a girlfriend named Trish (Paget Brewster) and almost marries her. Javier was formerly a Triple - A baseball player and played alongside such baseball greats as Sammy Sosa and Mark McGwire. He has many connections to matadors and baseball players. He and Jay became close, but in the end Javier lets Jay down just as he does Manny. Barb Tucker (Celia Weston) is Cameron 's mother. She first appeared in the episode "Mother Tucker. '' In that episode, she visits Cameron and Mitchell. While Cameron earnestly declares that his mother is wonderful, Mitchell is less sure because she has a habit of touching Mitchell inappropriately. When Mitchell finally tells Cameron about this, Barb happens to walk in on them and hears his complaints. Later, she apologizes to Mitchell. Unfortunately, she does this while he is in the bathtub. In "The Wedding, Part 1 '' and "The Wedding, Part 2 '', she attends her son 's wedding to Mitchell and almost ends it with Merle, but Jay and Gloria manage to reconcile the two. Donnie Pritchett (Jonathan Banks) is Jay 's brother. He first appeared in the episode "The Musical Man '' where he visits Jay and they soon start bickering and later Jay finds out he 's suffering from cancer. He attends Luke and Manny 's musical and there he and Jay share an emotional moment together. Merle Tucker (Barry Corbin) is Cameron 's father. He first appeared in the episode "The Last Walt. '' In that episode, he visits Cameron and Mitchell. Later in the episode, it is revealed that Jay (Mitchell 's father) and Merle dislike each other. Cameron and Mitchell each believe that their father is the stronger of the two. It is made known that Merle wishes that the man his son lives with was, "A little bit of a woman. '' Jay and Merle overcome their differences and bond while fixing the bed frame that Cameron had purchased and attempted to put together. In "The Wedding, Part 1 '' and "The Wedding, Part 2 '', he attends his son 's wedding to Mitchell and almost ends it with Barb, but Jay and Gloria manage to reconcile the two. Pilar Ramirez (Elizabeth Peña) is Gloria 's mother. She first appeared in the episode "Fulgencio. '' In that episode, she and her other daughter Sonia visit Jay and Gloria shortly after their son Joe is born. She reveals that she never liked Jay and wants to name Joe after her husband and father (Fulgencio Umberto). In "The Old Man & the Tree '', she visits her daughter for Christmas and appears to treat Claire more as a daughter than Gloria after taking a liking to Claire. Sonia Ramirez (Stephanie Beatriz) is Gloria 's sister. She first appeared in the episode "Fulgencio. '' In that episode, she and her mother Pilar visit Jay and Gloria shortly after their son Joe is born. She appears to be wanting to get out of Colombia after a flood occurred there and later at Joe 's christening, she and Gloria get into a fight over how Jay originally liked Sonia, not Gloria. She returns in "Valentine 's Day 4: Twisted Sister '', she visits her sister and her family and tries to make a move on Jay, because she is still infatuated with him. She then tries to get Gloria out of the picture and when Jay tells Gloria, she does n't believe him. Jay goes to his room to apologize to Sonia and then she tries to make a move on him there, only to be heard via a baby monitor and then Gloria enters and realizes Jay was right and the sisters resume fighting over him. Pameron Jessica "Pam '' Tucker (Dana Powell) is Cameron 's older sister. In "Farm Strong '', she comes for a visit from the farm and Mitchell and Cameron are afraid to tell her that they are getting married because they do not want to hurt her feelings of her still being single and because Cameron claims that Pam is very sensitive. Lily is the one who finally tells her. Pam seems extremely happy with the news and shares her own news with them; she is engaged to Cameron 's first crush, Bo Johnson. Cameron gets really upset hearing that and Pam tells him that no one in the family wanted to tell him because he is too sensitive and they were protecting him, something that contradicts Cameron 's earlier assertion and makes Cameron even more upset. When the whole family gathers at Jay and Gloria 's house, Cameron wants to prove that he is not that sensitive as Pam accuses him to be and asks everyone to tell him things they were hiding from him because they were trying to protect him. Everyone says their part and Cameron, as much as he tries not to break down in tears, after hearing Lily admitting that she pretends to fall asleep when he reads to her so he can leave her alone, breaks down in tears and finishes locking himself in the bathroom. Mitchell and Pam go to comfort him, and Pam tells him that he may have difficulty with bad news, but everyone always wants to share good news with him because he would always appreciate it. In "The Wedding (Part 1) '' and "The Wedding (Part 2) '', she has small cameos at Mitchell and Cameron 's wedding. In "Frank 's wedding '', she comes to visit and auditions for a modeling job. By the end of the episode, it is revealed that she is looking for jobs, so that she can better take care of herself, as she is revealed to be pregnant, which is hidden by her body and weight. She goes into labor at the house and has her baby. Dylan Marshall (Reid Ewing), sometimes called "D - Money '' by Phil, is Haley 's on - and - off boyfriend, a senior in high school who plays guitar and sings in a band and has no plans for college. He is often put into awkward situations by Phil, who wishes for the two to be friends. He has diverse interests that are often surprising, such as his love of old western films. He also sometimes reveals a sort - of attraction to Claire, when he gives her a rose on Valentine 's Day, saying that "every mom should look as tasty as you when they 're old. '' He also had a dream involving a (suggested) sexual encounter involving himself, Haley, and Claire. Claire strongly dislikes him, to the point of trying to introduce other boys to Haley just so that they break up or do n't get back together. He loves the confidence Haley gets from being part of such a loving family and does not mind hanging around during family get togethers. He wrote a song for Haley, "In the Moonlight (Do Me) '', and performed it for her extended family. The song was about sex and most of the family were surprised by the suggestive lyrics, but it became stuck in all of their heads the next day. He is also a hockey player and finds inspiration for his music from Bob Dylan, Sum 41, Blink - 182, and New Kids on the Block. Dylan temporarily leaves the cast to work on a ranch after Haley rejects his marriage proposal in the first episode of season three, "Dude Ranch ''. In the episode "Virgin Territory '', Alex reveals that Haley had lost her virginity to Dylan before they broke up; she told Claire three months earlier, but not Phil. In the episode "Disneyland, '' Dylan reveals he lost his job on the ranch and moved back to California, taking a job at Disneyland as a Dapper Dan. He and Haley get back together to Claire 's dismay and to Phil 's delight. In the season Finale, "Baby on Board, '' Haley discovers she was accepted to college. She and Dylan maintain their relationship, and Dylan lives with the Dunphys for a few months. In Season 4, Dylan is invited to move in with Cam and Mitch after his work as a limo driver led him to their Valentine 's Day party (some of their friends invited Dylan to stay for the party, and Cam offered him at some point to stay at their house), but he ends up getting fired and, while Cam and Mitch separately tell him he can stick around, Lily angrily tells him he is n't welcome there and yells at him until he leaves the house. Sal (Elizabeth Banks) is Mitch and Cameron 's wild, partying, boozy friend from their younger years in the 1990s. In the episode "Great Expectations '' she becomes very jealous of the attention Lily had been getting and threatens to kill her multiple times. In the episode "Best Men '', she gets married and enlists Cam and Mitch to be the best men at the wedding. However, in the episode, "The Wedding (Part 1) '' she tells them that she got divorced and she is obviously pregnant. Sal had declared herself the officiator of the wedding while Cam and Mitch were trying to have intervention about her drinking. In "The Wedding (Part 2) '' Sal 's water breaks in the middle of the (first) ceremony. She convinces her new boyfriend of four months (who believes he is the father) that when a baby comes so early, sometimes it is black. It eventually transpires (in "Fight or Flight '') that Sal 's baby is white and she is raising the baby alone, having presumably split from the man she was seeing at the time of Mitch and Cameron 's wedding. When Mitch, Cam, Pepper and friends throw her a baby shower, she is seen to be far more mature and responsible, due to the birth of her baby, despite everyone fearing the worst when she disappears in the middle of the party. Sherman "Pepper '' Saltzman (Nathan Lane) is one of Mitchell and Cameron 's friends. Although he was referred to in the pilot episode and several times thereafter throughout the first season, Pepper first appeared on camera in the second season. In "Earthquake '', both Mitch and Cam hate going to Pepper 's yearly party and they decide to try and skip it this time. Since an earthquake happened, they say that Mitch has a sprained ankle and that stuff is broken all over the house as an excuse. Really though, none of their stuff had got broken in the earthquake, but Pepper invited himself over to their house to help. Not long after Pepper comes in, he starts to feel bad because Mitch told him that he does not want to go to the parties because he gets jealous because of Pepper and Cam. He helps plan Mitchell and Cam 's wedding. In "Boys ' Night '', he hangs out with Mitch, Cam, Longines, Crispin and Jay on their "boys ' night out ''. In "Fight or Flight '', he Mitch, Cam, Ronaldo, and Longines organize a belated baby shower for Sal. In "I Do n't Know How She Does It '', he mentions his first name, Sherman, saying he has not used that name since he left Lubbock, Texas, decades ago. Bethenny (Artemis Pebdani) is a friend of Claire Dunphy 's. In "Dance Dance Revelation '', she helps Claire, Gloria, and other mothers organize Luke and Manny 's middle school dance. In "Go Bullfrogs! '', she is seen along with Holly and her friend at Holly 's house when Claire comes to give Luke his retainer. In "Disneyland '', it is revealed that she has a nephew, Ethan, whom Claire invites to go to Disneyland with the rest of the family because she wants her daughter Haley to fall for him. Longines (Kevin Daniels) is a close friend of Mitchell Pritchett and Cameron Tucker 's. Although he was first mentioned in the "Pilot '', he made his first on - screen appearance in "Dance Dance Revelation ''. He sprays Phil with cologne on the face, and Phil, who is very upset, grabs the cologne bottle and goes off on Longines with about a dozen good spritzes to the face, even chasing him around the store. In "Boys ' Night '', he hangs out with Mitch, Cam, Pepper, Crispin, and Jay on their "boys ' night out ''. In "Go Bullfrogs! '', he invites Mitch and Cam to a boutique opening and they go along with Claire, as she needs a fun night out. Mitch and Cam soon leave the place leaving Claire with a man called Julian. Mitch and Cam believe that Julian is Longines ' date, but Longines tells them via Mitch 's cellphone that he 's not his date, he 's his trainer, and he 's also straight. In "Snip '', after Mitch starts thinking that Cam has to search for a new job, Longines says that he has a vacant at his clothing store, and asks Cam if he wants the job. He finally accepts it, but a friend of Longines ', Jeoux, calls out Mitch and Longines ' devious plan of giving the job to Cam and he walks out very upset. In "The Wedding (Part 1) '' and "The Wedding (Part 2) '', he attends Mitch and Cam 's wedding. In "Fight or Flight '', he, Mitch, Cam, Pepper, and Ronaldo organize a belated baby shower for Sal. Crispin is one of Mitchell and Cameron 's friends. He has appeared in the episodes Treehouse and Boys ' Night. In Boy 's Night it was mentioned he has a thing for older men and was temporarily infatuated with Jay. In "Fulgencio '', he has a boyfriend Brett. Walt Kleezak (Philip Baker Hall) was Phil and Claire 's next door neighbour. He first appeared in the episode "Boys ' Night '', where Luke goes over to his house to retrieve their ball which had flown into his yard. Phil and Claire find out and are not pleased with Luke because they feel that Walt is not very nice. They then go over to his house to interrogate him and he snaps at them and tells them to keep Luke. The next morning, Luke reprimands Walt for not being nice to his parents and they could not hang out. Walt then makes things up by generously giving Claire and Phil onions from his garden and tells them that he used to be a fireman, so he never hurts kids and he becomes friends with the Dunphys through his friendship with Luke. In "Lifetime Supply '', he comes over to the Dunphy house with Luke to play video games and upon entering tells Gloria to win a war some time and then they (Americans) would start talking like her. He then plays with Luke and beats him, due to Phil constantly staring at Luke. Phil asks Walt if he thinks about death and Walt replies that he 's 85 and death is his roommate. He then leaves to go change his oxygen tank. In "Election Day '', he comes to attend Claire 's election vote as Phil was given the task of driving 50 senior citizens to the polls to vote for Claire, but only managed to bring Walt and he kept needing things: his glasses, a new oxygen tank, food and to take his pills. This results in the polls closing and Phil gets only one extra vote for Claire instead of fifty. In "The Last Walt '', it was revealed that Walt died from a heart attack. Luke decided he want to inherit Walt 's television which he does. It was also revealed that Walt had a daughter whom he became estranged from and he had never fixed his estrangement from her. Ethan is the nephew of Bethenny, Claire Dunphy 's friend, whom Claire invites to go to Disneyland with the family in "Disneyland ''. Claire invites him because she wants Haley to fall for him and completely get over Dylan, who had moved to Wyoming in "Dude Ranch ''. Haley, adamant that she was n't going to babysit him, quickly changes her opinion after meeting him, much to Claire 's delight. Much to Claire 's chagrin, Dylan shows up at Disneyland completely unannounced. He rushes off after running into them, and Haley realizes that she still likes Dylan. So she ditches Ethan, leaving Alex with Ethan, another thing that Claire did not like. Ethan has a lot in common with Alex, possibly developing a crush on her. After seeing Dylan as a ' Dapper Dan ', Haley ditches Dylan and begins talking to Ethan again, bumping Alex out the way. After some time, Dylan meets up with Ethan and Haley again in his Little John costume declaring his love for Haley. Ethan and Dylan get into a minor scuffle. At the end of the day, Haley eventually dumps Ethan, Ethan leaves with some friends he ran into, and Haley and Dylan get back together. Gil Thorpe (Rob Riggle) is Southern California 's most successful real estate agent and nemesis / arch - rival of Phil Dunphy. Phil is often seen on camera lamenting over constantly coming second to Gil in many real estate competitions. He is mentioned indirectly in "Not in My House, '' "Diamond in the Rough '' and "Strangers on a Treadmill. '' He appears for the first time in character in the episode "Flip Flop '', as he attempts to strike a deal for his buyer through Phil on the home renovated by Claire and Cam. He makes his second appearance on the show in the episode "Career Day '', where he shows up for Career Day in Luke and Manny 's class during Phil 's presentation. Seeing Claire 's visible frustration at being a housewife, he offers her a position on his real estate team. He is known for his energetic, lively, and harassing personality as well as his tendency to use his own name in replacement of words in conversation (e.g. "Thorpedoed, '' "Gil Pickles ''). In the "Career Day '' episode Gil mentioned he played quarterback at Texas Tech. It is revealed his daughter is a student in Luke and Manny 's class. In "The Feud, '' he returns, beating Phil at a real estate contest, but Luke wrestles against Thorpe 's son. Luke ends up losing to Gil 's son in the wrestling match. Andy Bailey (Adam DeVine) is the Pritchetts ' nanny for Joe. He is extremely friendly and cordial and refuses to use any sort of "bad language. '' Gloria took an immediate liking to Andy upon meeting him, but Jay disapproved of his overly nice nature, saying "He 's a weird man. He 's like Phil only I have to pay for him. '' He often butts heads with Haley as she is rude and breaks rules, and she makes fun of him for his overly amiable nature. He talks about his long - time girlfriend who is in the Coast Guard in Utah, but she breaks up with him in "The Wedding (Part 1) ''. Haley discovers that she has been keeping Andy "on the hook '' for the last 7 years as they have been on - again off - again and she does not treat Andy the way he treats her. His father died of cancer when he was 14, as explained in "The Help ''. Haley begins to appreciate Andy 's demeanor and treatment of women in "Other People 's Children '' and tries to perhaps start a relationship with him in the episodes "The Wedding (Part 1) '' and "The Wedding (Part 2) ''. However, Alex convinces Haley that she is not that into him and she stops her pursuit as Andy was ready to jump into it. Afterwards, Andy drives away, perhaps to his flight to see his ex-girlfriend. Andy also becomes a quick friend to the Dunphy family. In the Season 6 episode "The Cold '', Andy and Haley discuss their relationship. They agree that it 's better they stay friends, however Haley gets upset when Andy claims that if they had kissed she would n't be able to get over him. To try to prove him wrong, Haley kisses him. Andy is unaffected by this but Haley has a smitten look afterwards. In the episode "Queer Eyes, Full Hearts '', Haley helps Andy get a job as Phil 's assistant and Andy helps her prepare for an interview with a fashion designer. During the episode they seem completely platonic and it is also revealed that Andy is back together with Beth. In "Rash Decisions '', Luke becomes distant from Phil and Andy becomes his right - hand man. In the episode "Connection Lost '', Claire assumes by mistake that Haley and Andy had gotten married. In "Closet? You 'll Love It! '', Andy ends up at the hospital due to appendicitis which had Haley worried enough to visit him but arrived to him a bit too groggy with the drugs the doctors had given him, leading her to tell his sleeping form that he had a shot with her, unbeknownst to Haley that he had heard everything she said. Andy decides to talk to her about her hospital visit in "Grill, Interrupted '', but Haley 's new boyfriend interrupts them before Andy could bring it up. At the end of the episode, Haley mentions to Andy that she was n't looking for a serious relationship at the moment, which appeared to disappoint him. In the Season 6 finale "American Skyper '', Andy reveals to Phil that he already had the engagement ring that he had been saving up for, but is hesitant to propose to Beth because he 's still confused about the feelings he has for someone else. Phil advises him to propose to Beth, but later finds out that Andy had feeling 's for Haley, who was also in love with Andy. The episode ends with Phil attempting to tell Andy and Haley that they loved each other, but failing to do so, as Andy leaves the house to propose to Beth at a beach he liked. As of "White Christmas '' in Season 7 Andy and Haley are in a relationship. In season 8, he and Haley broke up because of a long distance relationship. Rhonda is a friend of Luke and Manny. In "iSpy '', she, Luke, Manny and some other friends of theirs (mostly boys) make a movie about zombies. In "Spring - a-Ding - Fling '', Luke has a date with Rhonda for the spring dance in their High School. Claire wants to help him to score with her, so she helps Rhonda to dress more like a girl and be beautiful, as she always wears very dirty and manly clothes. Luke is not really happy with that because he preferred her the way she was and asks Claire to "fix '' her. However, the two are later seen dancing together, so he may really like the new Rhonda. Earl Chambers (Jon Polito, then Robert Costanzo) is Jay 's former best friend and longtime enemy. Many years before the events of "Wo n't You Be Our Neighbor, '' Earl and Jay worked together. They had formed their closet company, Closet - fornia, and the business became successful. One day, Jay came into work and Earl 's desk had been cleared out. He had badmouthed Jay to half their rolodex, and Jay had to start all over. In the present, it turns out Manny met Earl 's granddaughter Sophie in his theater group and she is now his new girlfriend. This makes Jay mad when, after showing a new idea of his for work, he finds out that his rival is her grandfather. Gloria organizes a dinner for the two men so they can work things out, but they soon start disputing again. Earl is also angered to hear that his granddaughter is groping his rival 's stepson. Earl goes to Jay and Gloria 's house because he thinks the rivalry between him and Jay is getting way out of control, and wants to do something to work it out. Manny then enters and introduces himself; Earl asks if this is "the stud who 's been groping (his) Sophie, '' and Manny tries to assure him that there 's nothing untoward between Manny and Sophie. Earl laughs and tells Manny he "believes '' him (maybe, maybe not). Earl sees the box that Jay had shown earlier to Manny, Gloria, and Sophie, and Earl says he thinks he 'll call it the Sock ' n Roll, takes the box and leaves. Jay shouts at him "The hell you are! '' Earl reappears in "The Closet Case '' where Mitchell has been called to work for him in a consultant job. Earl tricks Mitchell into thinking that Earl wants to bury the hatchet with Jay. A van pulls up in front of Jay 's house and Jay sees what has happened. That night, Jay and Mitchell break into Earl 's office and Earl catches them; Mitchell is disgusted at Earl for tricking him. Earl and Jay start fighting again and later in Jay 's car, Mitchell returns his father 's old rolodex to him. This gesture makes Jay very happy; Mitchell snuck it out of Earl 's office while he and Jay had their ten - minute fight. Earl reappears in "The Cover - Up '' where it turns out that he is leaving horrible comments on Jay 's new webshow. Jay and Manny track Earl down to his house and, with help from Alex, find out that he 's the one doing it. After a brief fight, Earl suggests that he and Jay could make their collective show, to which Jay refuses. Earl decides to make his own show instead, and deactivates comments -- much to Jay 's wrath -- so Jay wo n't be able to troll him back. Earl briefly reappears in "Halloween 4: The Revenge of Rod Skyhook '' (now played by Robert Costanzo, because Jon Polito died), dressed as the Devil. He fights with Jay, who is dressed as Jesus and who asked Manny to steal a picture from Earl 's mansion. The two start fighting until Jay looks at his reflection in the mirror and gives up on trying to take the picture. Ronnie LaFontaine (Steve Zahn) is a man who moves next door to the Dunphys with his wife, Amber and their children, Ronnie Jr. And Tammy. He and his wife both turn out to be loud and obnoxious and the Dunphys dislike them. Their rivalry soon ends in "Knock ' Em Down '' when they share a mutual dislike of a pornographic statue in their neighborhood and they soon go out to dinner and we find out that the Dunphys and the LaFontaines have many things in common and later that same night they are drinking wine together in their neighborhood. Amber LaFontaine (Andrea Anders) is a woman who moves next door to the Dunphys with her husband, Ronnie and their children, Ronnie Jr. And Tammy. She and her husband both turn out to be loud and obnoxious and the Dunphys dislike them. Their rivalry went from their first meeting until the episode "Knock ' Em Down '' when they share a mutual dislike of a pornographic statue in their neighborhood and they soon go out to dinner and we find out that the Dunphys and the LaFontaines have many things in common and later that same night they are drinking wine together in their neighborhood. Ronnie LaFontaine (Finneas O'Connell) is the son of Ronnie and Amber LaFontaine and the brother of Tammy LaFontaine. They move in next door to the Dunphys. He likes to play music, plays a drum kit and is currently studying in New York. Tammy LaFontaine (Brooke Sorenson) is the daughter of Ronnie and Amber LaFontaine and the sister of Ronnie LaFontaine Jr. In "The Big Guns '', Luke develops a crush on Tammy; every time he tries to flirt with her, however, she insults him and blows him off. In the end of the episode, Luke passes Tammy without even glancing at her and pretends he no longer cares about her, which bothers Tammy enough that she wants him to come back and talk to her, and it turns out Alex gave Luke this advice. Beth (Laura Ashley Samuels) is Andy 's ex-fiancée. She was first seen in Closet? You 'll Love It! where she visited Andy in the hospital. She reappeared in "American Skyper '' where she seems to have been responsible for setting Haley 's hair on fire and was last seen in Summer Lovin where she makes a cameo and she and Andy walk in the park and he proposes to her and she accepts... thus, they become engaged and are being watched by Haley and Claire. She reappeared in "The More You Ignore Me '' where she and Andy meet Haley and Dylan at the movies and in "White Christmas '' she comes to the cabin where the family is with Andy and she admits to him that she has been cheating on him behind his back and it looks like they end things. Sanjay Patel (Suraj Partha) is Alex 's former academic rival and ex-boyfriend. While they had still been at school, Alex and Sanjay had been competing against each other nonstop. Sanjay had only been mentioned in "Our Children, Ourselves '', "See You Next Fall '', "Career Day '', "Under Pressure '', "Sleeper '', and "Integrity ''. He eventually made his first appearance in "Patriot Games '' where he and Alex were tied in first position and only did n't have gym grades completed. Principal Brown organized a race for the two and the one who did fours laps first wins. Sanjay goes to Alex 's house and tells her that he likes her and that she is the reason he can attend Stanford University because she was always pushing him to study more and become better. But when the race happens, Sanjay forfeits it to prove to Alex that he was telling the truth and the two of them end up in a passionate kiss in front of their parents, much to their delight except Sanjay 's mother, Nina. Sanjay and Alex are eventually named co-valedictorians of 2015. Sanjay reappears in "Summer Lovin ' '' and he and Alex are now dating. They go up to Alex 's room after he asks her to test him on the periodic table and later they would break up when Sanjay leaves for school, but in the end they decide against it. However, in "The Closet Case '', Alex reveals that Sanjay broke up with her because he is seeing someone new.

what is the youngest age you can marry in the usa

Age of marriage in the United states - wikipedia Unlike most Western countries, 18 of the U.S. states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage. Individuals aged 18 have the ability to marry in U.S. states except Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21). In addition, all states, except Delaware and New Jersey, allow minors to marry in certain circumstances, such as parental consent, judicial consent, pregnancy, or a combination of these situations. Most states allow parties aged 16 and 17 to marry with parental consent alone. In most states, children under 16 can be married too. In the 32 states which have an absolute minimum age set by statute, this age varies between 14 and 18, while in 18 states there is no statutory minimum age if other legal conditions are met. Although in such states there is no set minimum age by statute, the traditional common law minimum age is 14 for boys and 12 for girls - ages which have been confirmed by case law in some states. Over the past 15 years, more than 200,000 minors married in US, and in Tennessee girls as young as 10 were married in 2001, before the state finally set a minimum age of 17 in 2018.

what colors do you combine to make yellow

Color mixing - wikipedia There are two types of color mixing: Additive and Subtractive. In both cases there are three primary colors, three secondary colors (colors made from 2 of the three primary colors in equal amounts), and one tertiary color made from all three primary colors. This point is a common source of confusion, as there are different sets of primary colors depending on whether you are working with additive or subtractive mixing. The additive mixing of colors is unintuitive as it does not correspond to the mixing of physical substances (such as paint) which would correspond to subtractive mixing. For instance, one can additively mix yellow and blue by shining yellow light together with blue light, which will result in not green but a white light. As in this example, one should always have the mixture of light in mind when considering additive color mixing as it is the only situation where it occurs. Despite being unintuitive, it is conceptually simpler than subtractive mixing. Two beams of light that are superimposed correspond to additive mixing. By convention, the three primary colors in additive mixing are red, green, and blue. In the absence of color or, when no colors are showing, the result is black. If all three primary colors are showing, the result is white. When red and green combine, the result is yellow. When red and blue combine, the result is magenta. When blue and green combine, the result is cyan. Additive mixing is used in television and computer monitors to produce a wide range of colors using only three primary colors. A pixel is a juxtaposition of these three primary colors. Projection televisions typically have three projectors, one for each primary color. The mixing of colored physical substances corresponds to subtractive color mixing, hence it corresponds to our intuition about mixing colors. To explain the mechanism, let us consider mixing red paint with yellow paint. The red paint is red because when the ambient light strikes it, the composition of the material is such that it absorbs all other colors in the visible spectrum except for red. The red light, not being absorbed, reflects off the paint and is what we see. This same mechanism describes the color of all material objects -- note that light is not a material object -- and so applies to the yellow paint as well. Making recourse to the figure above demonstrating additive color mixing, one sees that yellow light is composed of an (additive) mixture of red and green light. When we mix the two paints, the resulting substance has red paint and yellow paint. The yellow paint absorbs all colors except for red and green. However, the red paint will absorb the green reflected by the yellow paint. The red paint can be said to subtract the green from the yellow paint. The resulting paint reflects only red light and so appears red to our eyes. Note however that this description is theoretical and that the mixing of pigments does not correspond to ideal subtractive color mixing because some light from the subtracted color is still being reflected by one component of the original paint. This results in a darker and desaturated color compared to the color that would be achieved with ideal filters. By convention, the three primary colors in subtractive mixing are yellow, magenta and cyan; however, for a long time painters have used yellow, red and blue in place of these. In subtractive mixing of color, the absence of color is white and the presence of all three primary colors is black. The secondary colors are the same as the primary colors from additive mixing, and vice versa. This is not an accident. By mixing additive secondary colors subtractively one can reachieve the primary additive colors. Subtractive mixing is used to create a variety of colors when printing on paper by combining a small number of ink colors, and also when painting. Green is a part of mixing yellow and blue. Orange is a part of mixing red and yellow. Purple is a part of mixing blue and red.

what are the major exports of new zealand

Economy of New Zealand - Wikipedia The economy of New Zealand is the 53rd - largest national economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 68th - largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). It is one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade, mainly with Australia, the European Union, the United States, China, South Korea, Japan and Canada. The Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia means that New Zealand 's economy is closely aligned with the Australian economy. New Zealand 's diverse market economy has a sizable service sector, accounting for 63 % of all GDP activity in 2013. Large scale manufacturing industries include aluminium production, food processing, metal fabrication, wood and paper products. Mining, manufacturing, electricity, gas, water, and waste services accounted for 16.5 % of GDP in 2013. The primary sector continues to dominate New Zealand 's exports, despite accounting for 6.5 % of GDP in 2013. The major capital market is the New Zealand Exchange, known as the NZX. As of November 2014, NZX had a total of 258 listed securities with a combined market capitalisation of $94.1 billion. The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar ''; it also circulates in five Pacific island territories. The New Zealand dollar is the 10th most traded currency in the world. The New Zealand economy has been ranked first in the world for Social Progression, which covers such areas as Basic Human Needs, Foundations of Wellbeing, and the level of Opportunity available to its citizens. However, the outlook includes some challenges. New Zealand income levels, which used to be above those of many other countries in Western Europe prior to the crisis of the 1970s, have dropped in relative terms and never recovered. As a result, the number of New Zealanders living in poverty has grown and income inequality has increased dramatically. New Zealand has also had persistent current account deficits since the early 70s, peaking at - 7.8 % of GDP in 2006 but falling to - 2.6 % of GDP in FY 2014. Despite this, public debt (that owed by the Government) stands at 38.4 % (2013 estimate) of GDP, which is small compared to many developed nations. However, between 1984 and 2006, net foreign debt increased 11-fold, to NZ $182 billion. By March 2014 net foreign debt had dropped back to NZ $141.6 billion, which represents 61.5 % of GDP. Despite New Zealand 's persistent current account deficits, the balance on external goods and services has generally been positive. In FY 2014, export receipts exceeded imports by NZ $3.9 billion. There has been an investment income imbalance or net outflow for debt - servicing of external loans. In FY 2014, New Zealand 's investment income from the rest of the world was NZ $7 billion, versus outgoings of NZ $16.3 billion, a deficit of NZ $9.3 billion. The proportion of the current account deficit that is attributable to the investment income imbalance (a net outflow to the Australian - owned banking sector) grew from one third in 1997 to roughly 70 % in 2008. Taxation in New Zealand is collected at a national level by the Inland Revenue Department (IRD) on behalf of the Government of New Zealand. National taxes are levied on personal and business income, and on the supply of goods and services (GST). There is no capital gains tax although certain "gains '' such as profits on the sale of patent rights are deemed to be income, income tax does apply to property transactions in certain circumstances, particularly speculation. Local property taxes (rates) are managed and collected by local authorities. Some goods and services carry a specific tax, referred to as an excise or a duty such as alcohol excise or gaming duty. These are collected by a range of government agencies such as the New Zealand Customs Service. There is no social security (payroll) tax or land tax in New Zealand. In the 2010 New Zealand budget, personal tax rates were cut with the top personal tax rate reduced from 38 % to 33 % The cuts gave New Zealand the second - lowest personal tax burden in the OECD. Only Mexico 's citizens had a higher percentage-wise "take home '' proportion of their salaries. The cuts in income tax were estimated to have reduced revenue by $2.46 billion. To compensate, GST was raised from 12.5 % to 15 %. Treasury figures show that top income earners in New Zealand pay between 6 % and 8 % of their income on GST. Those at the bottom end, earning less than $356 a week, spend between 11 % and 14 % on GST. Based on these figures, the New Zealand Herald predicted that putting GST up to 15 % would increase living costs for the poor more than twice as much as for the rich. New Zealand was ranked 1st on the Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) of 2017. In 2015 Statistics New Zealand published details of the break - down of Gross Domestic Product in the Regions of New Zealand for the year ended March 2015: Prior to the economic shock created by Britain 's decision to join the EEC in 1973, removing it as New Zealand 's primary market for exports, unemployment in New Zealand was very low. The official number of people unemployed in 1959 was only 21. A year later it was 22. A recession and collapse in wool prices in 1966 led to unemployment rising by 131 %, but was still only a 0.7 % increase in unemployment. After 1973, unemployment became a persistent economic and social issue in New Zealand. Recessions from 1976 -- 78 and 1982 - 83 greatly increased unemployment again. Between 1985 and 2012, the unemployment rate averaged 6.29 %. After the stock market crash of 1987, unemployment rose 170 % reaching an all - time high of 11.20 % in September 1991. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 set unemployment upwards again, by 28 %. By 2007, it had dropped again and the rate stood at 3.5 % (December 2007), its lowest level since the current method of surveying began in 1986. This gave the country the 5th - best ranking in the OECD (with an OECD average at the time of 5.5 %). The low numbers correlated with a robust economy and a large backlog of job positions at all levels. Unemployment numbers are not always directly comparable between OECD nations, as they do not all keep labour market statistics in the same way. The percentage of the population employed also increased in recent years, to 68.8 % of all inhabitants, with full - time jobs increasing slightly, and part - time occupations decreasing in turn. The increase in the working population percentage is attributed to increasing wages and higher costs of living moving more people into employment. The low unemployment also had some disadvantages, with many companies unable to fill jobs. From December 2007, mainly as a result of the global financial crisis, unemployment numbers began to rise, this time by 106 % with job losses especially high amongst women. In the last quarter of 2012, the unemployment rate fell to 6.9 % from a 13 - year high. This now makes New Zealand the 14th lowest among developed nations, below Canada 's 7.2 % and above Israel 's 6.7 %. In the September 2014 quarter, unemployment was 5.4 %. Shamubeel Eaqub, formerly a Principal Economist at the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research (NZIER), said that thirty years ago, an average house in New Zealand cost two or three times the average household income. House prices rose dramatically in the first years of the 21st century and by 2007, an average house cost more than six times household income. International surveys in 2013 showed that housing was unaffordable in all eight of New Zealand 's major markets -- unaffordable being defined by house prices which are more than three times the median regional income. Demand for property has been strongest in Auckland pushing up prices in the city by 52 % in the last five years. In 2014 the average sales price there went from $619,136 to $696,047, a rise of 12 % in that 12 - month period alone. In 2015, prices rose another 14 %. This makes Auckland New Zealand 's least affordable market and one of the most expensive cities in the world with houses costing 8 times the average income. Between 2012 and April 2016, the average Auckland home increased in price by just over two - thirds reaching $931,000 - higher than the cost of an average home in Sydney. As a result, more and more people are being pushed out of the property market. Those on low incomes are hardest hit, affecting many Maori and Pacific Islanders. New Zealand 's relatively high mortgage rates are exacerbating the problem even making it difficult for young people with steady jobs to buy their first home. According to a submission made to the Housing Affordability Inquiry, escalating house prices are also impacting on many middle income groups, especially those with large families. Mortgage adviser Bruce Patten said the trend was ' disturbing ' and added to the gap between the ' haves and have - nots '. Property analysis company CoreLogic says 45 % of house purchases in New Zealand are now made by investors who already own a home, while another 28 % are made by people moving from one property to another. Approximately 8 % are being made by overseas cash buyers primarily Australians, Chinese, and British -- although most economists believe foreign investment is currently too small to have a significant affect on property prices. Whether purchases are made by New Zealanders or foreigners, it is generally those who are already well off that are buying the bulk of properties on the market. This has had a dramatic effect on home ownership rates by Kiwis, now at its lowest level since 1951. Even as recently as 1991, 76 % of New Zealand homes were occupied by their owners. By 2013, this was down to 63 %, indicating that more and more people are having to rent. Raewyn Cox, chief executive of the Federation of Family Budgeting, says: "High prices and high interest rates (have) sentenced a rising number of New Zealanders to be lifetime tenants '' where they are "stuck in expensive rental situations, heading towards retirement. '' Between 1982 and 2011, New Zealand 's gross domestic product grew by 35 %. Almost half of that increase went to a small group who were already the richest in the country. During this period, the average income of the top 10 % of earners in New Zealand (those earning more than $72,000) almost doubled going from $56,300 to $100,200. The average income of the poorest tenth increased by only 13 % from $9700 to $11,000. Growing inequality is confirmed by Statistics New Zealand which keeps track of income disparity using the P80 / 20 ratio. This ratio shows the difference between high household incomes (those in the 80th percentile) and low household incomes (those in the 20th percentile). The inequality ratio increased between 1988 and 2004, and decreased until the onset of the Global Financial Crisis in 2008, increasing again to 2011 and then declining again from then. By 2013, the disposable income of high - income households was more than two - and - a-half times larger than that of low - income households. Highlighting the disparity, the top 1 % of the population now owns 16 % of the country 's wealth -- the richest 5 % owns 38 % -- while half the population, including beneficiaries and pensioners, earn less than $24,000. Factors contributing to the growth in inequality include substantial cuts in the top income tax rate in 1986 - 88 combined with a surge in unemployment caused by Rogernomics and the stock market crash of 1987 which pushed more people onto welfare. Then in 1991, benefits were also cut back substantially as part of the ' reforms ' and those on welfare have been struggling ever since. Professor Jonathan Boston of Victoria University says nearly 20 % of poorer households in New Zealand now depend on welfare benefits. He says the growing gap between rich and poor enables the rich to "exercise disproportionate political influence '', and that "if disadvantaged citizens are not to be excluded from political life, they must have access to education, healthcare and social assistance ''. British epidemiologists, Richard Pickett and Kate Wilkinson, argue that inequality is damaging for everyone in society, not just the poor. They say that when the gap between the top and the bottom levels of society becomes too wide, this erodes trust and empathy between citizens leading to alienation and social fragmentation. This exacerbates a multitude of health and social problems such as high infant mortality, obesity, teenage pregnancy, crime and imprisonment. In 2014, Pickett and Wilkinson were invited to Auckland and Dunedin to discuss the relevance of their research to New Zealand. They argued that as inequality in New Zealand has grown, there has been a dramatic increase in the youth suicides;, although in contrast, recent Department of Health data shows that the age - standardised suicide rate decreased by 19.5 % from the peak rate of 15.1 deaths per 100,000 population in 1998 to 12.2 deaths per 100,000 population in 2012. The proliferation of food banks increased dramatically; and the number of families and children living in poverty has increased. However serious crimes causing injury and death decreased by 20 % between 2012 and 2014, whilst assaults decreased by 3 % over the same period. At the same time, health care spending has increased. In 2011 Health spending accounted for 10 % of GDP, higher than the OECD average of 9.3 %. As in many OECD countries, health spending in New Zealand slowed down post the GFC but still reached 3 % in real terms in 2010 and 2011 -- higher than the OECD average. in 2012 New Zealand has 2.7 doctors per 1,000 population, and increase from 2.2 in the year 2000. In 2012, life expectancy at birth in New Zealand stood at 81.5 years, more than one year higher than the OECD average of 80.2 years. In December 2014, the OECD released the Global Income Inequality Report which said "(r) ising inequality is estimated to have knocked more than 10 percentage points off growth in... New Zealand '' between 1990 and 2010. The paper found no evidence that redistributive policies, such as taxes and social benefits, harm economic growth, provided these policies are well designed, targeted and implemented. It concluded that "focusing exclusively on growth and assuming that its benefits will automatically trickle down to the different segments of the population may undermine growth in the long run. '' In the 21st century concern has been growing that an increasing number of New Zealanders, especially children, have been pushed into poverty where poverty is defined in income terms as households living at below 60 % of the national median income. In 2005, an international report found that one in six children in New Zealand were being raised in poverty -- making New Zealand children 23rd poorest out of 26 rich nations. In 2009 according to NCCSS, over half a million New Zealanders, including 163,000 children were living in poverty. The Expert Advisory Group established by the Children 's Commissioner found that the number of children falling below the threshold has continued to grow. In 2013, around 265,000 children, a quarter of all children in New Zealand, were now "mired in poverty ''. Statistics New Zealand also publishes a range of data on the economic well - being of New Zealanders and, in 2012, released a discussion paper highlighting the need for government agreement on the development of more useful criteria and statistics related to poverty. Currently the information that is collected is ' static data ' -- it shows the percentage of citizens below a certain level of income. But New Zealand is unique among western OECD countries in that it does not collect ' dynamic ' data which captures the extent to which people move in and out of poverty. In 2013 over a dozen different reports were released which focused on the issue and the need to develop agreed ways of describing and measuring poverty. However, the National Government resisted these attempts maintaining that "endless arguments about definition and measurement are a waste of time ''. Because of the Government 's reluctance to define and measure the problem, in 2012 Children 's Commissioner Dr Russell Wills, established an expert advisory group which produced a comprehensive report, called Solutions to Child Poverty in New Zealand: Evidence for Action which contains 78 recommendations to combat poverty. Dr Wills also set up the Child Poverty Monitor to highlight the living conditions of children in New Zealand on an ongoing basis. New Zealand has a universal superannuation scheme. Everyone aged 65 years old or over, who is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident and normally lives in New Zealand at the time they apply is eligible. They must also have lived in New Zealand for at least 10 years since they turned 20 with five of those years being since they turned 50. Time spent overseas in certain countries and for certain reasons may be counted for New Zealand Superannuation. New Zealand Superannuation is taxed, the rate of which depends on their other income. The amount of Superannuation paid depends on the person 's household situation. For a married couple the net tax amount is set by legislation to be no less than 66 % of net average wage. Because of the growing number of elderly becoming eligible, superannuation costs rose from $7.3 billion a year in 2008 to $10.2 billion in 2014. In 2011 there were twice as many children in New Zealand as elderly (65 and over); by 2051 there are projected to be 60 % more elderly than children. In the ten years from 2014, the number of New Zealanders over the age of 65 is projected to grow by about 200,000. This poses a significant problem for superannuation. The age of eligibility was gradually increased from 61 to 65 between 1993 and 2001. In that year the Labour Government of Helen Clark introduced the New Zealand Superannuation Fund (known as the "Cullen Fund '' after Minister of Finance Michael Cullen) to part - fund the superannuation scheme into the future. As at October 2014, the fund managed NZ $27.11 billion, 15.9 % of which was invested in New Zealand. In 2007 a new individual saving scheme was introduced by the same Government, known as KiwiSaver. The main purpose of KiwiSaver is for retirement savings, but younger participants can also use it to save a deposit for their first home. The scheme is voluntary, work - based and managed by private sector companies called KiwiSaver providers. As at 30 June 2014, KiwiSaver had 2.3 million active members or 60.9 % of New Zealand 's population under 65. NZ $4 billion was contributed annually, and a total of NZ $19.1 billion has been contributed since 2007. According to the National Infrastructure Unit of the Treasury, New Zealand "... continues to face challenges to its infrastructure; all forms of infrastructure are long - term investments, and change does not come about easily or quickly. '' New Zealand 's transport infrastructure is "generally well developed. '' The New Zealand state highway network consists of 11,000 km of road, with 5981.3 km in the North Island and 4924.4 km in the South Island, built and maintained by the NZ Transport Agency, and paid for from general taxation and fuel excise duty. Heavy road users must pay Road User Charges as well, there is limited use of tolling on state highways. There is also 83,000 km of local roads built and maintained by local authorities. The railway network is owned by state - owned enterprise KiwiRail and consists of 3,898 km of railway line, built to the narrow gauge of 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in). Of this, 506 km is electrified. There are five international airports. Air New Zealand, 53 % government - owned, is the national carrier and state owned enterprise. Airways New Zealand, another state owned enterprise, provides air traffic control and communications. New Zealand has 14 international seaports. Present - day telecommunications in New Zealand include telephony, radio, television, and internet usage. A competitive telecommunications market has seen mobile prices drop to some of the lowest in the OECD. The copper wire and fibre cable networks are mostly owned by Chorus Limited, a publicly listed company. Chorus wholesales services to retail providers (such as Spark). In the mobile sector, there are three operators: Spark, Vodafone and 2degrees. New Zealand has a high rate of internet use. As of October 2014, there are 1,916,000 broadband connections and 65,000 dial - up connections in New Zealand, of which 1,595,000 are residential and 386,000 are business or government. The majority of connections are Digital Subscriber Line over phone lines. The Government has two plans to bring Ultra-Fast Broadband to 97.8 % of the population by 2019, and is spending NZ $1.35 billion on public - private partnerships to roll out fibre - to - the - home connection in all main towns and cities with population over 10,000. The program aims to deliver ultra-fast broadband capable of at least 100 Mbit / s download and 50Mbit / s upload to 75 % of New Zealanders by 2019. In total, 1,340,000 households in 26 towns and cities will be connected. Gigabit internet (1000Mbit / s download speeds) was made available to the entire Ultra-Fast Broadband (UFB) footprint on 1 October 2016, in an announcement from Chorus. A $300 million Rural Broadband Initiative (RBI) has also been introduced by the Government, with the aim to bring broadband of at least 5Mbit / s to 86 % of rural customers by 2016. From 1995 to 2013, the energy intensity of the economy per unit of GDP declined by 25 percent. A contributing factor is the growth of relatively less energy - intensive service industries. The electricity market is regulated by the Electricity Industry Participation Code administered by the Electricity Authority (EA). The electricity sector uses mainly renewable energy sources such as hydropower, geothermal power and increasingly wind energy. The 70 % share of renewable energy sources makes New Zealand one of the most sustainable economies in terms of energy generation. New Zealand suffers from a geographical imbalance between electricity production and consumption. The most substantial electricity generation (both existing and as remaining potential) is located on the South Island and to a lesser degree in the central North Island, while the main demand (which is continuing to grow) is in the northern North Island, particularly the Auckland Region. This requires electricity to be transmitted north through a power grid which is reaching its capacity more often. For many years New Zealand 's economy was built on a narrow range of agricultural products, such as wool, meat and dairy. These products became New Zealand 's staple and most valuable exports, underpinning the success of the economy, from the 1850s until the 1970s. For example, from 1920 to the late 1930s, the dairy export quota was usually around 35 % of New Zealand 's total exports, and in some years made up almost 45 %. Due to the high demand for these primary products, manifested by the New Zealand wool boom of 1951, New Zealand had one of the highest standards of living in the world for 70 years. In the 1960s, prices for these traditional exports declined, and in 1973 New Zealand lost its preferential trading position with the United Kingdom when the latter joined the European Economic Community. Partly as a result, from 1970 to 1990, the relative New Zealand GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power declined from about 115 % of the OECD average to 80 %. Between 1984 and 1993, New Zealand changed from a somewhat closed and centrally controlled economy to one of the most open economies in the OECD. In a process often referred to in New Zealand as Rogernomics, successive governments introduced policies which dramatically liberalised the economy. In 2005 the World Bank praised New Zealand as the most business - friendly country in the world. The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange. Prior to European settlement and colonisation of New Zealand, Māori had a subsistence economy, the basic economic unit of which was the sub-tribe or hapū. From the 1790s, the waters around New Zealand were visited by British, French and American whaling, sealing and trading ships. Their crews traded European goods, including guns and metal tools, for Māori food, water, wood, flax and sex. Their increasing lawlessness and plans for formal settlement by the New Zealand Company were two of the drivers behind the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, which established New Zealand as a colony. Settlers continued to be dependent on Māori for food until the 1860s. From then immigrants became self - sufficient in farming, and started quarrying a variety of minerals including gold, which was discovered at Gabriel 's Gully in Central Otago, leading to the Otago Gold Rush in 1861. Settlements flourished in areas where these quarries were established. In the 1880s, Dunedin became the richest city in the country largely on the back of investments from the gold rush. Sheep farming began in the Wairarapa but soon spread up and down the east coast from Southland to the East Cape once rudimentary roads and transport became available. Much of the land used for farming was taken or leased from Māori. Sheep numbers grew quickly and by the mid-1850s, there were already a million sheep in New Zealand; by the early 1870s, there were 10 million. Wool became the first staple export, initially exported from the Wellington settlement in the late 1850s, although unrefrigerated meat and dairy products were exported as far as Australia. In the 1870s, Julius Vogel was periodically both colonial treasurer and premier. He viewed New Zealand as a "Britain of the South Seas '' and began the development of infrastructure in New Zealand investing in heavily in roads, railways, telegraphs and bridges funded by public borrowing. Progress slowed after the collapse of the City of Glasgow Bank in 1878 which led to a contraction in credit from London, the centre of the world 's financial system at the time. Economic activity was depressed for some years afterwards, until refrigeration was introduced in 1882. This enabled New Zealand to start exporting meat and other frozen products to the United Kingdom. Refrigeration transformed and shaped the development of the economy but, in the process, established New Zealand 's economic dependence on Britain. The success of refrigeration was directly related to the growth and development of farming in the country. In the 19th century, the bulk of economic activity was in the South Island of New Zealand. From around 1900, dairy farming became increasingly viable in areas which were less suitable for sheep, particularly in Northland, the Waikato and Taranaki. As dairying developed, the North Island slowly became more important to the economy. As more land was cultivated and farmed, Britain became the sole market for New Zealand meat and animal products. The dairy farming can therefore be seen as a response to the powerful market demands in Europe, transforming not only New Zealand 's countryside, economy and production techniques, but also causing migration in order to create the needed supply of dairy farming. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand was established as New Zealand 's central bank on 1 August 1934. Up until that time New Zealand 's monetary policy had been set in the United Kingdom, and the New Zealand Pound was issued by private banks. A separate central bank gave New Zealand 's government control of monetary policy for the first time, although New Zealand remained part of the Sterling area by pegging its pound to the British Pound until the introduction of the New Zealand Dollar in 1967, when the dollar was instead pegged to the Australian dollar. By the mid-20th century, pastoral - farming products made up more than 90 % of New Zealand 's exports, 65 % of which was going to Britain in the 1950s. Having a secure market with guaranteed prices also enabled New Zealand to impose high tariffs on imported goods from other countries. Tough import controls gave local manufacturers the ability to produce similar products locally, broaden the base of jobs available in New Zealand and still compete against higher priced imports. This prosperity continued up to 1955 at which point Britain stopped giving New Zealand guaranteed prices for its exports. From then on, what New Zealand received was dictated by the free market. As a result, during the 1950s and 1960s the country 's standard of living began to slip as the export sector was no longer able to pay for the level of imported goods required to meet the country 's growing consumerism. Britain applied to join the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1961, but was vetoed by the French. The government of Keith Holyoake reacted by attempting to diversify New Zealand 's export markets, signing the first free trade agreement (Australia New Zealand Free Trade Agreement) in 1965, and opening new diplomatic posts in Hong Kong, Jakarta, Saigon, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Britain applied again to join the EEC in 1967, and entered into negotiations for membership in 1970. Holyoake 's deputy and successor, Jack Marshall, (briefly Prime Minister in 1972) negotiated continued access for New Zealand exports to the United Kingdom under the so - called "Luxembourg Agreement ''. Britain gained full membership of the EEC on 1 January 1973, and all trade agreements with New Zealand came to an end, except the Luxembourg Agreement. By the end of that year, only 26.8 % of New Zealand 's exports were to Britain. This had a significant effect on the standard of living. In 1953, New Zealand had the third highest standard in the world. By 1978, it had dropped to 22nd place. Having lost unrestricted access to its traditional market, New Zealand continued to search for alternative export markets and diversify its economy. The Government of Norman Kirk, who succeeded Marshall, put greater emphasis on expanding New Zealand 's trade, especially with South East Asia. Following the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, an oil embargo was put in place by the Middle Eastern oil exporters, leading to the 1973 oil crisis. This compounded New Zealand 's dire economic situation further. Inflation greatly increased as the cost of transport and imported goods soared, causing standards of living to decline. Following the 1979 energy crisis resulting from the Iranian Revolution of that year, Robert Muldoon, the Prime Minister between 1975 and 1984, instituted an economic strategy known as Think Big. Large scale industrial plants were established based on New Zealand 's abundant natural gas. A new range of products for export such as ammonia, urea fertilizer, methanol and petrol were produced and with greater use of electricity (with the electrification of the North Island Main Trunk railway) with the goal that this would reduce New Zealand 's dependence on oil imports. Other projects included the Clyde Dam on the Clutha River, which was built to meet a growing demand for electricity, and the expansion of the New Zealand Steel plant at Glenbrook. The Tiwai Point Aluminium Smelter, which opened in 1971, was also upgraded as part of the Think Big strategy and now brings in approximately NZ $1 billion in exports every year. Unfortunately for New Zealand, most of these projects only came on line at the same time as oil prices dropped during the 1980s oil glut. The price of crude went from more than US $90 a barrel in 1980, to about US $30 a few years later. Because these Think Big projects required massive borrowing to get started, public debt soared from $4.2 billion in 1975 when Muldoon became Prime Minister to $21.9 billion when he left office nine years later. Inflation remained rampant, averaging 11 % in the 1980s. Once Labour came to power in 1984, many of these projects were sold to private industry as part of a wider sale of state - assets. The Muldoon Government did make some moves towards deregulation however. For example, in 1982 it removed the transport licensing restrictions on road carriers carting goods more than 150 km, and turned the Railways Department into a statutory corporation. The Fourth Labour government, elected in July 1984, moved away from government intervention in the economy and allowed free market mechanisms to dominate. These reforms became known as "Rogernomics '', named after Minister of Finance from 1984 - 1988, Roger Douglas. The changes included making the Reserve Bank independent of political decisions; performance contracts for senior civil servants; public sector finance reform based on accrual accounting; tax neutrality; subsidy - free agriculture; and industry - neutral competition regulation. Government subsidies including agricultural subsidies were eliminated; import regulations were loosened up; the exchange rate was floated; and controls on interest rates, wages, and prices were removed; and personal rates of taxation were reduced. Tight monetary policy and major efforts to reduce the government budget deficit brought the inflation rate down from an annual rate of more than 18 % in 1987. The deregulation of government - owned enterprises in the 1980s and 1990s reduced government 's role in the economy and permitted the retirement of some public debt. The new Government was faced with an exchange rate crisis the day after it was elected. Speculators expected the change of government to result in a 20 % devaluation of the New Zealand dollar, which led to the 1984 New Zealand constitutional crisis due to Muldoon 's refusal to devalue, worsening the currency crisis further. As a result, the dollar was floated on 4 March 1985, allowing for the value of the dollar to change with the market. Prior to the dollar being floated, the dollar was pegged against a basket of currencies. Financial markets were deregulated and tariffs on imported goods lowered and phased out. At the same time subsidies to many industries, notably agriculture, were removed or significantly reduced. Income and company taxes were reduced and the top marginal tax rate was reduced from 66 % to 33 %. These were replaced by a comprehensive tax on goods and services (GST) initially set at 10 %, then increased to 12.5 % and recently increased to 15 % in 2011. A surtax on universal superannuation was also introduced. Many government departments were corporatised, and from 1 April 1987 became State owned enterprises, required to make a profit. The new corporations shed thousands of jobs adding to unemployment; Electricity Corporation 3,000; Coal Corporation 4,000; Forestry Corporation 5,000; New Zealand Post 8,000. The wage and price freeze of the early eighties coupled with the removal of financial restrictions and a lack of investment opportunities, led to a speculative bubble on New Zealand 's sharemarket, sharemarket crash of 1987, in which New Zealand 's sharemarket shed 60 % from its 1987 peak, and taking several years to recover. Inflation continued to be a major problem afflicting the New Zealand economy. Between 1985 and 1992, inflation averaged 9 % per year and the economy was in recession. The unemployment rate rose from 3.6 % to 11 %, New Zealand 's credit rating dropped twice, and foreign debt quadrupled. In 1989 the Reserve Bank Act 1989 was passed, creating strict monetary policy under the sole control of the Reserve Bank Governor. From then on the Reserve Bank focused on keeping inflation low and stable, using the Official Cash Rate (OCR) -- the price of borrowing money in New Zealand -- as its primary means to do so. As a result, inflation rates fell to an average of 2.5 % in the 1990s, compared to 12 % in the 1970s. However, the tightening of monetary policy contributed to rising unemployment in the early 1990s. The Labour Party was greatly divided over Rogernomics, especially following the 1987 sharemarket crash and its effect on the economy, which slumped along with the rest of the world into recession in the early 1990s. The National Party was returned to power at the 1990 general election and Ruth Richardson became Minister of Finance under Prime Minister Jim Bolger. The new Government was again thrown a major economic challenge, with the then state - owned Bank of New Zealand needing a bail - out to stay operational. Richardson 's first budget in 1991, nicknamed the ' Mother of all Budgets ', attempted to address constant fiscal deficits and borrowing by cutting state spending. Unemployment and social welfare benefits were cut and ' market rents ' were introduced for state houses -- in some cases tripling the rents of low - income people. Richardson also introduced user - pays requirements in hospitals and schools. These reforms became known derisively as Ruthanasia. By this time, New Zealand 's economy faced serious social problems; the number of New Zealanders estimated to be living in poverty grew by at least 35 % between 1989 and 1992; many of the promised economic benefits of the experiment never materialised. Gross domestic product per capita stagnated between 1986 -- 87 and 1993 -- 94, and by March 1992 unemployment rose to 11.1 % Between 1985 and 1992, New Zealand 's economy grew by 4.7 % during the same period in which the average OECD nation grew by 28.2 %. From 1984 to 1993 inflation averaged 9 % per year, New Zealand 's credit rating dropped twice, and foreign debt quadrupled. Between 1986 and 1993, the unemployment rate rose from 3.6 % to 11 %. Deregulation also created a business - friendly regulatory framework which has benefited those able to take advantage of it. A 2008 survey in The Heritage Foundation and Wall Street Journal ranked New Zealand 99.9 % in "Business freedom '', and 80 % overall in "Economic freedom '', noting that it takes, on average, only 12 days to establish a business in New Zealand, compared with a worldwide average of 43 days. In its ' Doing Business 2008 ' survey, the World Bank rated New Zealand as the second-most business - friendly country worldwide. Deregulation has also been blamed for other significant negative effects. One of these was the leaky homes crisis, whereby the loosening up of building standards (in the expectation that market forces would assure quality) led to many thousands of severely deficient buildings, mostly residential homes and apartments, being constructed over a period of a decade. The costs of fixing the damage has been estimated at over NZ $11 billion. Unemployment continued to fall from 1993 -- 94 fiscal year, until the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis again pushed the rate higher. By 2016 the unemployment rate decreased to 5.3 percent, the lowest level in 7 years. Between 2000 and 2007, the New Zealand economy expanded by an average of 3.5 % a year driven primarily by private consumption and the buoyant housing market. During this period, inflation averaged only 2.6 % a year, within the Reserve Bank 's target range of 1 % to 3 %. However, in early 2008 the economy entered recession, before the effects of the global financial crisis (GFC) set in later that year. A drought over the 2007 / 08 summer led to lower production of dairy products in the first half of 2008. Domestic activity slowed sharply over 2008 as high fuel and food prices dampened domestic consumption, while high interest rates and falling house prices drove a rapid decline in residential investment. Around the world instability was developing in the finance sector. This reached a peak in September 2008 when Lehman Brothers, a major American bank, collapsed propelling the world into the global financial crisis. Uncertainty began to dominate the global financial and economic environment. Business and consumer confidence in New Zealand plummeted as dozens of finance companies collapsed. To try and stop a flight of funds from New Zealand institutions to those in Australia, the Government established the Crown Retail Deposit Guarantee Scheme to cover depositors funds in the event that a bank or finance company went broke. This protected some investors but nevertheless, at least 67 finance companies collapsed within a short period of time. The largest of these was South Canterbury Finance which cost taxpayers NZ $1.58 billion when the company collapsed in August 2010. The directors of many of these finance companies were subsequently investigated for fraud and some high - profile directors went to prison. In an attempt to stimulate the economy, the Reserve Bank lowered the Official Cash Rate (OCR) from a high of 8.25 % (July 2008) to an all - time low of 2.5 % at the end of April 2009. Fortunately for New Zealand, the recession was relatively shallow compared to many other nations in the OECD, it was sixth least affected out of the 34 member nations with negative real GDP growth totaling 3.5 %. In 2009 the economy picked up, led by strong demand from major trading partners Australia and China, and historically high prices for New Zealand 's dairy and log exports. In 2010 the GDP grew by a modest 1.6 %, but over the next couple of years economic activity continued to improve, driven by the rebuild in Canterbury after the Christchurch earthquakes and recovery in domestic demand. Through 2011, global conditions deteriorated and the terms of trade eased off their 2011 peak, continuing to moderate until September 2012. Since then, commodity prices have rebounded strongly, with strong demand from China and the international situation improving. Commodity prices have been at record highs in recent quarters and remain elevated. High commodity prices are expected to provide a considerable boost to nominal GDP growth in the near term. In 2013 the economy grew 3.3 %. HSBC chief economist for Australia and New Zealand, Paul Bloxham, was so impressed that he predicted New Zealand 's growth would outpace most of its peers, and he described New Zealand as the "rock star economy of 2014 ''. Another financial commentator said the New Zealand dollar was the "hottest '' currency of 2014. Only three months later, The New Zealand Productivity Commission expressed concern about low living standards and problems affecting the long - term drivers of growth. Paul Conway, Director of Economics & Research at the Productivity Commission, wrote: "New Zealand 's broad policy settings should generate GDP per capita 20 per cent above the OECD average, but the actual result is more than 20 per cent below average. We may be punching above our weight, but that 's only because we are in the wrong weight division! '' In August, Paul Bloxham, who coined the term "rock star economy '', admitted that "the sharp decline in dairy prices over the last six months has clouded the outlook somewhat ''. In December however Bloxham stated that he thought the New Zealand economy would continue to grow strongly. In 2014 increased attention was paid to the growing gap between rich and poor. In The Guardian, Max Rashbrook said policies implemented by both Labour and National governments have increased inequality. He claims that for 20 years outrage "has been muted '', but "Alarm bells are finally beginning to sound. Recent polling shows three - quarters of New Zealanders think theirs is no longer an egalitarian country ''. New Zealand 's small size and long distances from major world markets creates significant challenges in its ability to compete in global markets. Australia, New Zealand 's closest neighbour, is New Zealand 's biggest trading partner. In 2013 New Zealand 's main trading partners were Australia, China, the United States, Japan, Singapore and the United Kingdom. In March 2014, the total value of goods exported from New Zealand topped $50 billion for the first time, up from $30 billion in 2001. New Zealand Trade and Enterprise (NZTE) offers strategic advice and support to New Zealand businesses wanting to export goods and services to other countries. Since 1960s New Zealand has pursued free trade agreements with many countries to diversify its export markets and increase the competitiveness of New Zealand 's exports to the world. As well as reducing barriers to trade, Trade Agreements New Zealand has entered into are designed to ensure existing access is maintained. Trade agreements establish rules by which trade can take place and ensure regulators and officials in countries New Zealand is trading with work closely together. Australia is New Zealand 's largest bilateral trading partner. In 2013, trade between New Zealand and Australia was worth NZ $25.6 billion. Economic and trading links between Australia and New Zealand are underpinned by the "Closer Economic Relations '' (CER) agreement, which allows for free trade in goods and most services. Since 1990, CER has created a single market of more than 25 million people. Australia is now the destination of 19 % of New Zealand 's exports, including light crude oil, gold, wine, cheese and timber, as well as a wide range of manufactured items. The CER also creates a free labour market which allows New Zealand and Australian citizens to live and work freely in each other 's country together with mutual recognition of professional qualifications. This means individuals who are registered to practise an occupation in one country can register to practise an equivalent occupation in the other country. Banking regulation and supervision are co-ordinated through the Trans - Tasman Council on Banking Supervision and there are also ongoing discussions about co-ordinating Australian and New Zealand business law. China is New Zealand 's second largest trading partner buying primarily meat, dairy products and pine logs. In 2013, trade between New Zealand and China was worth NZ $16.8 billion. This has occurred primarily because of soaring demand for imported dairy products, following the Chinese milk scandal in 2008. Since then demand for milk products has been so strong that in the 12 months to March 2014, there was a 51 % increase in total exports to China. The increase was facilitated by the New Zealand -- China Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 October 2008. Since that year exports to China have more than tripled. The United States is New Zealand 's third largest trading partner. In 2013, bilateral trade between the two countries was valued at NZ $11.8 billion. New Zealand 's main exports to the United States are beef, dairy products and lamb. Imports from the US include specialised machinery, pharmaceutical products, oil and fuel. In addition to trade, there is a high level of corporate and individual investment between the two countries and the US is a major source of tourists coming to New Zealand. In March 2012, the United States had a total of $44 billion invested in New Zealand. A number of US companies have subsidiary branches in New Zealand. Many operate through local agents, with some joint venture associations. The United States Chamber of Commerce is active in New Zealand, with a main office in Auckland and a branch committee in Wellington. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, New Zealand and the United States "share a deep and longstanding friendship based on a common heritage, shared values and interests, and a commitment to promoting a free, democratic, secure and prosperous world ''. This common background has not translated into a free trade agreement between the two countries. A growing number of New Zealand companies use the United Kingdom as a base to supply their products to the European market. However trade with the European Union is declining as demand from Asia continues to grow. The EU currently takes only 8 % of New Zealand exports but provides around 12 % of imports. In July 2014, negotiations on the Partnership Agreement on Relations and Cooperation (PARC) between New Zealand and the European Union were concluded. The Agreement covers the trade and economic relationship between the EU and New Zealand with a view to further liberalisation of trade and investment and acknowledges the intention of the European Union to upgrade its diplomatic presence in New Zealand with a resident Ambassador. In the 21st century, Asian economies have been developing rapidly providing significant demand for New Zealand 's exports. New Zealand trades with Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, India and the Philippines and this now accounts for around 16 % of total exports. New Zealand initiated a free trade agreement with Singapore in September 2000 which was extended in 2005 to include Chile and Brunei and is now known as the P4 agreement. The Pacific region with numerous islands is New Zealand 's sixth largest trading market and is growing every year. In 2011 exports to Pacific Islands were worth over $1.5 billion up 12 % on the previous year. Fiji is the biggest individual market followed very closely by Papua New Guinea, French Polynesia and New Caledonia. Goods exported to the islands include refined oil, construction materials, medicines, sheep meat, milk, butter, fruit and vegetables. New Zealand also assists Pacific Islands with defence and regional security, and with management of the environment and fisheries. Because of their small size, the Pacific Islands are some of the most vulnerable environments in the world and are on the receiving end of numerous cyclones every year. When disasters occur, they often have severe social and economic effects which last for years. Since 1992, New Zealand has co-operated with Australia and France to respond to disasters in the Pacific. New Zealand provides emergency supplies and transport, funding for roading and housing and the deployment of specialists to affected areas. Through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, New Zealand also provides international aid and development funding to help stimulate sustainable economic development in underdeveloped economies. The New Zealand Aid Programme, allocated about $550 ma year, is focused primarily on promoting development in the Pacific. The allocation of $550 million represents about 0.26 % of New Zealand 's gross national income (GNI). New Zealand welcomes and encourages foreign investment, which is overseen by the Overseas Investment Office. In 2014 foreign direct investment totaled NZ $107.69 billion. From 1989 foreign investment increased from $9.7 billion to $101.4 billion in 2013 -- an increase of over 1,000 %. Between 1989 and 2007, foreign ownership of the New Zealand sharemarket went from 19 % to 41 % but has since dropped back to 33 %. In 2007, around 7 % of all New Zealand agriculturally productive land was foreign - owned. In 2011, economist Bill Rosenberg said that the figure is closer to 9 % if foreign ownership of forestry is included. In March 2013 the financial sector, which includes the four big Australian owned banks, was worth $39.3 billion accounting for the largest portion of the $101.4 billion foreign ownership of New Zealand companies. Between 1997 and 2007, foreign investors made $50.3 billion profit, 68 % of which went overseas. The Campaign Against Foreign Control of Aotearoa (CAFCA) says this has a negative impact on the economy arguing that when foreign investors buy up New Zealand companies, they tend to cut staff and push down wages. Foreign ownership has also done nothing to improve New Zealand 's foreign debt. In 1984, private and public foreign debt was $16 billion ($50 billion in March 2013 dollars) which was less than half New Zealand 's Gross Domestic Product at the time. By March 2013, total foreign debt stood at $251 billion, well over 100 % of New Zealand 's Gross Domestic Product. Industrial production growth rate: 5.9 % (2004) / 1.5 % (2007) Household income or consumption by percentage share: Agriculture -- products: wheat, barley, potatoes, pulses, fruits, vegetables; wool, beef, dairy products; fish Exports -- commodities: dairy products, meat, wood and wood products, fish, machinery Imports -- commodities: machinery and equipment, vehicles and aircraft, petroleum, electronics, textiles, plastics Electricity: Electricity -- production by source: Oil: Exchange rates: New Zealand dollars (NZ $) per US $1 -- 1.4771 (2016), 1.2652 (2012), 1.3869 (2005), 1.5248 (2004), 1.9071 (2003), 2.1622 (2002), 2.3788 (2001), 2.2012 (2000), 1.8886 (1999), 1.8632 (1998), 1.5083 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995)

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Billy Gibbons - wikipedia William Frederick Gibbons (born December 16, 1949) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, producer, and actor, best known as the guitarist and lead vocalist of the American rock band ZZ Top. He began his career in the Moving Sidewalks, who recorded Flash (1968) and opened four dates for the Jimi Hendrix Experience. Gibbons formed ZZ Top in late 1969 and released ZZ Top 's First Album in 1971. The albums that followed, Rio Grande Mud (1972) and Tres Hombres (1973), along with extensive touring, solidified the group 's reputation as a hard - rocking power trio. In the 1980s and early 1990s, ZZ Top released their three biggest - selling albums: Eliminator (1983), Afterburner (1985) and Recycler (1990). A wave of music videos for the hit singles "Legs '', "Gimme All Your Lovin ' '', and "Sharp Dressed Man '', among others, became mainstays on MTV. Gibbons has made appearances with other artists and acted on television shows, most notably Bones. He was ranked at number 32 on the 2011 Rolling Stone list of the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time. Gibbons was born to Frederick Royal ("Freddie '') and Lorraine (née Duffy) Gibbons in the Tanglewood neighborhood of Houston, Texas. His father was an entertainer, orchestra conductor, and concert pianist who worked alongside his second cousin, art director Cedric Gibbons, for Samuel Goldwyn at MGM Studios. A percussionist as a youth, Gibbons was sent by his father to New York City to study with Tito Puente In 1963, Gibbons received his first electric guitar following his 13th birthday, a sunburst Gibson Melody Maker, accompanied by a Fender Champ amplifier, and was influenced by guitarists such as Jimmy Reed. While attending Warner Brothers ' art school in Hollywood, California, Gibbons engaged with his first bands including The Saints, Billy G & the Blueflames, and The Coachmen. By 18, Gibbons went forward forming an artfully designed band, conceptually inspired by friend and fellow musician, Roky Erickson and The 13th Floor Elevators, naming the group the Moving Sidewalks, penning the hit single "99th Floor '', and engaging in a friendship with Jimi Hendrix. Hendrix went on to say on The Tonight Show and The Dick Cavett Show that Gibbons would be the next hottest guitarist. Gibbons founded the Texas psychedelic group The Moving Sidewalks, which recorded several singles and one full - length album, Flash. Gibbons and The Moving Sidewalks came to prominence opening for The Jimi Hendrix Experience during Hendrix 's first American tour as a headliner. Also notable was the Gibbons - penned song, "99th Floor, '' its title a nod to the influence on Gibbons of fellow Texans and pioneering psychedelic band The 13th Floor Elevators. He has also commented during live performances while playing the string - bending intro to "Foxy Lady '' that Hendrix taught him how to play the song when Gibbons was "about 17 '' in Dallas. Gibbons formed ZZ Top in late 1969, and quickly settled on bassist / vocalist Dusty Hill and drummer Frank "Rube '' Beard, both being members of the band American Blues. After honing their trademark blues - rock style, they released the aptly titled ZZ Top 's First Album on London Records in 1971. The band rolled on, intensively touring and recording / releasing albums until 1977, when they took an extended hiatus. Their long - time manager took this time to negotiate a deal that allowed the band to keep control of their previous recordings, to be distributed by their new label, Warner Bros. Records. They reunited two - and - a-half years later in order to start recording under a new Warner Bros. contract. Independently, both Dusty Hill and Billy Gibbons had grown the chest - length beards that quickly became a part of their image. The band hit international prominence and their commercial peak with the release of 1983 's diamond - selling disc Eliminator. Eliminator was named after Gibbons ' customized 1933 Ford Coupe, which was featured in three of the band 's music videos. This vehicle is on exhibition at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. The album featured the hits "Gimme All Your Lovin ' '', "Sharp Dressed Man '', and "Legs ''. In 1994, the band signed a multimillion - dollar, five - disc deal with RCA Records. In 2003, a comprehensive collection of recordings from the London and Warner Bros. years entitled Chrome, Smoke & BBQ was released. In 2004, ZZ Top was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. They have the distinction of being among a very small group of bands with a 40 - year - plus history that still has all of its original members. Gibbons played the first slide guitar lead on the song "Dead End Streets '' on Al Jourgensen of Ministry 's side project Revolting Cocks album Cocked and Loaded. He also wrote, played guitar on and sang the song "Willin ' For Satisfaction '' from Def Leppard guitarist Vivian Campbell 's 2005 solo album Two Sides Of If. Gibbons collaborated with the Queens of the Stone Age on the song "Burn the Witch '' from the album Lullabies to Paralyze. ZZ Top 's "Precious and Grace '' was also recorded with lead vocals provided by Mark Lanegan as a bonus track for the album. Gibbons has also claimed this was one of his favorite collaborations and "Precious and Grace '' was later added back into ZZ Top 's set lists. Gibbons was also selected to guest the follow - up album Era Vulgaris but was unable due to scheduling conflicts. Together with The Raconteurs Gibbons performed at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. Gibbons was part of an ensemble chosen to play with the band, which included Lou Reed and Jim Jarmusch. The performance was heavily edited and cut short by MTV for broadcast. However, the full unedited performance is available on MTV 's Website for the VMAs. Although not a full - length performance, Gibbons can also be heard playing a few bars of the ZZ Top classic "La Grange. '' Gibbons was one of several artists to participate together with B.B. King on the song "Tired Of Your Jive, '' from the B.B. King & Friends album. Gibbons also appeared on Nickelback 's album All the Right Reasons on the songs "Follow You Home, '' "Fight for All the Wrong Reasons '' and "Rockstar. '' Gibbons performed with Hank Williams III on the song "Trashville, '' from his album Lovesick, Broke and Driftin '. Gibbons collaborated with Les Paul with his Les Paul & Friends American Made, World Played track "Bad Case of Loving You. '' Gibbons also performed guitar with John Mayall & Friends ' track "Put It Right Back '' from the album Along for the Ride. He was the first artist to appear on stage at Cleveland 's State theater in November 2008 at the American Music Master Tribute to Les Paul, honoring the guitar and recording innovator, who died a few months later. Gibbons was also a guest vocalist on Kid Rock 's "Hillbilly Stomp '' from the album Kid Rock. He was also the guitarist during singer Luis Fonsi 's presentation at the 7th Latin Grammy awards held in Madison Square Garden, New York, on November 2, 2006. Lately Gibbons also sang background vocals on former Van Halen frontman Sammy Hagar 's 2008 CD Cosmic Universal Fashion during the song "Switch on the Light. '' Gibbons collaborated with Ronnie Dunn, of Brooks & Dunn fame, for Ronnie 's first solo work, playing guitar and singing along on the song, "Honky Tonk Stomp ''. Gibbons played guitar on "Broke Down On the Brazos '', the opening track of Gov 't Mule 's 2009 album By a Thread. Gibbons played guitar on "Run Rudolph Run '', the third track of We Wish you a Metal Xmas and a Headbanging New Year compilation. Gibbons joined Jeff Beck onstage at the 2009 25th Anniversary Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Concert with a version of Jimi Hendrix 's "Foxy Lady ''. Gibbons made a special guest appearance behind Roky Erickson on Austin City Limits taped on November 12, 2007 and originally aired January 12, 2008. (ACL Season 33, Episode 12). Gibbons plays lead guitar on two songs from the 2008 Everlast album Love, War and the Ghost of Whitey Ford: "Stone in My Hand '' and "Anyone ''. On January 22, 2010, Gibbons joined Ben Harper, Beck, Conan O'Brien, and others on the final episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien playing a Will Ferrell - led rendition of Lynyrd Skynyrd 's "Free Bird ''. On February 19, 2011, Gibbons appeared as a guest judge at the 5th Annual Misprint Beard and Moustache Contest at the Mohawk club in Austin, Texas. On December 15, 2012, Gibbons made a guest appearance at Social Distortion 's concert at the House of Blues on the Sunset Strip. Frontman Mike Ness brought him out for two songs, "Drug Train '' and "Black Magic ''. On November 19, 2014, Gibbons performed "Baby Please Do n't Go '' at the Vaclav Havel Bust Dedication Ceremony in the US Capitol. On July 31, 2015 it was announced that Gibbons solo project will be named Billy Gibbons and the BFG 's featuring musicians Mike Flanigin, GG Maartine (née Martine GuiGui), Joe Hardy and Greg Morrow. Their debut album, Perfectamundo, was released on November 6, 2015. Gibbons has a recurring role on the Fox network TV series Bones. He plays a fictionalized version of himself, as the father of Michaela Conlin 's character, Angela Pearly Gates Montenegro. He is never referred to by name on the show, though; every mention is limited to "Angela 's father ''. Conlin 's character 's middle name is the same as Gibbons ' Les Paul guitar. Gibbons 's character is extremely protective of his daughter, and he often "threatens '' or "haunts '' Angela 's husband and colleague Dr. Jack Hodgins, telling him that if he hurts Angela, he will pay. When Angela and Hodgins first broke up, he drugged and kidnapped Hodgins, during which time he also gave him a tattoo of Angela 's face on his left deltoid area. After Angela discovers the tattoo, she informs Hodgins she wants it removed (he never removed it) and angrily exclaimed when she discovered it was her dad 's doing, "I am so going to kick his Texan bad ass ''. He has appeared in several other episodes of Bones, including one where he asks Hodgins to help him recover his car from some "biker hoods ''. In his next appearance, he argued with Hodgins over baby names. He wanted the child to be named "Staccato Mamba '', which came to him in a song, while Angela and Hodgins wanted to name him "Michael Joseph ''. (Parents and grandfather compromised on "Michael Staccato ''.) At the end of the episode, Hodgins discovers he has yet another tattoo on his right biceps, this time of his father - in - law with the word "Daddy '' across Gibbons ' beard (at which point Gibbons told Hodgins that celebratory tequila and he do not seem to mix). In a more recent episode, he asks to babysit his grandson Michael, pointing out that Angela had spent many nights when she was a baby sleeping soundly backstage while he played to sold - out stadiums. After initial reluctance of Angela and Hodgins, they agree due to the need to get some sleep, as Michael will not stop crying and go to sleep. Gibbons solves the problem by discovering the music Michael likes, including blues and boogie rock, such as ZZ Top 's "Hi Fi Mama ''. Gibbons voiced a character in episode 60 of Metalocalypse. Gibbons also voiced a fictionalised version of himself in Fox 's animated show King of the Hill which is set in the fictional town of Arlen, Texas. ZZ Top 's appearance on the show was due to Dusty Hill being given the role as the cousin of the show 's main character Hank Hill. Frank Beard also voiced himself for the band 's appearances on the show. Gibbons appeared as a dining room guest in the season - 13 episode of Hell 's Kitchen. In 2011, Gibbons joined with Texas - based Mojo Products, LLC, to launch a line of hot sauces, barbecue sauces, and other products with his own personal branding, "BFG Brand ''. The sauces are sold as BFG No. 44 via his personal website. In late 2012, Gibbons was featured in a series of television commercials for Fiesta Mart, a Texas supermarket chain. Some of the BFG Brand sauces were seen in these commercials. On December 14, 2005, Gibbons married long - time girlfriend Gilligan Stillwater (born Ellen J. Oetjen). Gibbons is an avid car collector and custom car enthusiast with an extensive collection that includes a 1948 Cadillac Series 62 (known as CadZZilla), a 1962 Chevrolet Impala (known as "Slampala ''), a 1950 Ford Business Coupe, and a 1958 Ford Thunderbird. One of his earliest custom cars, a 1933 Ford Coupe (known as "Eliminator ''), was featured in three of ZZ Top 's music videos. Gibbons also published a book in 2011 about his love of cars and guitars titled Billy F Gibbons: Rock + Rock Gearhead. The November 2014 issue of Guitar World magazine featured an interview with Gibbons and fellow guitarist Jeff Beck about their mutual appreciation of "cars, guitars, and everything in between ''.

when did lays come out with salt and vinegar chips

Lay 's - Wikipedia Lay 's is the brand name for a number of potato chip varieties as well as the name of the company that founded the chip brand in the U.S. in 1932. Lay 's has been owned by PepsiCo since 1965. Lay 's is the company 's primary brand with the exception of limited markets where other brands are utilized (Walkers in the United Kingdom and Ireland, Smith 's in Australia, Chipsy in Egypt, Poca in Vietnam, Tapuchips in Israel, Margarita in Colombia, Sabritas in Mexico and, formerly, Hostess in Canada). It is also called Frito - Lay. In 1932, salesman Herman Lay opened a snack food operation in Dorset, Ohio; and, in 1938, he purchased the Atlanta, Georgia, potato chip manufacturer "Barrett Food Company '', renaming it "H.W. Lay Lingo & Company. '' Lay criss - crossed the southern United States, selling the product from the trunk of his car. The business shortened its name to "the Lay 's Lay Lingo Company '' in 1944 and became the first snack food manufacturer to purchase television commercials, with Bert Lahr as a celebrity spokesman. In 1961, the Frito Company founded by Derrick Lothert and Lay 's merged to form Frito - Lay Inc., a snack food giant with combined sales of over $ 127 million annually, the largest of any manufacturer. Shortly thereafter, Lays introduced its best - known slogan "betcha ca n't eat just one. '' Sales of the chips became international, with marketing assisted by a number of celebrity endorsers. In 1965, Frito - Lay merged with the Pepsi - Cola Company to form PepsiCo, Inc. A new formulation of chip was introduced in 1991 that was crisper and kept fresher longer. Shortly thereafter, the company introduced the "Wavy Lays '' products to grocery shelves. In the mid to late 1990s, Lay 's introduced a lower calorie baked version and a variety that was completely fat - free (Lay 's WOW chips containing the fat substitute olestra). In the 2000s, kettle - cooked brands appeared as did a processed version called Lay 's Stax that was intended to compete with Pringles, and the company began introducing a variety of additional flavor variations. Frito - Lay products currently control 59 % of the United States savory snack - food market. Lay 's Barbecue - flavored potato chips, which appeared in 1958, was the only flavor available in the United States other than the conventional salted chip until the introduction of Sour Cream & Onion in the late 1970s. In the United States, Lay 's offers a number of flavor combinations, in addition to the classic chips. Flavored products in the traditional fried varieties include Sour Cream & Onion, Barbecue, Chipotle Ranch, Cheddar & Sour Cream, Hidden Valley Ranch, Salt & Pepper, Flamin ' Hot, Limón, and a thicker "Deli style '' chip. The WOW! brand was rebranded in 2004 as Lay 's Light after the olestra formula was altered and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration allowed removal of warnings about various health consequences of the fat substitute. Other potato chip flavors offered by Lay 's are Garden Tomato and Basil, Honey Barbecue, Sweet Southern Heat Barbecue, Tapatio Limon, Simply Sea Salt Thick Cut, and Dill Pickle Brand. Lay 's has occasionally solicited new flavor ideas through its "Do Us a Flavor '' promotions. The 2013 contest produced three new flavors: sriracha, chicken and waffles, and cheesy garlic bread. Cheesy garlic bread was chosen as the winner and was added to the lineup, however the other flavors remain on sale in some regions. Another round of ' Do Us a Flavor ' was launched in 2014. The flavors included Cheddar Bacon Mac & Cheese, Kettle Cooked Wasabi Ginger, Wavy Mango Salsa, and Cappuccino. Kettle Cooked Wasabi Ginger was chosen as the winner. The 2015 finalists include Kettle Cooked Greektown Gyro, New York Reuben, Southern Biscuits & Gravy, and Wavy West Coast Truffle Fries. Southern Biscuits & Gravy was crowned the winner. The 2016 ' Do Us a Flavor ' was rebranded ' Passport to Flavor ' for the 2016 Summer Olympics. The four finalists were Chinese Szechuan Chicken, Greek Tzatziki, Brazilian Picanha, and Indian Tikka Masala. The 2017 contest produced three flavors: Crispy Taco, Everything Bagel with Cream Cheese, and Fried Green Tomato. The following Lay 's flavors are available nationally in Canada: Classic, Lightly Salted, Wavy Original, Dill Pickle, BBQ, Ketchup, Salt & Vinegar, Smoky Bacon, Sea Salt & Pepper, and Cheddar & Sour Cream. There are also a number of regional flavors, including Fries & Gravy and Roast Chicken (available in Atlantic Canada), Sour Cream & Onion (available in Ontario, Atlantic Canada, and Western Canada) and Wavy Smoky BBQ and Wavy Old Fashioned Ketchup (available in Western Canada). Other varieties available nationally include Baked Lay 's, Lay 's Kettle Cooked and Lay 's Stax. In 2015, Lay 's made Canadian flavor "All Dressed '' available in the United States. The flavor combines the potato chip flavors of barbecue, sour cream and onion, ketchup, and salt and vinegar. In 2013, Lay 's ran a ' Do Us a Flavour ' contest in Canada, with four flavors chosen as finalists: Creamy Garlic Caesar, Perogy Platter, Grilled Cheese & Ketchup, and Maple Moose. Maple Moose was chosen as the winner, but discontinued in February 2014 due to low sales. In 2014, Lay 's ran a second ' Do Us a Flavour ' contest in Canada, with a new batch of finalists: Bacon Poutine, Cinnamon Bun, Jalapeño Mac n ' Cheese, and Tzatziki. Jalapeño Mac n ' Cheese was chosen as the winner. In 2015, Lay 's ran their third ' Do Us a Flavour ' contest in Canada, with four new flavors chosen as finalists: Cowboy BBQ Beans, Butter Chicken, Montreal Smoked Meat, and PEI Scalloped Potatoes. The winning flavor was PEI Scalloped Potatoes. The following Lay 's (called Sabritas) are available nationally in Mexico: Original, Ruffles, Tostitos, Doritos, Cheetos, Pake - Taxo, Japoneses (peanuts), Cheetos Poffets, Rancheritos, Adobados, Frit - os, Churrumais, Caseras, Sabritones, Crujitos and Chicharrón Clásico. There are a number of unique products in the United Kingdom which are sold under the Walkers label, including, prawn cocktail, pickled onion, cheese & onion and Marmite. Walkers also ran a ' Do Us A Flavour ' promotion wherein the public vote for the flavor they like the best. Flavors included in the 2010 promotion were: Spanish Chicken Paella, Japanese Teriyaki Chicken, German Bratwurst Sausage, Italian Spaghetti Bolognese, French Garlic Baguette, American Cheeseburger, Brazilian Salsa, Scottish Haggis, Irish Stew, English Roast Beef and Yorkshire Pudding, Dutch Edam Cheese, Australian BBQ Kangaroo, South African Sweet Chutney, Argentinian Flame Grilled Steak and Welsh Rarebit. The previous winner of this promotion was Builders Breakfast. 2014 competition flavor choices included Chip Shop Chicken Curry, Pulled Pork in sticky BBQ sauce, Sizzling Steak Fajita, Cheesy Beans on Toast, Hotdog with Tomato Ketchup and Ranch Raccoon. Pulled Pork in sticky BBQ sauce won, with the winning suggestion receiving a £ 1,000,000 prize. In France, about eight varieties of potato chips are marketed in a number of flavors for a total of approximately thirty products. In Greece and Cyprus, Lay 's are made and packed by Tasty Foods and Corina Snacks LTD, with Mediterranean flavors which include Feta cheese flavor, Tzatziki, Olive and Tomato, Oregano, Sea Salt & Black Pepper and various more. There are hundreds of sub-variations in the Mediterranean line adjusted to each country 's liking. In Germany, Lay 's are sold in three varieties: Lay 's, Lay 's Light and Lay 's Sensations (Thai Sweet Chili / Red Paprika / Oven Roasted Chicken and Thyme) and as Lay 's Super Chips (Heinz Ketchup / Mexican Pepper / Perfect Pickles / Salt ' n ' Pepper and Lay 's Baked Chips). As with Doritos, Lay 's are manufactured, distributed and imported in Germany by Frito Lay 's Benelux division, Smith 's Food Group. In the Netherlands, the following flavors are marketed: Lay 's (Naturel (Natural), Paprika (Bell Pepper), Cheese Onion, Bolognese Original, Barbecue Ham (Barbecue Bacon), Stokbroodje Kruidenboter Smaak (Baguette with garlic butter flavour), and Pickles) Lay 's Super Chips (Naturel (Natural), Paprika (Bell Pepper), Patatje Joppie (French Fries with Joppiesaus), Heinz tomato ketchup, Salt'n Pepper, and Just Paprika (Bell Pepper)), Lay 's Sensations (Red Sweet Paprika, Thai Sweet Chili, Mexican Peppers & Cream, Sweet & Spicy Tomato Chutney, and Japanese Teriyaki), Lay 's Light (Natural, Paprika (Bell Pepper), and Balsamico), Lay 's Oven (Naturel (Natural), Paprika (Bell Pepper), Crispy thins Emmental Cheese, Mediterranean Herbs, Barbecue, Crispy Thins Olive Oil & Herbs, Crunchy Biscuits Tomato & Spring Onion, Crunchy Biscuits Paprika & Mediterranean Herbs (Crunchy Biscuits Bell Pepper & Mediterranean Herbs), and Olive Oil & Herbs), Lay 's Deep Ridged (Naturel (Natural), Sweet Chili, American BBQ, and Xtreme Cheese), Lay 's Pops (Naturel (Natural), and Paprika (Bell Pepper)), Lay 's Sticks (Naturel (Natural), and Paprika (Bell Pepper)), and Lay 's Finest (Mixed Pepper & Sea Salt, and Finest Sea Salt). In addition, Lays started a new campaign in 2010 in the Netherlands, in which people can enter a competition to suggest new flavors, resulting in three new flavors being produced, and, after voting, with one of them becoming the winner (the three new flavors being ' Mango Red Chilli ', ' Patatje Joppie ' and ' Nr. 66 Babi Pangang '). ' Patatje Joppie ' became the winner of the competition and is now being sold as limited edition. ' Patatje Joppie ' mean French Fries with Joppiesaus. A new campaign added three flavours to the list, called Lay 's raad de smaak A, B, and C (Guess the flavour). In Belgium, the same contest was held and their choices were ' Bicky Crisp ' and ' Indian Curry Style '. Bicky is a sort of hamburger sauce with mayonnaise, onions and pickles. Bicky Crisp won. There is also a Cucumber and Goats flavour. In the Netherlands Lays announced another contest to find a new flavor and replace ' Patatje Joppie '. Russia has "Lay 's MAX '' chips (Chicken, Sour cream & Onion, Sour cream & Cheese, Ham & cheese flavors) and some international "Lay 's '' flavors plus Russian specific flavors, including Mushroom & Sour cream, Crab, Red Caviar, Salted Cucumber. In Romania the Lay 's flavors are Salt, Paprika, Cheese, Barbecue, Sour Cream & Dill; the Lay 's Sensations flavors are: Thai Chili, Baked chicken with lemon and thyme; Lay 's Max and Lay 's Sticks flavors are: Paprika and Salt. In Poland, the chips flavors are: Cheese, Green Onion, Chicken with Spices, Salted, Paprika, Hot Green Peppers, Fromage, Cucumber and Guacamole. There is also the Lays Apettite flavor of Cheese and Onion, Classic Salted, Ham and Cheese, Ketchup and Cheese. Lay 's Strong: Chilli and Knuckle of Pork and Horseradish. ' Lay 's Prosto z pieca ' (' Lay 's Straight from the Oven ') flavors are: Natural Salted, Mediterranean Herbs, Tomato with Basil and Grilled Paprika and lastly the ' 4 Pory Roku ' (' 4 Season of the Year ') which change flavor every Season. Lay 's Appettite Stix: Ketchup, Garlic and Sour Cream Dip. Lay 's with flavors: Winter Onion, Piquant Paprika, Creamy Forest Mushroom, Cheese, Salted, Grilled Bacon, Tomato, Onion, Fromage. Lay 's Strong: Chilli & Lime, Wasabi, Piri Piri. Lay 's Max: Paprika, Salted, Grilled Meat, Cheese & Onion. Oven Baked: Cheese & Onion, Natural. Lay 's Stix: Ketchup. One flavor sold primarily in southern Asia is called "Magic Masala ''. This flavor is popular in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It is also sold in Indian deli stores in Canada and the United States. South Asian Lay 's chips are ridged, closely resembling another Frito - Lay brand in North America, Ruffles. In Pakistan and India, Lay 's is available in several flavors: "India 's Magic Masala '', "American Style Cream & Onion '', "Spanish Tomato Tango '', "Classic Salted '', "West Indies ' Hot ' n ' Sweet Chili '', "Swiss Grilled Cheese '' and "Thai Sweet Chilli ''. A baked variant of Lay 's called "Lay 's Baked '' is available in the following flavors: "Original Salted '', "Cream, Herb & Onion '' and "Sunkissed Tomato ''. Lay 's Maxx is available in two flavors: Sizzling Barbecue and Macho Chilli. In 2014, Lays was ranked 49th among India 's most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report 2014, a study conducted by Trust Research Advisory, a brand analytics company. In Thailand and the Philippines, their Flavors featured are Classic, Sour Cream & Onion, Cheese & Onion, Mexican Bar - B-Q, Japanese Nori Seaweed, Basil, Squid, Spicy Chili Squid, Seafood and Mayonnaise, and Spicy Seafood. Temporary international flavors have also been introduced, such as French Mayonnaise, Balsamic Vinegar and Salt (England), Garlic Soft Shelled Crab (Hong Kong), Soy Sauce, Salmon Teriyaki (Japan), Lobster, Bacon & Cheese (America). Other traditional "Thai '' flavors include Tom Yum, Thai Chili Paste, Thai Seafood Dip, Chili and Lime. Lay 's China has four ranges of flavors: Cool & Refreshing (Cucumber, Kiwi, Blueberry, Cherry Tomato, and Lime), Classic Flavors (American Classic, Italian Red Meat, Mexican Tomato Chicken, Texas Grilled BBQ, and French Chicken), Intense & Stimulating (Numb & Spicy Hot Pot, and Hot & Sour Fish Soup), and Stax (Authentic Original, Finger Licking Braised Pork, Seafood Barbecue, Spicy Seafood, Tomato, Crispy Roasted Chicken, Black Pepper Rib Eye Steak, Cucumber, Kiwi, Blueberry, and Lime). Flavors in Vietnam include Original, Brazilian BBQ, Beijing Roasted Duck, Manhattan Steak, Nori, and Mornay Shrimp. In Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei Darussalam, the flavors are Salmon Teriyaki, Classic Salty, Nori Seaweed, Pizza, Grilled Chicken Paprika, and Fiesta BBQ. It is produced by Indonesian - based PT Indofood Fritolay Makmur, a joint venture between PT Indofood CBP Sukses Makmur with Seven - Up Nederland B.V. Lay 's, with its original brand, is also produced by the Saudi Snack Foods Company in Saudi Arabia, and is exported to the other GCC countries. It is available in several flavors, including Salt, Salt & Vinegar, Chilli, Chilli - Lemon, Ketchup, French cheese, and Pizza. Lay 's Max is available in flavors: Chili, Cheese and Italian Blend. Lay 's Forno, which has less fat by 60 %, is available in two flavors: Authentic Cheese and Black Pepper. Since its acquisition of Chipsy, Lay 's chips (marketed as Chipsy) in Egypt inherited the Chipsy range of flavors as well as the pre-merger Lay 's flavors. These flavors include salt and vinegar, cheese (most likely based on Roumy cheese and the most popular flavor), seasoned cheese, tomato (a ketchup - based flavor), kebab on charcoal, and chili & lime, and Peri peri flavor. In 2010, a shrimp flavor was added after a national contest. As with most snack foods, the Lay 's brands contain very few vitamins and minerals in any variety. At ten percent of the daily requirement per serving, vitamin C is the highest. Salt content is particularly high, with a serving containing as much as 380 mg of sodium. A one - ounce (28 gram) serving of Lay 's regular potato chips has 160 Calories, and contains ten grams of fat, with one gram of saturated fat. Kettle - cooked brands have seven to eight grams of fat and one gram of saturated fat, and are 140 Calories. Lays Natural has nine grams of fat, two grams of saturated fat and 150 Calories. Stax chips typically contain ten grams of fat, 2.5 grams saturated fat and are 160 calories per serving. Wavy Lays are identical to the regular brand, except for a half - gram less of saturated fat in some combinations. The various brands do not contain any trans fats. A 50 gram serving of Lay 's BarBQ chips contains 270 calories, and 17 grams of fat. It also contains 270 mg of sodium, and 15 % Vitamin C. The baked variety, introduced in the mid 90s, feature 1.5 grams of fat per one ounce serving, and have no saturated fat. Each serving has 110 to 120 Calories. Lay 's Light servings are 75 Calories per ounce and have no fat. Lay 's Classic Potato chips were cooked in hydrogenated oil until 2003. Currently, the chips are made with sunflower, corn and / or canola oil. Baked Lays are produced in cheddar, barbecue, sour cream and onion, and original flavors.

what were the achievements of the adena hopewell and mississippian

Adena culture - wikipedia The Adena culture was a Pre-Columbian Native American culture that existed from 1000 to 200 BC, in a time known as the Early Woodland period. The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex and ceremonial system. The Adena lived in an area including parts of present - day Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Kentucky, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland. Adena sites are concentrated in a relatively small area - maybe 200 sites in the central Ohio Valley, with perhaps another 200 scattered throughout Wisconsin, Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia and Pennsylvania, although they may once have numbered in the thousands. The importance of the Adena complex comes from its considerable influence on other contemporary and succeeding cultures. The Adena culture is seen as the precursor to the traditions of the Hopewell culture, which are sometimes thought as an elaboration, or zenith, of Adena traditions. The Adena were notable for their agricultural practices, pottery, artistic works and extensive trading network, which supplied them with a variety of raw materials, ranging from copper from the Great Lakes to shells from the Gulf Coast. The Adena culture was named for the large mound on Thomas Worthington 's early 19th - century estate called "Adena '', in Chillicothe, Ohio. Lasting traces of Adena culture are still seen in their substantial earthworks. At one point, Adena mounds numbered in the hundreds, but only a small number of Adena earthen monuments still survive today. These mounds generally ranged in size from 20 feet (6.1 m) to 300 feet (91 m) in diameter and served as burial structures, ceremonial sites, historical markers and possibly gathering places. These mounds were built using hundreds of thousands of baskets full of specially selected and graded earth. According to archaeological investigations, Adena mounds were usually built as part of burial ritual, in which the earth of the mound was piled immediately atop a burned mortuary building. These mortuary buildings were intended to keep and maintain the dead until their final burial was performed. Before the construction of the mounds, some utilitarian and grave goods would be placed on the floor of the structure, which was burned with the goods and honored dead within. The mound would then be constructed, and often a new mortuary structure would be placed atop the new mound. After a series of repetitions, mound / mortuary / mound / mortuary, a quite prominent earthwork would remain. In the later Adena period, circular ridges of unknown function were sometimes constructed around the burial mounds. Although the mounds are beautiful artistic achievements themselves, Adena artists created smaller, more personal pieces of art. Art motifs that became important to many later Native Americans began with the Adena. Motifs such as the weeping eye and cross and circle design became mainstays in many succeeding cultures. Many pieces of art seemed to revolve around shamanic practices, and the transformation of humans into animals -- particularly birds, wolves, bears and deer -- and back to human form. This may indicate a belief that the practice imparted the animals ' qualities to the wearer or holder of the objects. Deer antlers, both real and constructed of copper, wolf, deer and mountain lion jawbones, and many other objects were fashioned into costumes, necklaces and other forms of regalia by the Adena. Distinctive tubular smoking pipes, with either flattened or blocked - end mouthpieces, suggest the offering of smoke to the spirits. The objective of pipe smoking may have been altered states of consciousness, achieved through the use of the hallucinogenic plant Nicotiana rustica. All told, Adena was a manifestation of a broad regional increase in the number and kind of artifacts devoted to spiritual needs. The Adena also carved small stone tablets, usually 4 or 5 inches by 3 or 4 inches by. 5 inches thick. On one or both flat sides were gracefully composed stylized zoomorphs or curvilinear geometric designs in deep relief. Paint has been found on some Adena tablets, leading archaeologists to propose that these stone tablets were probably used to stamp designs on cloth or animal hides, or onto their own bodies. It is possible that they were used to outline designs for tattooing. Unlike in other cultures, Adena pottery was not buried with the dead or the remains of the cremated, as were other artifacts. Usually tempered with grit or crushed limestone, it was largely plain, cord - marked or fabric marked, although one type bore a nested - diamond design incised into its surface. The vessel shapes were sub-conoidal or flat - bottomed jars, sometimes with small foot - like supports. The large and elaborate mound sites served a nearby scattering of people. The population was dispersed in small settlements of one to two structures. A typical house was built in a circle form from 15 to 45 feet in diameter. The walls were made of paired posts tilted outward, that were then joined to other pieces of wood to form a cone shaped roof. The roof was then covered with bark and the walls may have been bark and / or wickerwork. Their sustenance was acquired through foraging and the cultivation of native plants. The Adena ground stone tools and axes. Somewhat rougher slab - like stones with chipped edges were probably used as hoes. Bone and antler were used in small tools but even more prominently in ornamental objects such as beads, combs, and worked animal - jaw gorgets or paraphernalia. Spoons, beads and other implements were made from the marine conch. A few copper axes have been found, but otherwise the metal was hammered into ornamental forms, such as bracelets, rings, beads, and reel - shaped pendants. Coordinates: 38 ° 04 ′ 21 '' N 83 ° 57 ′ 03 '' W  /  38.07250 ° N 83.95083 ° W  / 38.07250; - 83.95083

washington dc is called a symbol for the country why

Washington, D.C. - Wikipedia Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington or D.C., is the capital of the United States of America. Founded after the American Revolution as the seat of government of the newly independent country, Washington was named after George Washington, first President of the United States and Founding Father. Washington is the principal city of the Washington metropolitan area, which has a population of 6,131,977. As the seat of the United States federal government and several international organizations, the city is an important world political capital. Washington is one of the most visited cities in the world, with more than 20 million annual tourists. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16, 1790, approved the creation of a capital district located along the Potomac River on the country 's East Coast. The U.S. Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, which included the pre-existing settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria. Named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land originally ceded by Virginia; in 1871, it created a single municipal government for the remaining portion of the District. Washington had an estimated population of 693,972 as of July 2017. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city 's daytime population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is the principal city, has a population of over 6 million, the sixth - largest metropolitan statistical area in the country. All three branches of the U.S. federal government are centered in the District: U.S. Congress (legislative), President (executive), and the U.S. Supreme Court (judicial). Washington is home to many national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 177 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many international organizations, trade unions, non-profit, lobbying groups, and professional associations, including the Organization of American States, AARP, the National Geographic Society, the Human Rights Campaign, the International Finance Corporation, and the American Red Cross. A locally elected mayor and a 13 ‐ member council have governed the District since 1973. However, Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D.C. residents elect a non-voting, at - large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, but the District has no representation in the Senate. The District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian - speaking Piscataway people (also known as the Conoy) inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century. One group known as the Nacotchtank (also called the Nacostines by Catholic missionaries) maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present - day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. In his Federalist No. 43, published January 23, 1788, James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia. Known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. Article One, Section Eight, of the Constitution permits the establishment of a "District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States ''. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital. In what is now known as the Compromise of 1790, Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson came to an agreement that the federal government would pay each state 's remaining Revolutionary War debts in exchange for establishing the new national capital in the southern United States. On July 9, 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, who signed the bill into law on July 16. Formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (259 km). Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory: the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, and the city of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749. During 1791 -- 92, Andrew Ellicott and several assistants, including a free African American astronomer named Benjamin Banneker, surveyed the borders of the federal district and placed boundary stones at every mile point. Many of the stones are still standing. A new federal city was then constructed on the north bank of the Potomac, to the east of Georgetown. On September 9, 1791, the three commissioners overseeing the capital 's construction named the city in honor of President Washington. The federal district was named Columbia, which was a poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time. Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17, 1800. Congress passed the Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District and placed the entire territory under the exclusive control of the federal government. Further, the unincorporated area within the District was organized into two counties: the County of Washington to the east of the Potomac and the County of Alexandria to the west. After the passage of this Act, citizens living in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, which therefore ended their representation in Congress. On August 24 -- 25, 1814, in a raid known as the Burning of Washington, British forces invaded the capital during the War of 1812. The Capitol, Treasury, and White House were burned and gutted during the attack. Most government buildings were repaired quickly; however, the Capitol was largely under construction at the time and was not completed in its current form until 1868. In the 1830s, the District 's southern territory of Alexandria went into economic decline partly due to neglect by Congress. The city of Alexandria was a major market in the American slave trade, and pro-slavery residents feared that abolitionists in Congress would end slavery in the District, further depressing the economy. Alexandria 's citizens petitioned Virginia to take back the land it had donated to form the District, through a process known as retrocession. The Virginia General Assembly voted in February 1846 to accept the return of Alexandria and on July 9, 1846, Congress agreed to return all the territory that had been ceded by Virginia. Therefore, the District 's current area consists only of the portion originally donated by Maryland. Confirming the fears of pro-slavery Alexandrians, the Compromise of 1850 outlawed the slave trade in the District, although not slavery itself. The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to the expansion of the federal government and notable growth in the District 's population, including a large influx of freed slaves. President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act in 1862, which ended slavery in the District of Columbia and freed about 3,100 enslaved persons, nine months prior to the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1868, Congress granted the District 's African American male residents the right to vote in municipal elections. By 1870, the District 's population had grown 75 % from the previous census to nearly 132,000 residents. Despite the city 's growth, Washington still had dirt roads and lacked basic sanitation. Some members of Congress suggested moving the capital further west, but President Ulysses S. Grant refused to consider such a proposal. Congress passed the Organic Act of 1871, which repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and created a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia. President Grant appointed Alexander Robey Shepherd to the position of governor in 1873. Shepherd authorized large - scale projects that greatly modernized Washington, but ultimately bankrupted the District government. In 1874, Congress replaced the territorial government with an appointed three - member Board of Commissioners. The city 's first motorized streetcars began service in 1888 and generated growth in areas of the District beyond the City of Washington 's original boundaries. Washington 's urban plan was expanded throughout the District in the following decades. Georgetown was formally annexed by the City of Washington in 1895. However, the city had poor housing conditions and strained public works. Washington was the first city in the nation to undergo urban renewal projects as part of the "City Beautiful movement '' in the early 1900s. Increased federal spending as a result of the New Deal in the 1930s led to the construction of new government buildings, memorials, and museums in Washington. World War II further increased government activity, adding to the number of federal employees in the capital; by 1950, the District 's population reached its peak of 802,178 residents. The Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1961, granting the District three votes in the Electoral College for the election of president and vice president, but still no voting representation in Congress. After the assassination of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968, riots broke out in the District, primarily in the U Street, 14th Street, 7th Street, and H Street corridors, centers of black residential and commercial areas. The riots raged for three days until more than 13,600 federal troops stopped the violence. Many stores and other buildings were burned; rebuilding was not completed until the late 1990s. In 1973, Congress enacted the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, providing for an elected mayor and 13 - member council for the District. In 1975, Walter Washington became the first elected and first black mayor of the District. Washington, D.C., is located in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. East Coast. Due to the District of Columbia retrocession, the city has a total area of 68.34 square miles (177.0 km), of which 61.05 square miles (158.1 km) is land and 7.29 square miles (18.9 km) (10.67 %) is water. The District is bordered by Montgomery County, Maryland, to the northwest; Prince George 's County, Maryland, to the east; and Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia, to the south and west. The south bank of the Potomac River forms the District 's border with Virginia and has two major tributaries: the Anacostia River and Rock Creek. Tiber Creek, a natural watercourse that once passed through the National Mall, was fully enclosed underground during the 1870s. The creek also formed a portion of the now - filled Washington City Canal, which allowed passage through the city to the Anacostia River from 1815 until the 1850s. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal starts in Georgetown and was used during the 19th century to bypass the Little Falls of the Potomac River, located at the northwest edge of Washington at the Atlantic Seaboard fall line. The highest natural elevation in the District is 409 feet (125 m) above sea level at Fort Reno Park in upper northwest Washington. The lowest point is sea level at the Potomac River. The geographic center of Washington is near the intersection of 4th and L Streets NW. The District has 7,464 acres (30.21 km) of parkland, about 19 % of the city 's total area and the second - highest percentage among high - density U.S. cities. This factor contributed to Washington, D.C. being ranked as third in the nation for park access and quality in the 2018 ParkScore ranking of the park systems of the 100 most populous cities in the United States, according to the nonprofit Trust for Public Land. The National Park Service manages most of the 9,122 acres (36.92 km) of city land owned by the U.S. government. Rock Creek Park is a 1,754 - acre (7.10 km) urban forest in Northwest Washington, which extends 9.3 miles (15.0 km) through a stream valley that bisects the city. Established in 1890, it is the country 's fourth - oldest national park and is home to a variety of plant and animal species, including raccoon, deer, owls, and coyotes. Other National Park Service properties include the C&O Canal National Historical Park, the National Mall and Memorial Parks, Theodore Roosevelt Island, Columbia Island, Fort Dupont Park, Meridian Hill Park, Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens, and Anacostia Park. The D.C. Department of Parks and Recreation maintains the city 's 900 acres (3.6 km) of athletic fields and playgrounds, 40 swimming pools, and 68 recreation centers. The U.S. Department of Agriculture operates the 446 - acre (1.80 km) U.S. National Arboretum in Northeast Washington. Washington is in the northern part of the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen: Cfa) However, under the Trewartha climate classification, the city has a temperate maritime climate (Do). Winters are usually chilly with light snow, and summers are hot and humid. The District is in plant hardiness zone 8a near downtown, and zone 7b elsewhere in the city, indicating a humid subtropical climate. Spring and fall are mild to warm, while winter is chilly with annual snowfall averaging 15.5 inches (39 cm). Winter temperatures average around 38 ° F (3 ° C) from mid-December to mid-February. Summers are hot and humid with a July daily average of 79.8 ° F (26.6 ° C) and average daily relative humidity around 66 %, which can cause moderate personal discomfort. The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms, some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area. Blizzards affect Washington on average once every four to six years. The most violent storms are called "nor'easters '', which often affect large sections of the East Coast. From January 27 to January 28, 1922, the city officially received 28 inches (71 cm) of snowfall, the largest snowstorm since official measurements began in 1885. According to notes kept at the time, the city received between 30 and 36 inches (76 and 91 cm) from a snowstorm in January 1772. Hurricanes (or their remnants) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall, but are often weak by the time they reach Washington, partly due to the city 's inland location. Flooding of the Potomac River, however, caused by a combination of high tide, storm surge, and runoff, has been known to cause extensive property damage in the neighborhood of Georgetown. Precipitation occurs throughout the year. The highest recorded temperature was 106 ° F (41 ° C) on August 6, 1918, and on July 20, 1930. while the lowest recorded temperature was − 15 ° F (− 26 ° C) on February 11, 1899, right before the Great Blizzard of 1899. During a typical year, the city averages about 37 days at or above 90 ° F (32 ° C) and 64 nights at or below 32 ° F (0 ° C). On average, the first day at or below 32 ° F (0 ° C) is November 18 and the last day is March 27. Washington, D.C., is a planned city. In 1791, President Washington commissioned Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant, a French - born architect and city planner, to design the new capital. He enlisted Scottish surveyor Alexander Ralston to help lay out the city plan. The L'Enfant Plan featured broad streets and avenues radiating out from rectangles, providing room for open space and landscaping. He based his design on plans of cities such as Paris, Amsterdam, Karlsruhe, and Milan that Thomas Jefferson had sent to him. L'Enfant's design also envisioned a garden - lined "grand avenue '' approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) in length and 400 feet (120 m) wide in the area that is now the National Mall. President Washington dismissed L'Enfant in March 1792 due to conflicts with the three commissioners appointed to supervise the capital 's construction. Andrew Ellicott, who had worked with L'Enfant surveying the city, was then tasked with completing the design. Though Ellicott made revisions to the original plans, including changes to some street patterns, L'Enfant is still credited with the overall design of the city. By the early 1900s, L'Enfant's vision of a grand national capital had become marred by slums and randomly placed buildings, including a railroad station on the National Mall. Congress formed a special committee charged with beautifying Washington 's ceremonial core. What became known as the McMillan Plan was finalized in 1901 and included re-landscaping the Capitol grounds and the National Mall, clearing slums, and establishing a new citywide park system. The plan is thought to have largely preserved L'Enfant's intended design. By law, Washington 's skyline is low and sprawling. The federal Height of Buildings Act of 1910 allows buildings that are no taller than the width of the adjacent street, plus 20 feet (6.1 m). Despite popular belief, no law has ever limited buildings to the height of the United States Capitol or the 555 - foot (169 m) Washington Monument, which remains the District 's tallest structure. City leaders have criticized the height restriction as a primary reason why the District has limited affordable housing and traffic problems caused by urban sprawl. The District is divided into four quadrants of unequal area: Northwest (NW), Northeast (NE), Southeast (SE), and Southwest (SW). The axes bounding the quadrants radiate from the U.S. Capitol building. All road names include the quadrant abbreviation to indicate their location and house numbers generally correspond with the number of blocks away from the Capitol. Most streets are set out in a grid pattern with east -- west streets named with letters (e.g., C Street SW), north -- south streets with numbers (e.g., 4th Street NW), and diagonal avenues, many of which are named after states. The City of Washington was bordered by Boundary Street to the north (renamed Florida Avenue in 1890), Rock Creek to the west, and the Anacostia River to the east. Washington 's street grid was extended, where possible, throughout the District starting in 1888. Georgetown 's streets were renamed in 1895. Some streets are particularly noteworthy, such as Pennsylvania Avenue, which connects the White House to the Capitol and K Street, which houses the offices of many lobbying groups. Washington hosts 177 foreign embassies, constituting approximately 297 buildings beyond the more than 1,600 residential properties owned by foreign countries, many of which are on a section of Massachusetts Avenue informally known as Embassy Row. The architecture of Washington varies greatly. Six of the top 10 buildings in the American Institute of Architects ' 2007 ranking of "America 's Favorite Architecture '' are in the District of Columbia: the White House, the Washington National Cathedral, the Thomas Jefferson Memorial, the United States Capitol, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. The neoclassical, Georgian, gothic, and modern architectural styles are all reflected among those six structures and many other prominent edifices in Washington. Notable exceptions include buildings constructed in the French Second Empire style such as the Eisenhower Executive Office Building. Outside downtown Washington, architectural styles are even more varied. Historic buildings are designed primarily in the Queen Anne, Châteauesque, Richardsonian Romanesque, Georgian revival, Beaux - Arts, and a variety of Victorian styles. Rowhouses are especially prominent in areas developed after the Civil War and typically follow Federalist and late Victorian designs. Georgetown 's Old Stone House was built in 1765, making it the oldest - standing original building in the city. Founded in 1789, Georgetown University features a mix of Romanesque and Gothic Revival architecture. The Ronald Reagan Building is the largest building in the District with a total area of approximately 3.1 million square feet (288,000 m). The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that the District 's population was 693,972 on July 1, 2017, a 15.3 % increase since the 2010 United States Census. The increase continues a growth trend since 2000, following a half - century of population decline. The city was the 24th most populous place in the United States as of 2010. According to data from 2010, commuters from the suburbs increase the District 's daytime population to over one million people. If the District were a state it would rank 49th in population, ahead of Vermont and Wyoming. The Washington Metropolitan Area, which includes the District and surrounding suburbs, is the sixth - largest metropolitan area in the United States with an estimated 6 million residents in 2014. When the Washington area is included with Baltimore and its suburbs, the Baltimore -- Washington Metropolitan Area had a population exceeding 9.6 million residents in 2016, the fourth - largest combined statistical area in the country. According to 2016 Census Bureau data, the population of Washington, D.C., was 47.7 % Black or African American, 44.6 % White (36.4 % non-Hispanic White), 4.1 % Asian, 0.6 % American Indian or Alaska Native, and 0.2 % Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. Individuals from two or more races made up 2.7 % of the population. Hispanics of any race made up 10.9 % of the District 's population. Washington has had a significant African American population since the city 's foundation. African American residents composed about 30 % of the District 's total population between 1800 and 1940. The black population reached a peak of 70 % by 1970, but has since steadily declined due to many African Americans moving to the surrounding suburbs. Partly as a result of gentrification, there was a 31.4 % increase in the non-Hispanic white population and an 11.5 % decrease in the black population between 2000 and 2010. About 17 % of D.C. residents were age 18 or younger in 2010; lower than the U.S. average of 24 %. However, at 34 years old, the District had the lowest median age compared to the 50 states. As of 2010, there were an estimated 81,734 immigrants living in Washington, D.C. Major sources of immigration include El Salvador, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, with a concentration of Salvadorans in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood. Researchers found that there were 4,822 same - sex couples in the District of Columbia in 2010; about 2 % of total households. Legislation authorizing same - sex marriage passed in 2009 and the District began issuing marriage licenses to same - sex couples in March 2010. A 2007 report found that about one - third of District residents were functionally illiterate, compared to a national rate of about one in five. This is attributed in part to immigrants who are not proficient in English. As of 2011, 85 % of D.C. residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language. Half of residents had at least a four - year college degree in 2006. D.C. residents had a personal income per capita of $55,755; higher than any of the 50 states. However, 19 % of residents were below the poverty level in 2005, higher than any state except Mississippi. Of the District 's population, 17 % is Baptist, 13 % is Catholic, 6 % is evangelical Protestant, 4 % is Methodist, 3 % is Episcopalian / Anglican, 3 % is Jewish, 2 % is Eastern Orthodox, 1 % is Pentecostal, 1 % is Buddhist, 1 % is Adventist, 1 % is Lutheran, 1 % is Muslim, 1 % is Presbyterian, 1 % is Mormon, and 1 % is Hindu. Over 90 % of D.C. residents have health insurance coverage, the second - highest rate in the nation. This is due in part to city programs that help provide insurance to low - income individuals who do not qualify for other types of coverage. A 2009 report found that at least 3 % of District residents have HIV or AIDS, which the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) characterizes as a "generalized and severe '' epidemic. Crime in Washington, D.C. is concentrated in areas associated with poverty, drug abuse, and gangs. A 2010 study found that 5 % of city blocks accounted for over one - quarter of the District 's total crime. The more affluent neighborhoods of Northwest Washington are typically safe, especially in areas with concentrations of government operations, such as Downtown Washington, D.C., Foggy Bottom, Embassy Row, and Penn Quarter, but reports of violent crime increase in poorer neighborhoods generally concentrated in the eastern portion of the city. Approximately 60,000 residents are ex-convicts. In 2012, Washington 's annual murder count had dropped to 88, the lowest total since 1961. The murder rate has since risen from that historic low, though it remains close to half the rate of the early 2000s. Washington was once described as the "murder capital '' of the United States during the early 1990s. The number of murders peaked in 1991 at 479, but the level of violence then began to decline significantly. In 2016, the District 's Metropolitan Police Department tallied 135 homicides, a 53 % increase from 2012 but a 17 % decrease from 2015. Many neighborhoods such as Columbia Heights and Logan Circle are becoming safer and vibrant. However, incidents of robberies and thefts have remained higher in these areas because of increased nightlife activity and greater numbers of affluent residents. Even still, citywide reports of both property and violent crimes have declined by nearly half since their most recent highs in the mid-1990s. On June 26, 2008, the Supreme Court of the United States held in District of Columbia v. Heller that the city 's 1976 handgun ban violated the right to keep and bear arms as protected under the Second Amendment. However, the ruling does not prohibit all forms of gun control; laws requiring firearm registration remain in place, as does the city 's assault weapon ban. In addition to the District 's own Metropolitan Police Department, many federal law enforcement agencies have jurisdiction in the city as well -- most visibly the U.S. Park Police, founded in 1791. Washington has a growing, diversified economy with an increasing percentage of professional and business service jobs. The gross state product of the District in 2010 was $103.3 billion, which would rank it No. 34 compared to the 50 states. The gross product of the Washington Metropolitan Area was $435 billion in 2014, making it the sixth - largest metropolitan economy in the United States. Between 2009 and 2016, GDP per capita in Washington, D.C has consistently ranked on the very top among U.S. states. In 2016, at $160,472, its GDP per capita is almost three times as high as that of Massachusetts, which ranked second place in the country. As of June 2011, the Washington Metropolitan Area had an unemployment rate of 6.2 %; the second - lowest rate among the 49 largest metro areas in the nation. The District of Columbia itself had an unemployment rate of 9.8 % during the same time period. In December 2017, 25 % of the employees in Washington, D.C., were employed by a federal governmental agency. This is thought to immunize Washington, D.C., to national economic downturns because the federal government continues operations even during recessions. Many organizations such as law firms, defense contractors, civilian contractors, nonprofit organizations, lobbying firms, trade unions, industry trade groups, and professional associations have their headquarters in or near Washington, D.C., in order to be close to the federal government. Tourism is Washington 's second - largest industry. Approximately 18.9 million visitors contributed an estimated $4.8 billion to the local economy in 2012. The District also hosts nearly 200 foreign embassies and international organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organization of American States, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the Pan American Health Organization. In 2008, the foreign diplomatic corps in Washington employed about 10,000 people and contributed an estimated $400 million annually to the local economy. The District has growing industries not directly related to government, especially in the areas of education, finance, public policy, and scientific research. Georgetown University, George Washington University, Washington Hospital Center, Children 's National Medical Center and Howard University are the top five non-government - related employers in the city as of 2009. According to statistics compiled in 2011, four of the largest 500 companies in the country were headquartered in the District. In the 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Washington was ranked as having the 12th most competitive financial center in the world, and fifth most competitive in the United States (after New York City, San Francisco, Chicago, and Boston). The National Mall is a large, open park in downtown Washington between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol. Given its prominence, the mall is often the location of political protests, concerts, festivals, and presidential inaugurations. The Washington Monument and the Jefferson Pier are near the center of the mall, south of the White House. Also on the mall are the National World War II Memorial at the east end of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, the Korean War Veterans Memorial, and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Directly south of the mall, the Tidal Basin features rows of Japanese cherry blossom trees that originated as gifts from the nation of Japan. The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, George Mason Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, and the District of Columbia War Memorial are around the Tidal Basin. The National Archives houses thousands of documents important to American history, including the Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. Located in three buildings on Capitol Hill, the Library of Congress is the largest library complex in the world with a collection of over 147 million books, manuscripts, and other materials. The United States Supreme Court Building was completed in 1935; before then, the court held sessions in the Old Senate Chamber of the Capitol. The Smithsonian Institution is an educational foundation chartered by Congress in 1846 that maintains most of the nation 's official museums and galleries in Washington, D.C. The U.S. government partially funds the Smithsonian and its collections are open to the public free of charge. The Smithsonian 's locations had a combined total of 30 million visits in 2013. The most visited museum is the National Museum of Natural History on the National Mall. Other Smithsonian Institution museums and galleries on the mall are: the National Air and Space Museum; the National Museum of African Art; the National Museum of American History; the National Museum of the American Indian; the Sackler and Freer galleries, which both focus on Asian art and culture; the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden; the Arts and Industries Building; the S. Dillon Ripley Center; and the Smithsonian Institution Building (also known as "The Castle ''), which serves as the institution 's headquarters. The Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Portrait Gallery are housed in the Old Patent Office Building, near Washington 's Chinatown. The Renwick Gallery is officially part of the Smithsonian American Art Museum but is in a separate building near the White House. Other Smithsonian museums and galleries include: the Anacostia Community Museum in Southeast Washington; the National Postal Museum near Union Station; and the National Zoo in Woodley Park. The National Gallery of Art is on the National Mall near the Capitol and features works of American and European art. The gallery and its collections are owned by the U.S. government but are not a part of the Smithsonian Institution. The National Building Museum, which occupies the former Pension Building near Judiciary Square, was chartered by Congress and hosts exhibits on architecture, urban planning, and design. There are many private art museums in the District of Columbia, which house major collections and exhibits open to the public such as the National Museum of Women in the Arts; the Corcoran Gallery of Art, the largest private museum in Washington; and The Phillips Collection in Dupont Circle, the first museum of modern art in the United States. Other private museums in Washington include the Newseum, the O Street Museum Foundation, the International Spy Museum, the National Geographic Society Museum, the Marian Koshland Science Museum and the Museum of the Bible. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum near the National Mall maintains exhibits, documentation, and artifacts related to the Holocaust. Washington, D.C., is a national center for the arts. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts is home to the National Symphony Orchestra, the Washington National Opera, and the Washington Ballet. The Kennedy Center Honors are awarded each year to those in the performing arts who have contributed greatly to the cultural life of the United States. The historic Ford 's Theatre, site of the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, continues to operate as a functioning performance space as well as a museum. The Marine Barracks near Capitol Hill houses the United States Marine Band; founded in 1798, it is the country 's oldest professional musical organization. American march composer and Washington - native John Philip Sousa led the Marine Band from 1880 until 1892. Founded in 1925, the United States Navy Band has its headquarters at the Washington Navy Yard and performs at official events and public concerts around the city. Washington has a strong local theater tradition. Founded in 1950, Arena Stage achieved national attention and spurred growth in the city 's independent theater movement that now includes organizations such as the Shakespeare Theatre Company, Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company, and the Studio Theatre. Arena Stage opened its newly renovated home in the city 's emerging Southwest waterfront area in 2010. The GALA Hispanic Theatre, now housed in the historic Tivoli Theatre in Columbia Heights, was founded in 1976 and is a National Center for the Latino Performing Arts. The U Street Corridor in Northwest D.C., known as "Washington 's Black Broadway '', is home to institutions like the Howard Theatre, Bohemian Caverns, and the Lincoln Theatre, which hosted music legends such as Washington - native Duke Ellington, John Coltrane, and Miles Davis. Washington has its own native music genre called go - go; a post-funk, percussion - driven flavor of rhythm and blues that was popularized in the late 1970s by D.C. band leader Chuck Brown. The District is an important center for indie culture and music in the United States. The label Dischord Records, formed by Ian MacKaye, was one of the most crucial independent labels in the genesis of 1980s punk and eventually indie rock in the 1990s. Modern alternative and indie music venues like The Black Cat and the 9: 30 Club bring popular acts to the U Street area. Washington is one of 13 cities in the United States with teams from all four major professional men 's sports and is home to one major professional women 's team. The Washington Wizards (National Basketball Association), the Washington Capitals (National Hockey League), and the Washington Mystics (Women 's National Basketball Association), play at the Capital One Arena in Chinatown. Nationals Park, which opened in Southeast D.C. in 2008, is home to the Washington Nationals (Major League Baseball). D.C. United (Major League Soccer) plays at Audi Field. The Washington Redskins (National Football League) play at FedExField in nearby Landover, Maryland. Current D.C. teams have won a combined eleven professional league championships: the Washington Redskins have won five; D.C. United has won four; and the Washington Wizards (then the Washington Bullets) and Washington Capitals have each won a single championship. Other professional and semi-professional teams in Washington include: the Washington Kastles (World TeamTennis); the Washington D.C. Slayers (USA Rugby League); the Baltimore Washington Eagles (U.S. Australian Football League); the D.C. Divas (Independent Women 's Football League); and the Potomac Athletic Club RFC (Rugby Super League). The William H.G. FitzGerald Tennis Center in Rock Creek Park hosts the Citi Open. Washington is also home to two major annual marathon races: the Marine Corps Marathon, which is held every autumn, and the Rock ' n ' Roll USA Marathon held in the spring. The Marine Corps Marathon began in 1976 and is sometimes called "The People 's Marathon '' because it is the largest marathon that does not offer prize money to participants. The District 's four NCAA Division I teams, American Eagles, George Washington Colonials, Georgetown Hoyas and Howard Bison and Lady Bison, have a broad following. The Georgetown Hoyas men 's basketball team is the most notable and also plays at the Capital One Arena. From 2008 to 2012, the District hosted an annual college football bowl game at RFK Stadium, called the Military Bowl. The D.C. area is home to one regional sports television network, Comcast SportsNet (CSN), based in Bethesda, Maryland. Washington, D.C., is a prominent center for national and international media. The Washington Post, founded in 1877, is the oldest and most - read local daily newspaper in Washington. "The Post '', as it is popularly called, is well known as the newspaper that exposed the Watergate scandal. It had the sixth - highest readership of all news dailies in the country in 2011. The Washington Post Company also publishes a daily free commuter newspaper called the Express, which summarizes events, sports and entertainment, as well as the Spanish - language paper El Tiempo Latino. Another popular local daily is The Washington Times, the city 's second general interest broadsheet and also an influential paper in political circles. The alternative weekly Washington City Paper also has a substantial readership in the Washington area. Some community and specialty papers focus on neighborhood and cultural issues, including the weekly Washington Blade and Metro Weekly, which focus on LGBT issues; the Washington Informer and The Washington Afro American, which highlight topics of interest to the black community; and neighborhood newspapers published by The Current Newspapers. Congressional Quarterly, The Hill, Politico and Roll Call newspapers focus exclusively on issues related to Congress and the federal government. Other publications based in Washington include the National Geographic magazine and political publications such as The Washington Examiner, The New Republic and Washington Monthly. The Washington Metropolitan Area is the ninth - largest television media market in the nation, with two million homes, approximately 2 % of the country 's population. Several media companies and cable television channels have their headquarters in the area, including C - SPAN; Black Entertainment Television (BET); Radio One; the National Geographic Channel; Smithsonian Networks; National Public Radio (NPR); Travel Channel (in Chevy Chase, Maryland); Discovery Communications (in Silver Spring, Maryland); and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (in Arlington, Virginia). The headquarters of Voice of America, the U.S. government 's international news service, is near the Capitol in Southwest Washington. Article One, Section Eight of the United States Constitution grants the United States Congress "exclusive jurisdiction '' over the city. The District did not have an elected local government until the passage of the 1973 Home Rule Act. The Act devolved certain Congressional powers to an elected mayor, currently Muriel Bowser, and the thirteen - member Council of the District of Columbia. However, Congress retains the right to review and overturn laws created by the council and intervene in local affairs. Each of the city 's eight wards elects a single member of the council and residents elect four at - large members to represent the District as a whole. The council chair is also elected at - large. There are 37 Advisory Neighborhood Commissions (ANCs) elected by small neighborhood districts. ANCs can issue recommendations on all issues that affect residents; government agencies take their advice under careful consideration. The Attorney General of the District of Columbia, currently Karl Racine, is elected to a four - year term. Washington, D.C., observes all federal holidays and also celebrates Emancipation Day on April 16, which commemorates the end of slavery in the District. The flag of Washington, D.C., was adopted in 1938 and is a variation on George Washington 's family coat of arms. The mayor and council set local taxes and a budget, which must be approved by Congress. The Government Accountability Office and other analysts have estimated that the city 's high percentage of tax - exempt property and the Congressional prohibition of commuter taxes create a structural deficit in the District 's local budget of anywhere between $470 million and over $1 billion per year. Congress typically provides additional grants for federal programs such as Medicaid and the operation of the local justice system; however, analysts claim that the payments do not fully resolve the imbalance. The city 's local government, particularly during the mayoralty of Marion Barry, was criticized for mismanagement and waste. During his administration in 1989, The Washington Monthly magazine claimed that the District had "the worst city government in America. '' In 1995, at the start of Barry 's fourth term, Congress created the District of Columbia Financial Control Board to oversee all municipal spending. Mayor Anthony Williams won election in 1998 and oversaw a period of urban renewal and budget surpluses. The District regained control over its finances in 2001 and the oversight board 's operations were suspended. The District is not a state and therefore has no voting representation in Congress. D.C. residents elect a non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives, currently Eleanor Holmes Norton (D - D.C. At - Large), who may sit on committees, participate in debate, and introduce legislation, but can not vote on the House floor. The District has no official representation in the United States Senate. Neither chamber seats the District 's elected "shadow '' representative or senators. Unlike residents of U.S. territories such as Puerto Rico or Guam, which also have non-voting delegates, D.C., residents are subject to all federal taxes. In the financial year 2012, D.C., residents and businesses paid $20.7 billion in federal taxes; more than the taxes collected from 19 states and the highest federal taxes per capita. A 2005 poll found that 78 % of Americans did not know that residents of the District of Columbia have less representation in Congress than residents of the 50 states. Efforts to raise awareness about the issue have included campaigns by grassroots organizations and featuring the city 's unofficial motto, "Taxation Without Representation '', on D.C. vehicle license plates. There is evidence of nationwide approval for D.C. voting rights; various polls indicate that 61 to 82 % of Americans believe that D.C. should have voting representation in Congress. However, despite public support the solution to the problem is not simple. Several approaches to resolving these concerns been suggested over the years: Opponents of D.C. voting rights propose that the Founding Fathers never intended for District residents to have a vote in Congress since the Constitution makes clear that representation must come from the states. Those opposed to making D.C. a state claim that such a move would destroy the notion of a separate national capital and that statehood would unfairly grant Senate representation to a single city, particularly one certain to elect Democratic representatives. Washington, D.C., has fourteen official sister city agreements. Each of the listed cities is a national capital except for Sunderland, which includes the town of Washington, the ancestral home of George Washington 's family. Paris and Rome are each formally recognized as a partner city due to their special one sister city policy. Listed in the order each agreement was first established, they are: District of Columbia Public Schools (DCPS) operates the city 's 123 public schools. The number of students in DCPS steadily decreased for 39 years until 2009. In the 2010 -- 11 school year, 46,191 students were enrolled in the public school system. DCPS has one of the highest - cost, yet lowest - performing school systems in the country, both in terms of infrastructure and student achievement. Mayor Adrian Fenty 's administration made sweeping changes to the system by closing schools, replacing teachers, firing principals, and using private education firms to aid curriculum development. The District of Columbia Public Charter School Board monitors the 52 public charter schools in the city. Due to the perceived problems with the traditional public school system, enrollment in public charter schools has steadily increased. As of fall 2010, D.C., charter schools had a total enrollment of about 32,000, a 9 % increase from the prior year. The District is also home to 92 private schools, which enrolled approximately 18,000 students in 2008. The District of Columbia Public Library operates 25 neighborhood locations including the landmark Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library. Private universities include American University (AU), the Catholic University of America (CUA), Gallaudet University, George Washington University (GW), Georgetown University (GU), Howard University, the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), and Trinity Washington University. The Corcoran College of Art and Design, the oldest arts school in the capital, was absorbed into the George Washington University in 2014, now serving as its college of arts. The University of the District of Columbia (UDC) is a public land - grant university providing undergraduate and graduate education. D.C. residents may also be eligible for a grant of up to $10,000 per year to offset the cost of tuition at any public university in the country. The District is known for its medical research institutions such as Washington Hospital Center and the Children 's National Medical Center, as well as the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. In addition, the city is home to three medical schools and associated teaching hospitals at George Washington, Georgetown, and Howard universities. There are 1,500 miles (2,400 km) of streets, parkways, and avenues in the District. Due to the freeway revolts of the 1960s, much of the proposed interstate highway system through the middle of Washington was never built. Interstate 95 (I - 95), the nation 's major east coast highway, therefore bends around the District to form the eastern portion of the Capital Beltway. A portion of the proposed highway funding was directed to the region 's public transportation infrastructure instead. The interstate highways that continue into Washington, including I - 66 and I - 395, both terminate shortly after entering the city. The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) operates the Washington Metro, the city 's rapid transit system, as well as Metrobus. Both systems serve the District and its suburbs. Metro opened on March 27, 1976 and, as of July 2014, consists of 91 stations and 117 miles (188 km) of track. With an average of about one million trips each weekday, Metro is the second - busiest rapid transit system in the country. Metrobus serves over 400,000 riders each weekday and is the nation 's fifth - largest bus system. The city also operates its own DC Circulator bus system, which connects commercial areas within central Washington. Union Station is the city 's main train station and services approximately 70,000 people each day. It is Amtrak 's second - busiest station with 4.6 million passengers annually and is the southern terminus for the Northeast Corridor and Acela Express routes. Maryland 's MARC and Virginia 's VRE commuter trains and the Metrorail Red Line also provide service into Union Station. Following renovations in 2011, Union Station became Washington 's primary intercity bus transit center. Three major airports serve the District. Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is across the Potomac River from downtown Washington in Arlington, Virginia and primarily handles domestic flights. Major international flights arrive and depart from Washington Dulles International Airport, 26.3 miles (42.3 km) west of the District in Fairfax and Loudoun counties in Virginia. Baltimore - Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport is 31.7 miles (51.0 km) northeast of the District in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. According to a 2010 study, Washington - area commuters spent 70 hours a year in traffic delays, which tied with Chicago for having the nation 's worst road congestion. However, 37 % of Washington - area commuters take public transportation to work, the second - highest rate in the country. An additional 12 % of D.C. commuters walked to work, 6 % carpooled, and 3 % traveled by bicycle in 2010. A 2011 study by Walk Score found that Washington was the seventh-most walkable city in the country with 80 % of residents living in neighborhoods that are not car dependent. In 2013, the Washington - Arlington - Alexandria metropolitan statistical area (MSA) had the eighth lowest percentage of workers who commuted by private automobile (75.7 percent), with 8 percent of area workers traveling via rail transit. An expected 32 % increase in transit usage within the District by 2030 has spurred the construction of a new DC Streetcar system to interconnect the city 's neighborhoods. Construction has also started on an additional Metro line that will connect Washington to Dulles airport. The District is part of the regional Capital Bikeshare program. Started in 2010, it is currently one of the largest bicycle sharing systems in the country with over 4,351 bicycles and more than 395 stations all provided by PBSC Urban Solutions. By 2012, the city 's network of marked bicycle lanes covered 56 miles (90 km) of streets. The District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority (i.e. WASA or D.C. Water) is an independent authority of the D.C. government that provides drinking water and wastewater collection in Washington. WASA purchases water from the historic Washington Aqueduct, which is operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The water, sourced from the Potomac River, is treated and stored in the city 's Dalecarlia, Georgetown, and McMillan reservoirs. The aqueduct provides drinking water for a total of 1.1 million people in the District and Virginia, including Arlington, Falls Church, and a portion of Fairfax County. The authority also provides sewage treatment services for an additional 1.6 million people in four surrounding Maryland and Virginia counties. Pepco is the city 's electric utility and services 793,000 customers in the District and suburban Maryland. An 1889 law prohibits overhead wires within much of the historic City of Washington. As a result, all power lines and telecommunication cables are located underground in downtown Washington, and traffic signals are placed at the edge of the street. A plan announced in 2013 would bury an additional 60 miles (97 km) of primary power lines throughout the District. Washington Gas is the city 's natural gas utility and serves over one million customers in the District and its suburbs. Incorporated by Congress in 1848, the company installed the city 's first gas lights in the Capitol, the White House, and along Pennsylvania Avenue.

american art and literature in the early 1800s

American literature - Wikipedia American literature is literature written or produced in the United States and its preceding colonies. For specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States and Theater in the United States. Before the founding of the United States, the British colonies on the eastern coast of the present - day United States were heavily influenced by English literature. The American literary tradition began as part of the broader tradition of English literature. The revolutionary period contained political writings by Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. In the post-war period, Thomas Jefferson 's United States Declaration of Independence solidified his status as a key American writer. It was in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that the nation 's first novels were published. With the War of 1812 and an increasing desire to produce uniquely American literature and culture, a number of key new literary figures emerged, perhaps most prominently Washington Irving and Edgar Allan Poe. In 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 -- 1882) started a movement known as Transcendentalism. Henry David Thoreau (1817 -- 1862) wrote Walden, which urges resistance to the dictates of organized society. The political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world - famous Uncle Tom 's Cabin. These efforts were supported by the continuation of the slave narrative autobiography, of which the best known example from this period was Frederick Douglass 's Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American slave. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the first American novels were published. These fictions were too lengthy to be printed as manuscript or public reading. Publishers took a chance on these works in hopes they would become steady sellers and need to be reprinted. This scheme was ultimately successful because male and female literacy rates were increasing at the time. Among the first American novels are Thomas Attwood Digges ' "Adventures of Alonso '', published in London in 1775 and William Hill Brown 's The Power of Sympathy published in 1791. Brown 's novel depicts a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing they were related. In the next decade important women writers also published novels. Susanna Rowson is best known for her novel, Charlotte: A Tale of Truth, published in London in 1791 Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804 -- 1864) is notable for his masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, a novel about adultery. Hawthorne influenced Herman Melville (1819 -- 1891) who is notable for the books Moby - Dick and Billy Budd. America 's two greatest 19th - century poets were Walt Whitman (1819 -- 1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830 -- 1886). American poetry reached a peak in the early - to - mid-20th century, with such noted writers as Wallace Stevens, T.S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Ezra Pound, Hart Crane, and E.E. Cummings. Mark Twain (the pen name used by Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835 -- 1910) was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast. Henry James (1843 -- 1916) was notable for novels like The Turn of the Screw. At the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists included Edith Wharton (1862 -- 1937), Stephen Crane (1871 -- 1900), Theodore Dreiser (1871 -- 1945), and Jack London (1876 -- 1916). Experimentation in style and form is seen in the works of Gertrude Stein (1874 -- 1946). American writers expressed disillusionment following WW I. The stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896 -- 1940) capture the mood of the 1920s, and John Dos Passos wrote about the war. Ernest Hemingway (1899 -- 1961) became notable for The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms; in 1954, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. William Faulkner (1897 -- 1962) is notable for novels like The Sound and the Fury. American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene O'Neill, who won four Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize. In the middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, as well as by the maturation of the American musical. Depression era writers included John Steinbeck (1902 -- 1968), notable for his novel The Grapes of Wrath. Henry Miller assumed a distinct place in American Literature in the 1930s when his semi-autobiographical novels were banned from the US. From the end of World War II until around the late 1960s and early 1970s, many popular works in modern American literature were produced, like Harper Lee 's To Kill a Mockingbird. America 's involvement in World War II influenced works such as Norman Mailer 's The Naked and the Dead (1948), Joseph Heller 's Catch - 22 (1961) and Kurt Vonnegut Jr. 's Slaughterhouse - Five (1969). John Updike was notable for his novel Rabbit, Run (1960). Philip Roth explores Jewish identity in American society. The main literary movement since the 1970s has been postmodernism, and since the late 20th century ethnic and minority literature has sharply increased. Because of the large immigration to Boston in the 1630s, the articulation of Puritan ideals, and the early establishment of a college and a printing press in Cambridge, the New England colonies have often been regarded as the center of early American literature. However, the first European settlements in North America had been founded elsewhere many years earlier. Towns older than Boston include the Spanish settlements at Saint Augustine and Santa Fe, the Dutch settlements at Albany and New Amsterdam, as well as the English colony of Jamestown in present - day Virginia. During the colonial period, the printing press was active in many areas, from Cambridge and Boston to New York, Philadelphia, and Annapolis. The dominance of the English language was not inevitable. The first item printed in Pennsylvania was in German and was the largest book printed in any of the colonies before the American Revolution. Spanish and French had two of the strongest colonial literary traditions in the areas that now comprise the United States, and discussions of early American literature commonly include texts by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Samuel de Champlain alongside English language texts by Thomas Harriot and John Smith. Moreover, we are now aware of the wealth of oral literary traditions already existing on the continent among the numerous different Native American groups. Political events, however, would eventually make English the lingua franca for the colonies at large as well as the literary language of choice. For instance, when the English conquered New Amsterdam in 1664, they renamed it New York and changed the administrative language from Dutch to English. From 1696 to 1700, only about 250 separate items were issued from the major printing presses in the American colonies. This is a small number compared to the output of the printers in London at the time. London printers published materials written by New England authors, so the body of American literature was larger than what was published in North America. However, printing was established in the American colonies before it was allowed in most of England. In England, restrictive laws had long confined printing to four locations, where the government could monitor what was published: London, York, Oxford, and Cambridge. Because of this, the colonies ventured into the modern world earlier than their provincial English counterparts. Back then, some of the American literature were pamphlets and writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonist audience. Captain John Smith could be considered the first American author with his works: A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Noate as Hath Happened in Virginia... (1608) and The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624). Other writers of this manner included Daniel Denton, Thomas Ash, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John Lawson. The religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were important topics of early American literature. A journal written by John Winthrop, The History of New England, discussed the religious foundations of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Edward Winslow also recorded a diary of the first years after the Mayflower 's arrival. "A modell of Christian Charity '' by John Winthrop, the first governor of Massachusetts, was a Sermon preached on the Arbella (the flagship of the Winthrop Fleet) in 1630. This work outlined the ideal society that he and the other Separatists would build in an attempt to realize a "Puritan utopia ''. Other religious writers included Increase Mather and William Bradford, author of the journal published as a History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620 -- 47. Others like Roger Williams and Nathaniel Ward more fiercely argued state and church separation. And still others, like Thomas Morton, cared little for the church; Morton 's The New English Canaan mocked the religious settlers and declared that the Native Americans were actually better people than the British. Puritan poetry was highly religious, and one of the earliest books of poetry published was the Bay Psalm Book, a set of translations of the biblical Psalms; however, the translators ' intention was not to create literature, but to create hymns that could be used in worship. Among lyric poets, the most important figures are Anne Bradstreet, who wrote personal poems about her family and homelife; pastor Edward Taylor, whose best poems, the Preparatory Meditations, were written to help him prepare for leading worship; and Michael Wigglesworth, whose best - selling poem, The Day of Doom (1660), describes the time of judgment. It was published in the same year that anti-Puritan Charles II was restored to the British throne. He followed it two years later with God 's Controversy With New England. Nicholas Noyes was also known for his doggerel verse. Other late writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians, as seen in writings by Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason, Benjamin Church, and Mary Rowlandson. John Eliot translated the Bible into the Algonquin language. Of the second generation of New England settlers, Cotton Mather stands out as a theologian and historian, who wrote the history of the colonies with a view to God 's activity in their midst and to connecting the Puritan leaders with the great heroes of the Christian faith. His best - known works include the Magnalia Christi Americana, the Wonders of the Invisible World and The Biblia Americana. Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield represented the Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 18th century that emphasized Calvinism. Other Puritan and religious writers include Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, John Wise, and Samuel Willard. Less strict and serious writers included Samuel Sewall (who wrote a diary revealing the daily life of the late 17th century), and Sarah Kemble Knight. New England was not the only area in the colonies with a literature: southern literature was also growing at this time. The diary of William Byrd and The History of the Dividing Line described the expedition to survey the swamp between Virginia and North Carolina but also comments on the differences between American Indians and the white settlers in the area. In a similar book, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West, William Bartram described the Southern landscape and the Indian tribes he encountered; Bartram 's book was popular in Europe, being translated into German, French and Dutch. As the colonies moved toward independence from Britain, an important discussion of American culture and identity came from the French immigrant J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur, whose Letters from an American Farmer addresses the question "What is an American? '' by moving between praise for the opportunities and peace offered in the new society and recognition that the solid life of the farmer must rest uneasily between the oppressive aspects of the urban life and the lawless aspects of the frontier, where the lack of social structures leads to the loss of civilized living. This same period saw the beginning of black literature, through the poet Phillis Wheatley and the slave narrative of Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. At this time American Indian literature also began to flourish. Samson Occom published his A Sermon Preached at the Execution of Moses Paul and a popular hymnbook, Collection of Hymns and Spiritual Songs, "the first Indian best - seller ''. The Revolutionary period also contained political writings, including those by colonists Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy, John Dickinson, and Joseph Galloway, the last being a loyalist to the crown. Two key figures were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. Franklin 's Poor Richard 's Almanac and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American identity. Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense and The American Crisis writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the time. During the Revolutionary War, poems and songs such as "Yankee Doodle '' and "Nathan Hale '' were popular. Major satirists included John Trumbull and Francis Hopkinson. Philip Morin Freneau also wrote poems about the War. During the 18th century, writing shifted from the Puritanism of Winthrop and Bradford to Enlightenment ideas of reason. The belief that human and natural occurrences were messages from God no longer fit with the new human - centered world. Many intellectuals believed that the human mind could comprehend the universe through the laws of physics as described by Isaac Newton. One of these was Cotton Mather. The first book published in North America that promoted Newton and natural theology was Mather 's The Christian Philosopher (1721). The enormous scientific, economic, social, and philosophical, changes of the 18th century, called the Enlightenment, impacted the authority of clergyman and scripture, making way for democratic principles. The increase in population helped account for the greater diversity of opinion in religious and political life as seen in the literature of this time. In 1670, the population of the colonies numbered approximately 111,000. Thirty years later it was more than 250,000. By 1760, it reached 1,600,000. The growth of communities and therefore social life led people to become more interested in the progress of individuals and their shared experience in the colonies. These new ideas can be seen in the popularity of Benjamin Franklin 's Autobiography. Even earlier than Franklin was Cadwallader Colden (1689 - 1776), whose book The History of the Five Indian Nations, published in 1727 was one of the first texts critical of the treatment of the Iroquois in upstate New York by the English. Colden also wrote a book on botany, which attracted the attention of Linnaeus, and he maintained a long term correspondence with Benjamin Franklin. In the post-war period, Thomas Jefferson established his place in American literature through his authorship of the United States Declaration of Independence, his influence on the United States Constitution, his autobiography, his Notes on the State of Virginia, and his many letters. The Federalist essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay presented a significant historical discussion of American government organization and republican values. Fisher Ames, James Otis, and Patrick Henry are also valued for their political writings and orations. Early American literature struggled to find a unique voice in existing literary genre, and this tendency was reflected in novels. European styles were frequently imitated, but critics usually considered the imitations inferior. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the first American novels were published. These fictions were too lengthy to be printed as manuscript or public reading. Publishers took a chance on these works in hopes they would become steady sellers and need to be reprinted. This scheme was ultimately successful because male and female literacy rates were increasing at the time. Among the first American novels are Thomas Attwood Digges ' "Adventures of Alonso '', published in London in 1775 and William Hill Brown 's The Power of Sympathy published in 1791. Brown 's novel depicts a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing they were related. In the next decade important women writers also published novels. Susanna Rowson is best known for her novel, Charlotte: A Tale of Truth, published in London in 1791. In 1794 the novel was reissued in Philadelphia under the title, Charlotte Temple. Charlotte Temple is a seduction tale, written in the third person, which warns against listening to the voice of love and counsels resistance. She also wrote nine novels, six theatrical works, two collections of poetry, six textbooks, and countless songs. Reaching more than a million and a half readers over a century and a half, Charlotte Temple was the biggest seller of the 19th century before Stowe 's Uncle Tom 's Cabin. Although Rowson was extremely popular in her time and is often acknowledged in accounts of the development of the early American novel, Charlotte Temple is often criticized as a sentimental novel of seduction. Hannah Webster Foster 's The Coquette: Or, the History of Eliza Wharton was published in 1797 and was also extremely popular. Told from Foster 's point of view and based on the real life of Eliza Whitman, the novel is about a woman who is seduced and abandoned. Eliza is a "coquette '' who is courted by two very different men: a clergyman who offers her a comfortable domestic life and a noted libertine. Unable to choose between them, she finds herself single when both men get married. She eventually yields to the artful libertine and gives birth to an illegitimate stillborn child at an inn. The Coquette is praised for its demonstration of the era 's contradictory ideas of womanhood. even as it has been criticized for delegitimizing protest against women 's subordination. Both The Coquette and Charlotte Temple are novels that treat the right of women to live as equals as the new democratic experiment. These novels are of the Sentimental genre, characterized by overindulgence in emotion, an invitation to listen to the voice of reason against misleading passions, as well as an optimistic overemphasis on the essential goodness of humanity. Sentimentalism is often thought to be a reaction against the Calvinistic belief in the depravity of human nature. While many of these novels were popular, the economic infrastructure of the time did not allow these writers to make a living through their writing alone. Charles Brockden Brown is the earliest American novelist whose works are still commonly read. He published Wieland in 1798, and in 1799 published Ormond, Edgar Huntly, and Arthur Mervyn. These novels are of the Gothic genre. The first writer to be able to support himself through the income generated by his publications alone was Washington Irving. He completed his first major book in 1809 entitled A History of New - York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty. Of the picaresque genre, Hugh Henry Brackenridge published Modern Chivalry in 1792 - 1815; Tabitha Gilman Tenney wrote Female Quixotism: Exhibited in the Romantic Opinions and Extravagant Adventure of Dorcasina Sheldon in 1801; Royall Tyler wrote The Algerine Captive in 1797. Other notable authors include William Gilmore Simms, who wrote Martin Faber in 1833, Guy Rivers in 1834, and The Yemassee in 1835. Lydia Maria Child wrote Hobomok in 1824 and The Rebels in 1825. John Neal wrote Logan, A Family History in 1822, Rachel Dyer in 1828, and The Down - Easters in 1833. Catherine Maria Sedgwick wrote A New England Tale in 1822, Redwood in 1824, Hope Leslie in 1827, and The Linwoods in 1835. James Kirke Paulding wrote The Lion of the West in 1830, The Dutchman 's Fireside in 1831, and Westward Ho! in 1832. Robert Montgomery Bird wrote Calavar in 1834 and Nick of the Woods in 1837. James Fenimore Cooper was also a notable author best known for his novel, The Last of the Mohicans written in 1826. George Tucker produced in 1824 the first fiction of Virginia colonial life with The Valley of Shenandoah. He followed in 1827 with one of the country 's first science fictions, A Voyage to the Moon: With Some Account of the Manners and Customs, Science and Philosophy, of the People of Morosofia, and Other Lunarians. After the War of 1812, there was an increasing desire to produce a uniquely American literature and culture, and a number of literary figures emerged, among them Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, and James Fenimore Cooper. Irving wrote humorous works in Salmagundi and the satire A History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809). Bryant wrote early romantic and nature - inspired poetry, which evolved away from their European origins. Cooper 's Leatherstocking Tales about Natty Bumppo (which includes The Last of the Mohicans) were popular both in the new country and abroad. In 1832, Edgar Allan Poe began writing short stories -- including "The Masque of the Red Death '', "The Pit and the Pendulum '', "The Fall of the House of Usher '', and "The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' -- that explore previously hidden levels of human psychology and push the boundaries of fiction toward mystery and fantasy. Humorous writers were also popular and included Seba Smith and Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber in New England and Davy Crockett, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, Johnson J. Hooper, Thomas Bangs Thorpe, and George Washington Harris writing about the American frontier. The New England Brahmins were a group of writers connected to Harvard University and Cambridge, Massachusetts. They included James Russell Lowell, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. In 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson, a former minister, published his essay Nature, which argued that men should dispense with organized religion and reach a lofty spiritual state by studying and interacting with the natural world. Emerson 's work influenced the writers who formed the movement now known as Transcendentalism, while Emerson also influenced the public through his lectures. Among the leaders of the Transcendental movement was Henry David Thoreau, a nonconformist and a close friend of Emerson. After living mostly by himself for two years in a cabin by a wooded pond, Thoreau wrote Walden, a memoir that urges resistance to the dictates of society. Thoreau 's writings demonstrate a strong American tendency toward individualism. Other Transcendentalists included Amos Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, George Ripley, Orestes Brownson, and Jones Very. As one of the great works of the Revolutionary period was written by a Frenchman, so too was a work about America from this generation. Alexis de Tocqueville 's two - volume Democracy in America described his travels through the young nation, making observations about the relations between American politics, individualism, and community. The political conflict surrounding abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and his paper The Liberator, along with poet John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world - famous Uncle Tom 's Cabin. These efforts were supported by the continuation of the slave narrative autobiography, of which the best known examples from this period include Frederick Douglass 's Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Harriet Jacobs 's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. At the same time, American Indian autobiography develops, most notably in William Apess 's A Son of the Forest and George Copway 's The Life, History and Travels of Kah - ge - ga - gah - bowh. Moreover, minority authors were beginning to publish fiction, as in William Wells Brown 's Clotel; or, The President 's Daughter, Frank J. Webb 's The Garies and Their Friends, Martin Delany 's Blake; or, The Huts of America and Harriet E. Wilson 's Our Nig as early African American novels, and John Rollin Ridge 's The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta: The Celebrated California Bandit, which is considered the first Native American novel but which also is an early story about Mexican American issues. In 1837, the young Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804 -- 1864) collected some of his stories as Twice - Told Tales, a volume rich in symbolism and occult incidents. Hawthorne went on to write full - length "romances '', quasi-allegorical novels that explore the themes of guilt, pride, and emotional repression in New England. His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, is a drama about a woman cast out of her community for committing adultery. Hawthorne 's fiction had a profound impact on his friend Herman Melville (1819 -- 1891), who first made a name for himself by turning material from his seafaring days into exotic sea narrative novels. Inspired by Hawthorne 's focus on allegories and psychology, Melville went on to write romances replete with philosophical speculation. In Moby - Dick, an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such themes as obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the elements. In the short novel Billy Budd, Melville dramatizes the conflicting claims of duty and compassion on board a ship in time of war. His more profound books sold poorly, and he had been long forgotten by the time of his death. He was rediscovered in the early 20th century. Anti-transcendental works from Melville, Hawthorne, and Poe all comprise the Dark Romanticism sub-genre of popular literature at this time. American dramatic literature, by contrast, remained dependent on European models, although many playwrights did attempt to apply these forms to American topics and themes, such as immigrants, westward expansion, temperance, etc. At the same time, American playwrights created several long - lasting American character types, especially the "Yankee '', the "Negro '' and the "Indian '', exemplified by the characters of Jonathan, Sambo and Metamora. In addition, new dramatic forms were created in the Tom Shows, the showboat theater and the minstrel show. Among the best plays of the period are James Nelson Barker 's Superstition; or, the Fanatic Father, Anna Cora Mowatt 's Fashion; or, Life in New York, Nathaniel Bannister 's Putnam, the Iron Son of ' 76, Dion Boucicault 's The Octoroon; or, Life in Louisiana, and Cornelius Mathews 's Witchcraft; or, the Martyrs of Salem. The Fireside Poets (also known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets) were some of America 's first major poets domestically and internationally. They were known for their poems being easy to memorize due to their general adherence to poetic form (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) and were often recited in the home (hence the name) as well as in school (such as "Paul Revere 's Ride ''), as well as working with distinctly American themes, including some political issues such as abolition. They included Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr... Longfellow achieved the highest level of acclaim and is often considered the first internationally acclaimed American poet, being the first American poet given a bust in Westminster Abbey 's Poets ' Corner. Walt Whitman (1819 -- 1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830 -- 1886), two of America 's greatest 19th - century poets could hardly have been more different in temperament and style. Walt Whitman was a working man, a traveler, a self - appointed nurse during the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865), and a poetic innovator. His magnum opus was Leaves of Grass, in which he uses a free - flowing verse and lines of irregular length to depict the all - inclusiveness of American democracy. Taking that motif one step further, the poet equates the vast range of American experience with himself without being egotistical. For example, in Song of Myself, the long, central poem in Leaves of Grass, Whitman writes: "These are really the thoughts of all men in all ages and lands, they are not original with me... '' In his words Whitman was a poet of "the body electric ''. In Studies in Classic American Literature, the English novelist D.H. Lawrence wrote that Whitman "was the first to smash the old moral conception that the soul of man is something ' superior ' and ' above ' the flesh. '' By contrast, Emily Dickinson lived the sheltered life of a genteel unmarried woman in small - town Amherst, Massachusetts. Her poetry is ingenious, witty, and penetrating. Her work was unconventional for its day, and little of it was published during her lifetime. Many of her poems dwell on the topic of death, often with a mischievous twist. One, "Because I could not stop for Death '', begins, "He kindly stopped for me. '' The opening of another Dickinson poem toys with her position as a woman in a male - dominated society and an unrecognized poet: "I 'm nobody! Who are you? / Are you nobody too? '' American poetry arguably reached its peak in the early - to - mid-20th century, with such noted writers as Wallace Stevens and his Harmonium (1923) and The Auroras of Autumn (1950), T.S. Eliot and his The Waste Land (1922), Robert Frost and his North of Boston (1914) and New Hampshire (1923), Hart Crane and his White Buildings (1926) and the epic cycle, The Bridge (1930), Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams and his epic poem about his New Jersey hometown, Paterson, Marianne Moore, E.E. Cummings, Edna St. Vincent Millay and Langston Hughes, in addition to many others. Mark Twain (the pen name used by Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835 -- 1910) was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast -- in the border state of Missouri. His regional masterpieces were the memoir Life on the Mississippi and the novels Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Twain 's style -- influenced by journalism, wedded to the vernacular, direct and unadorned but also highly evocative and irreverently humorous -- changed the way Americans write their language. His characters speak like real people and sound distinctively American, using local dialects, newly invented words, and regional accents. Other writers interested in regional differences and dialect were George W. Cable, Thomas Nelson Page, Joel Chandler Harris, Mary Noailles Murfree (Charles Egbert Craddock), Sarah Orne Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Henry Cuyler Bunner, and William Sydney Porter (O. Henry). A version of local color regionalism that focused on minority experiences can be seen in the works of Charles W. Chesnutt (African American), of María Ruiz de Burton, one of the earliest Mexican American novelists to write in English, and in the Yiddish - inflected works of Abraham Cahan. William Dean Howells also represented the realist tradition through his novels, including The Rise of Silas Lapham and his work as editor of The Atlantic Monthly. Henry James (1843 -- 1916) confronted the Old World - New World dilemma by writing directly about it. Although he was born in New York City, James spent most of his adult life in England. Many of his novels center on Americans who live in or travel to Europe. With its intricate, highly qualified sentences and dissection of emotional and psychological nuance, James 's fiction can be daunting. Among his more accessible works are the novellas Daisy Miller, about an American girl in Europe, and The Turn of the Screw, a ghost story. Realism began to influence American drama, partly through Howells, but also through Europeans such as Ibsen and Zola. Although realism was most influential in set design and staging -- audiences loved the special effects offered up by the popular melodramas -- and in the growth of local color plays, it also showed up in the more subdued, less romantic tone that reflected the effects of the Civil War and continued social turmoil on the American psyche. The most ambitious attempt at bringing modern realism into the drama was James Herne 's Margaret Fleming, which addressed issues of social determinism through realistic dialogue, psychological insight, and symbolism. The play was not successful, and both critics and audiences thought it dwelt too much on unseemly topics and included improper scenes, such as the main character nursing her husband 's illegitimate child onstage. At the beginning of the 20th century, American novelists were expanding fiction to encompass both high and low life and sometimes connected to the naturalist school of realism. In her stories and novels, Edith Wharton (1862 -- 1937) scrutinized the upper - class, Eastern - seaboard society in which she had grown up. One of her finest books, The Age of Innocence, centers on a man who chooses to marry a conventional, socially acceptable woman rather than a fascinating outsider. At about the same time, Stephen Crane (1871 -- 1900), best known for his Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage, depicted the life of New York City prostitutes in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. And in Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser (1871 -- 1945) portrayed a country girl who moves to Chicago and becomes a kept woman. Hamlin Garland and Frank Norris wrote about the problems of American farmers and other social issues from a naturalist perspective. Political writings discussed social issues and the power of corporations. Edward Bellamy 's Looking Backward outlined other possible political and social orders, and Upton Sinclair, most famous for his muck - raking novel The Jungle, advocated socialism. Other political writers of the period included Edwin Markham, William Vaughn Moody. Journalistic critics, including Ida M. Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens were labeled The Muckrakers. Henry Brooks Adams ' literate autobiography, The Education of Henry Adams also depicted a stinging description of the education system and modern life. Race was a common issue as well, as seen in the work of Pauline Hopkins, who published five influential works from 1900 to 1903. Similarly, Sui Sin Far wrote about Chinese - American experiences, and Maria Cristina Mena wrote about Mexican - American experiences. The 1920s brought sharp changes to American literature. Many writers had direct experience of the First World War, and they used it to frame their writings. Experimentation in style and form soon joined the new freedom in subject matter. In 1909, Gertrude Stein (1874 -- 1946), by then an expatriate in Paris, published Three Lives, an innovative work of fiction influenced by her familiarity with cubism, jazz, and other movements in contemporary art and music. Stein labeled a group of American literary notables who lived in Paris in the 1920s and 1930s the "Lost Generation ''. The poet Ezra Pound (1885 -- 1972) was born in Idaho but spent much of his adult life in Europe. His work is complex, sometimes obscure, with multiple references to other art forms and to a vast range of literature, both Western and Eastern. He influenced many other poets, notably T.S. Eliot (1888 -- 1965), another expatriate. Eliot wrote spare, cerebral poetry, carried by a dense structure of symbols. In The Waste Land, he embodied a jaundiced vision of post -- World War I society in fragmented, haunted images. Like Pound 's, Eliot 's poetry could be highly allusive, and some editions of The Waste Land come with footnotes supplied by the poet. In 1948, Eliot won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Henry James, Stein, Pound, and Eliot demonstrate the growth of an international perspective in American literature. American writers had long looked to European models for inspiration, but whereas the literary breakthroughs of the mid-19th century came from finding distinctly American styles and themes, writers from this period were finding ways of contributing to a flourishing international literary scene, not as imitators but as equals. Something similar was happening back in the States, as Jewish writers (such as Abraham Cahan) used the English language to reach an international Jewish audience. American writers also expressed the disillusionment following upon the war. The stories and novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896 -- 1940) capture the restless, pleasure - hungry, defiant mood of the 1920s. Fitzgerald 's characteristic theme, expressed poignantly in The Great Gatsby, is the tendency of youth 's golden dreams to dissolve in failure and disappointment. Fitzgerald also elucidates the collapse of some key American Ideals, such as liberty, social unity, good governance and peace, features which were severely threatened by the pressures of modern early 20th century society. Sinclair Lewis and Sherwood Anderson also wrote novels with critical depictions of American life. John Dos Passos wrote about the war and also the U.S.A. trilogy which extended into the Depression. Ernest Hemingway (1899 -- 1961) saw violence and death first - hand as an ambulance driver in World War I, and the carnage persuaded him that abstract language was mostly empty and misleading. He cut out unnecessary words from his writing, simplified the sentence structure, and concentrated on concrete objects and actions. He adhered to a moral code that emphasized grace under pressure, and his protagonists were strong, silent men who often dealt awkwardly with women. The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms are generally considered his best novels; in 1954, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. William Faulkner (1897 -- 1962) won the Nobel Prize in 1949: Faulkner encompassed an enormous range of humanity in Yoknapatawpha County, a Mississippian region of his own invention. He recorded his characters ' seemingly unedited ramblings in order to represent their inner states, a technique called "stream of consciousness ''. (In fact, these passages are carefully crafted, and their seemingly chaotic structure conceals multiple layers of meaning.) He also jumbled time sequences to show how the past -- especially the slave - holding era of the Deep South -- endures in the present. Among his great works are Absalom, Absalom!, As I Lay Dying, The Sound and the Fury, and Light in August. Although the American theatrical tradition can be traced back to the arrival of Lewis Hallam 's troupe in the mid-18th century and was very active in the 19th century, as seen by the popularity of minstrel shows and of adaptations of Uncle Tom 's Cabin, American drama attained international status only in the 1920s and 1930s, with the works of Eugene O'Neill, who won four Pulitzer Prizes and the Nobel Prize. In the middle of the 20th century, American drama was dominated by the work of playwrights Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, as well as by the maturation of the American musical, which had found a way to integrate script, music and dance in such works as Oklahoma! and West Side Story. Later American playwrights of importance include Edward Albee, Sam Shepard, David Mamet, August Wilson and Tony Kushner. Depression era literature was blunt and direct in its social criticism. John Steinbeck (1902 -- 1968) was born in Salinas, California, where he set many of his stories. His style was simple and evocative, winning him the favor of the readers but not of the critics. Steinbeck often wrote about poor, working - class people and their struggle to lead a decent and honest life. The Grapes of Wrath, considered his masterpiece, is a strong, socially - oriented novel that tells the story of the Joads, a poor family from Oklahoma and their journey to California in search of a better life. Other popular novels include Tortilla Flat, Of Mice and Men, Cannery Row, and East of Eden. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962. Steinbeck 's contemporary, Nathanael West 's two most famous short novels, Miss Lonelyhearts, which plumbs the life of its eponymous antihero, a reluctant (and, to comic effect, male) advice columnist, and the effects the tragic letters exert on it, and The Day of the Locust, which introduces a cast of Hollywood stereotypes and explores the ironies of the movies, have come to be avowed classics of American literature. In non-fiction, James Agee 's Let Us Now Praise Famous Men observes and depicts the lives of three struggling tenant - farming families in Alabama in 1936. Combining factual reporting with poetic beauty, Agee presented an accurate and detailed report of what he had seen coupled with insight into his feelings about the experience and the difficulties of capturing it for a broad audience. In doing so, he created an enduring portrait of a nearly invisible segment of the American population. Henry Miller assumed a unique place in American Literature in the 1930s when his semi-autobiographical novels, written and published in Paris, were banned from the US. Although his major works, including Tropic of Cancer and Black Spring, would not be free of the label of obscenity until 1962, their themes and stylistic innovations had already exerted a major influence on succeeding generations of American writers, and paved the way for sexually frank 1960s novels by John Updike, Philip Roth, Gore Vidal, John Rechy and William Styron. The period in time from the end of World War II up until, roughly, the late 1960s and early 1970s saw the publication of some of the most popular works in American history such as To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. The last few of the more realistic modernists along with the wildly Romantic beatniks largely dominated the period, while the direct respondents to America 's involvement in World War II contributed in their notable influence. Though born in Canada, Chicago - raised Saul Bellow would become one of the most influential novelists in America in the decades directly following World War II. In works like The Adventures of Augie March and Herzog, Bellow painted vivid portraits of the American city and the distinctive characters that peopled it. Bellow went on to win the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1976. From J.D. Salinger 's Nine Stories and The Catcher in the Rye to Sylvia Plath 's The Bell Jar, the perceived madness of the state of affairs in America was brought to the forefront of the nation 's literary expression. Immigrant authors such as Vladimir Nabokov, with Lolita, forged on with the theme, and, at almost the same time, the beatniks took a concerted step away from their Lost Generation predecessors, developing a style and tone of their own by drawing on Eastern theology and experimenting with recreational drugs. The poetry and fiction of the "Beat Generation '', largely born of a circle of intellects formed in New York City around Columbia University and established more officially some time later in San Francisco, came of age. The term Beat referred, all at the same time, to the countercultural rhythm of the Jazz scene, to a sense of rebellion regarding the conservative stress of post-war society, and to an interest in new forms of spiritual experience through drugs, alcohol, philosophy, and religion, and specifically through Zen Buddhism. Allen Ginsberg set the tone of the movement in his poem Howl, a Whitmanesque work that began: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness... '' Among the most representative achievements of the Beats in the novel are Jack Kerouac 's On the Road (1957), the chronicle of a soul - searching travel through the continent, and William S. Burroughs 's Naked Lunch (1959), a more experimental work structured as a series of vignettes relating, among other things, the narrator 's travels and experiments with hard drugs. Regarding the war novel specifically, there was a literary explosion in America during the post -- World War II era. Some of the best known of the works produced included Norman Mailer 's The Naked and the Dead (1948), Joseph Heller 's Catch - 22 (1961) and Kurt Vonnegut Jr. 's Slaughterhouse - Five (1969). The Moviegoer (1962), by Southern author Walker Percy, winner of the National Book Award, was his attempt at exploring "the dislocation of man in the modern age. '' In contrast, John Updike approached American life from a more reflective but no less subversive perspective. His 1960 novel Rabbit, Run, the first of four chronicling the rising and falling fortunes of Harry "Rabbit '' Angstrom over the course of four decades against the backdrop of the major events of the second half of the 20th century, broke new ground on its release in its characterization and detail of the American middle class and frank discussion of taboo topics such as adultery. Notable among Updike 's characteristic innovations was his use of present - tense narration, his rich, stylized language, and his attention to sensual detail. His work is also deeply imbued with Christian themes. The two final installments of the Rabbit series, Rabbit is Rich (1981) and Rabbit at Rest (1990), were both awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Other notable works include the Henry Bech novels (1970 -- 98), The Witches of Eastwick (1984), Roger 's Version (1986) and In the Beauty of the Lilies (1996), which literary critic Michiko Kakutani called "arguably his finest. '' Frequently linked with Updike is the novelist Philip Roth. Roth vigorously explores Jewish identity in American society, especially in the postwar era and the early 21st century. Frequently set in Newark, New Jersey, Roth 's work is known to be highly autobiographical, and many of Roth 's main characters, most famously the Jewish novelist Nathan Zuckerman, are thought to be alter egos of Roth. With these techniques, and armed with his articulate and fast - paced style, Roth explores the distinction between reality and fiction in literature while provocatively examining American culture. His most famous work includes the Zuckerman novels, the controversial Portnoy 's Complaint (1969), and Goodbye, Columbus (1959). Among the most decorated American writers of his generation, he has won every major American literary award, including the Pulitzer Prize for his major novel American Pastoral (1997). In the realm of African - American literature, Ralph Ellison 's 1952 novel Invisible Man was instantly recognized as among the most powerful and important works of the immediate post-war years. The story of a black Underground Man in the urban north, the novel laid bare the often repressed racial tension that still prevailed while also succeeding as an existential character study. Richard Wright was catapulted to fame by the publication in subsequent years of his now widely studied short story, "The Man Who Was Almost a Man '' (1939), and his controversial second novel, Native Son (1940), and his legacy was cemented by the 1945 publication of Black Boy, a work in which Wright drew on his childhood and mostly autodidactic education in the segregated South, fictionalizing and exaggerating some elements as he saw fit. Because of its polemical themes and Wright 's involvement with the Communist Party, the novel 's final part, "American Hunger, '' was not published until 1977. Perhaps the most ambitious and challenging post-war American novelist was William Gaddis, whose uncompromising, satiric, and large novels, such as The Recognitions (1955) and JR (1975) are presented largely in terms of unattributed dialog that requires almost unexampled reader participation. Gaddis 's primary themes include forgery, capitalism, religious zealotry, and the legal system, constituting a sustained polyphonic critique of modern American life. Gaddis 's work, though largely ignored for years, anticipated and influenced the development of such ambitious "postmodern '' fiction writers as Thomas Pynchon, Joseph McElroy, and Don DeLillo. Another neglected and challenging postwar American novelist, albeit one who wrote much shorter works, was John Hawkes, whose surreal visionary fiction addresses themes of violence and eroticism and experiments audaciously with narrative voice and style. Among his most important works is the short nightmarish novel The Lime Twig (1961). In the postwar period, the art of the short story again flourished. Among its most respected practitioners was Flannery O'Connor, who developed a distinctive Southern gothic esthetic in which characters acted at one level as people and at another as symbols. A devout Catholic, O'Connor often imbued her stories, among them the widely studied "A Good Man is Hard to Find '' and "Everything That Rises Must Converge '', and two novels, Wise Blood (1952); The Violent Bear It Away (1960), with deeply religious themes, focusing particularly on the search for truth and religious skepticism against the backdrop of the nuclear age. Other important practitioners of the form include Katherine Anne Porter, Eudora Welty, John Cheever, Raymond Carver, Tobias Wolff, and the more experimental Donald Barthelme. Among the most respected of the postwar American poets are John Ashbery, the key figure of the surrealistic New York School of poetry, and his celebrated Self - portrait in a Convex Mirror (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1976); Elizabeth Bishop and her North & South (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1956) and "Geography III '' (National Book Award, 1970); Richard Wilbur and his Things of This World, winner of both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award for Poetry in 1957; John Berryman and his The Dream Songs, (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1964, National Book Award, 1968); A.R. Ammons, whose Collected Poems 1951 - 1971 won a National Book Award in 1973 and whose long poem Garbage earned him another in 1993; Theodore Roethke and his The Waking (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1954); James Merrill and his epic poem of communication with the dead, The Changing Light at Sandover (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1977); Louise Glück for her The Wild Iris (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1993); W.S. Merwin for his The Carrier of Ladders (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1971) and The Shadow of Sirius (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 2009); Mark Strand for Blizzard of One (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1999); Robert Hass for his Time and Materials, which won both the Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award for Poetry in 2008 and 2007 respectively; and Rita Dove for her Thomas and Beulah (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry, 1987). In addition, in this same period the confessional, whose origin is often traced to the publication in 1959 of Robert Lowell 's Life Studies, and beat schools of poetry enjoyed popular and academic success, producing such widely anthologized voices as Allen Ginsberg, Charles Bukowski, Gary Snyder, Anne Sexton, and Sylvia Plath, among many others. Though its exact parameters remain debatable, from the early 1970s to the present day the most salient literary movement has been postmodernism. Thomas Pynchon, a seminal practitioner of the form, drew in his work on modernist fixtures such as temporal distortion, unreliable narrators, and internal monologue and coupled them with distinctly postmodern techniques such as metafiction, ideogrammatic characterization, unrealistic names (Oedipa Maas, Benny Profane, etc.), absurdist plot elements and hyperbolic humor, deliberate use of anachronisms and archaisms, a strong focus on postcolonial themes, and a subversive commingling of high and low culture. In 1973, he published Gravity 's Rainbow, a leading work in this genre, which won the National Book Award and was unanimously nominated for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction that year. His other major works include his debut, V. (1963), The Crying of Lot 49 (1966), Mason & Dixon (1997), and Against the Day (2006). Toni Morrison, the most recent American recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature, writing in a distinctive lyrical prose style, published her controversial debut novel, The Bluest Eye, to critical acclaim in 1970. Coming on the heels of the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1965, the novel, widely studied in American schools, includes an elaborate description of incestuous rape and explores the conventions of beauty established by a historically racist society, painting a portrait of a self - immolating black family in search of beauty in whiteness. Since then, Morrison has experimented with lyric fantasy, as in her two best - known later works, Song of Solomon (1977) and Beloved (1987), for which she was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction; along these lines, critic Harold Bloom has drawn favorable comparisons to Virginia Woolf, and the Nobel committee to "Faulkner and to the Latin American tradition (of magical realism). '' Beloved was chosen in a 2006 survey conducted by The New York Times as the most important work of fiction of the last 25 years. Writing in a lyrical, flowing style that eschews excessive use of the comma and semicolon, recalling William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway in equal measure, Cormac McCarthy seizes on the literary traditions of several regions of the United States and includes multiple genres. He writes in the Southern Gothic aesthetic in his Faulknerian 1965 debut, The Orchard Keeper, and Suttree (1979); in the Epic Western tradition, with grotesquely drawn characters and symbolic narrative turns reminiscent of Melville, in Blood Meridian (1985), which Harold Bloom styled "the greatest single book since Faulkner 's As I Lay Dying, '' calling the character of Judge Holden "short of Moby Dick, the most monstrous apparition in all of American literature ''; in a much more pastoral tone in his celebrated Border Trilogy (1992 -- 98) of bildungsromans, including All the Pretty Horses (1992), winner of the National Book Award; and in the post-apocalyptic genre in the Pulitzer Prize - winning The Road (2007). His novels are noted for achieving both commercial and critical success, several of his works having been adapted to film. Don DeLillo, who rose to literary prominence with the publication of his 1985 novel, White Noise, a work broaching the subjects of death and consumerism and doubling as a piece of comic social criticism, began his writing career in 1971 with Americana. He is listed by Harold Bloom as being among the preeminent contemporary American writers, in the company of such figures as Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy, and Thomas Pynchon. His 1997 novel Underworld chronicles American life through and immediately after the Cold War and is usually considered his masterpiece. It was also the runner - up in a survey that asked writers to identify the most important work of fiction of the last 25 years. Among his other important novels are Libra (1988), Mao II (1991) and Falling Man (2007). Seizing on the distinctly postmodern techniques of digression, narrative fragmentation and elaborate symbolism, and strongly influenced by the works of Thomas Pynchon, David Foster Wallace began his writing career with The Broom of the System, published to moderate acclaim in 1987. His second novel, Infinite Jest (1997), a futuristic portrait of America and a playful critique of the media - saturated nature of American life, has been consistently ranked among the most important works of the 20th century, and his final novel, unfinished at the time of his death, The Pale King (2011), has garnered much praise and attention. In addition to his novels, he also authored three acclaimed short story collections: Girl with Curious Hair (1989), Brief Interviews with Hideous Men (1999) and Oblivion: Stories (2004). Jonathan Franzen, Wallace 's friend and contemporary, rose to prominence after the 2001 publication of his National Book Award - winning third novel, The Corrections. He began his writing career in 1988 with the well - received The Twenty - Seventh City, a novel centering on his native St. Louis, but did not gain national attention until the publication of his essay, "Perchance to Dream, '' in Harper 's Magazine, discussing the cultural role of the writer in the new millennium through the prism of his own frustrations. The Corrections, a tragicomedy about the disintegrating Lambert family, has been called "the literary phenomenon of (its) decade '' and was ranked as one of the greatest novels of the past century. In 2010, he published Freedom to great critical acclaim. Other notable writers at the turn of the century include Michael Chabon, whose Pulitzer Prize - winning The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay (2000) tells the story of two friends, Joe Kavalier and Sam Clay, as they rise through the ranks of the comics industry in its heyday; Denis Johnson, whose 2007 novel Tree of Smoke about falsified intelligence during Vietnam both won the National Book Award and was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and was called by critic Michiko Kakutani "one of the classic works of literature produced by (the Vietnam War) ''; and Louise Erdrich, whose 2008 novel The Plague of Doves, a distinctly Faulknerian, polyphonic examination of the tribal experience set against the backdrop of murder in the fictional town of Pluto, North Dakota, was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize, and her 2012 novel The Round House, which builds on the same themes, was awarded the 2012 National Book Award. One of the developments in late - 20th - century American literature was the increase of literature written by and about ethnic minorities beyond African Americans and Jewish Americans. This development came alongside the growth of the Civil Rights movements and its corollary, the Ethnic Pride movement, which led to the creation of Ethnic Studies programs in most major universities. These programs helped establish the new ethnic literature as worthy objects of academic study, alongside such other new areas of literary study as women 's literature, gay and lesbian literature, working - class literature, postcolonial literature, and the rise of literary theory as a key component of academic literary study. After being relegated to cookbooks and autobiographies for most of the 20th century, Asian American literature achieved widespread notice through Maxine Hong Kingston 's fictional memoir, The Woman Warrior (1976), and her novels China Men (1980) and Tripmaster Monkey: His Fake Book. Chinese - American author Ha Jin in 1999 won the National Book Award for his second novel, Waiting, about a Chinese soldier in the Revolutionary Army who has to wait 18 years to divorce his wife for another woman, all the while having to worry about persecution for his protracted affair, and twice won the PEN / Faulkner Award, in 2000 for Waiting and in 2005 for War Trash. Indian - American author Jhumpa Lahiri won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for her debut collection of short stories, Interpreter of Maladies (1999), and went on to write a well - received novel, The Namesake (2003), which was shortly adapted to film in 2007. In her second collection of stories, Unaccustomed Earth, released to widespread commercial and critical success, Lahiri shifts focus and treats the experiences of the second and third generation. Other notable Asian - American novelists include Amy Tan, best known for her novel, The Joy Luck Club (1989), tracing the lives of four immigrant families brought together by the game of Mahjong, and Korean American novelist Chang - Rae Lee, who has published Native Speaker, A Gesture Life, and Aloft. Such poets as Marilyn Chin and Li - Young Lee, Kimiko Hahn and Janice Mirikitani have also achieved prominence, as has playwright David Henry Hwang. Equally important has been the effort to recover earlier Asian American authors, started by Frank Chin and his colleagues; this effort has brought Sui Sin Far, Toshio Mori, Carlos Bulosan, John Okada, Hisaye Yamamoto and others to prominence. Hispanic literature also became important during this period, starting with acclaimed novels by Tomás Rivera (... y no se lo tragó la tierra) and Rudolfo Anaya (Bless Me, Ultima), and the emergence of Chicano theater with Luis Valdez and Teatro Campesino. Latina writing became important thanks to authors such as Sandra Cisneros, an icon of an emerging Chicano literature whose 1984 bildungsroman The House on Mango Street is taught in schools across the United States, Denise Chavez 's The Last of the Menu Girls and Gloria Anzaldúa 's Borderlands / La Frontera: The New Mestiza. Dominican - American author Junot Díaz, received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his 2007 novel The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, which tells the story of an overweight Dominican boy growing up as a social outcast in Paterson, New Jersey. Another Dominican author, Julia Alvarez, is well known for How the García Girls Lost Their Accents and In the Time of the Butterflies. Cuban American author Oscar Hijuelos won a Pulitzer for The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love, and Cristina García received acclaim for Dreaming in Cuban. Celebrated Puerto Rican novelists who write in English and Spanish include Giannina Braschi, author of the Spanglish classic Yo - Yo Boing! and Rosario Ferré, best known for "Eccentric Neighborhoods '' Puerto Rico has also produced important playwrights such as René Marqués, Luis Rafael Sánchez, and José Rivera and New York based poets such as Julia de Burgos, Giannina Braschi and Pedro Pietri, as well as various members of the Nuyorican Poets Café. Spurred by the success of N. Scott Momaday 's Pulitzer Prize -- winning House Made of Dawn, Native American literature showed explosive growth during this period, known as the Native American Renaissance, through such novelists as Leslie Marmon Silko (e.g., Ceremony), Gerald Vizenor (e.g., Bearheart: The Heirship Chronicles and numerous essays on Native American literature), Louise Erdrich (Love Medicine and several other novels that use a recurring set of characters and locations in the manner of William Faulkner), James Welch (e.g., Winter in the Blood), Sherman Alexie (e.g., The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven), and poets Simon Ortiz and Joy Harjo. The success of these authors has brought renewed attention to earlier generations, including Zitkala - Sa, John Joseph Mathews, D'Arcy McNickle and Mourning Dove. More recently, Arab American literature, largely unnoticed since the New York Pen League of the 1920s, has become more prominent through the work of Diana Abu - Jaber, whose novels include Arabian Jazz and Crescent and the memoir The Language of Baklava.

big boss 2 in telugu in which channel

Bigg Boss Telugu - wikipedia Bigg Boss Telugu is the Telugu - language version of the reality TV programme Big Brother and the fourth Indian version of reality TV programme Bigg Boss and airs on Star Maa in India. The first season of Bigg Boss Telugu premiered on 16 July 2017 and concluded on 24 September 2017. Jr. NTR hosted the first season. The second season is being hosted by Nani. It premiered on 10 June 2018 with a caption "Edaina Jaragochu ''. Bigg Boss Telugu is a reality show based on the Hindi show Bigg Boss which too was based on the original Dutch Big Brother format developed by John de Mol. A number of contestants (known as "housemates '') live in a purpose - built house and are isolated from the rest of the world. Each week, housemates nominate two of their fellow housemates for eviction, and the housemates who receives the most nominations would face a public vote. Eventually, one housemate would leave after being "evicted '' from the House. In the final week, there were five housemates remaining, and the public voted for who they wanted to win. Unlike other versions of Big Brother, the Indian version uses celebrities as housemates, not members of the general public. While all the rules have never been told to the audience, the most prominent ones are clearly seen. The inmates are not permitted to talk in any other language except Telugu. They always have to wear the lapel. They can not leave the House premises at any time unless they are evicted or decided by Big Boss. They can not discuss the nomination process with anyone. They are not allowed to sleep without the permission of Bigg Boss. The house for season one was set up at Lonavala. For season two, the house was set up in Annapurna Studios, Hyderabad. Bigg Boss Telugu is aired on Star Maa. Every day 's episodes contain the main happenings of the previous day. Every Saturday episode mainly focuses on an interview of the evicted contestant by the host.

castle rock mentioned in stephen king's books

Castle Rock (Stephen King) - wikipedia Castle Rock is part of Stephen King 's fictional Maine topography and provides the setting for a number of his novels, novellas, and short stories. Castle Rock first appeared in King 's 1979 novel The Dead Zone, and has reappeared as late as his 2013 novel Doctor Sleep and 2014 novel Revival (see list below). The name is taken from the fictional mountain fort of the same name in William Golding 's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies. King, a native of Durham, Maine, created a trinity of fictional Maine towns -- Castle Rock, Derry and Jerusalem 's Lot as central settings in more than one work. The population of Castle Rock was 1,280 by 1959 and around 1,500 as of its final chronological appearance in Needful Things. In Needful Things, Castle Rock is placed eighteen miles southwest of South Paris. In Creepshow (1982), there is a sign at the end of "The Lonesome Death of Jordy Verrill '' that puts Portland at 37 miles, and Boston at 188 miles. "Weeds, '' the short story on which "The Lonesome Death of Jordy Verrill '' was based, was actually set in New Hampshire. Geographically, this puts Castle Rock in the northern semicircle, of radius 37 - miles, centered on Portland, Maine. This could include places such as Durham, Lisbon, Danville, Auburn, Lewiston, Bridgton, and maybe even Sabattus. A map on King 's official website places Castle Rock in Oxford County, in the vicinity of Woodstock. Yet the works in which Castle Rock appears place the town in the fictional "Castle County, '' which also includes such towns as Castle Lake and Castle View. The location of Castle Rock may also be related to Marblehead where there is a park by the same name. Stand by Me (1986), the film adaptation of King 's novella The Body (1982), makes reference to a town of Castle Rock in Oregon. Rob Reiner, the film 's director, later named his production company Castle Rock Entertainment, which subsequently produced several adaptations of King 's works. Castle Rock is mentioned in One on One (1993), a novel by King 's wife, Tabitha King. In an afterword, she thanks "another novelist who was kind enough to allow me '' to borrow the name. In the 2007 film adaptation of King 's novella The Mist (1980), David Drayton reads a newspaper called The Castle Rock Times. Besides the oft - used Derry, Castle Rock, and Jerusalem 's Lot, King has created other fictional Maine towns, including Chamberlain in Carrie, Chester 's Mill in Under the Dome, Haven in The Tommyknockers, Little Tall Island in Dolores Claiborne and Storm of the Century, Harlow in Revival, and Ludlow in Pet Sematary and The Dark Half (unrelated to the real Maine town of Ludlow). On February 17, 2017, Hulu announced they were once again partnering with J.J. Abrams and Stephen King to create another limited series based on King 's works. The series, entitled Castle Rock, is named after the fictional town in King 's native Maine which has served as the setting for a number of his novels, novellas, and short stories. A teaser of the series was released some time after the announcement by Abrams ' production company, Bad Robot. The series is set to explore the themes and worlds uniting King 's entire canon, while brushing up against some of his most iconic and beloved stories. On February 21, 2017, Hulu issued a 10 - episode order for the series, with production set to begin at a later date. Filming is expected to begin in August 2017. The small Western Massachusetts town of Orange served as a stand in for filming scenes set in Castle Rock. The series, starting André Holland, Melanie Lynskey, Bill Skarsgård, Jane Levy, and Sissy Spacek, premiered on Hulu on July 25, 2018.

list of one term presidents in the us

List of presidents of the United States by time in office - wikipedia Franklin Delano Roosevelt Longest presidency 4,422 days 1933 -- 1945 This is a list of Presidents of the United States by time in office. The basis of the list is the difference between dates; if counted by number of calendar days all the figures would be one greater, with the exception of Grover Cleveland, who would receive two days. Since 1789, there have been 44 people sworn into office as President of the United States, and 45 presidencies, as Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is counted chronologically as both the 22nd and 24th president. Of the individuals elected president, four (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt) died of natural causes while in office, four (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy) were assassinated, and one (Richard Nixon) resigned. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, and Franklin D. Roosevelt spent the longest. He is the only president to have served more than two terms. Following ratification of the 22nd Amendment in 1951, presidents -- beginning with Dwight D. Eisenhower -- have been ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected president. The amendment contained a grandfather clause that explicitly exempted the incumbent president -- then Harry S. Truman -- from the new term limitations.

where is the biggest mall in america located

Mall of America - wikipedia Mall of America (commonly, locally known as "MOA '') is a shopping mall located in Bloomington, Minnesota, United States (a suburb of the Twin Cities). It lies southeast of the junction of Interstate 494 and Minnesota State Highway 77, north of the Minnesota River, and across the Interstate from the Minneapolis -- St. Paul International Airport. Opened in 1992, it is the largest mall in the United States in terms of total floor area (including Nickelodeon Universe), the fifth largest mall in North America in terms of leaseable space, and the twelfth largest in the world. The mall is managed by the Triple Five Group (which in turn is owned by Canada 's Ghermezian family, along with the West Edmonton Mall). Eighty percent of visitors to the Mall of America are from Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, the Dakotas, Illinois, Ohio, and Canada. The mall 's concept was designed by the Triple Five Group, owned by the Ghermezian brothers, who also own the largest shopping mall in North America, the West Edmonton Mall. Mall of America is located on the site of the former Metropolitan Stadium, where the Minnesota Vikings and Minnesota Twins played until the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome opened in 1982. A plaque in the mall 's amusement park commemorates the former location of home plate, and one seat from Met Stadium was placed in Mall of America at the exact location it occupied in the stadium, commemorating a 520 - foot (160 m) home run hit by hall - of - famer Harmon Killebrew on June 3, 1967. In 1986, the Bloomington Port Authority signed an agreement with the Ghermezian organization. Groundbreaking for the mall took place on June 14, 1989. Organizations involved include Melvin Simon and Associates, Teachers Insurance and Annuity (a.k.a. TIAA) and the office of architect Jon Jerde. Mall of America opened its doors to the public on August 11, 1992. Even before opening, the mall had earned several nicknames, including "The Megamall '', "Sprawl of America '', "Hugedale '' -- in reference to the four major "dale '' shopping malls within the Twin Cities: Rosedale, Southdale, Ridgedale, and (defunct as of 2010) Brookdale -- and simply, "The Mall ''. Mall of America became the largest shopping mall in total area and largest in total store vendors in the United States when it opened. The Mall of America 's 42 million annual visitors equal roughly eight times the population of the state of Minnesota. As of 2015, the mall employed over 11,000 workers year - round and 13,000 during peak seasons. In 2003, after a protracted six - year legal battle between Simon Property Group, the managing general partner of the property, and the Ghermezian brothers / Triple Five Group, over majority ownership of the site, a federal appeals court ruled in favor of the Ghermezians, effectively transferring control and planning authority of the mall back to the creator of the concept. The dispute stemmed from a 1999 purchase of Teacher 's Insurance 's 27.5 % equity stake by Simon Properties, giving them majority ownership. The Ghermezians claimed they were never told of the deal and sued Simon, citing fiduciary responsibility. On November 3, 2006, the Ghermezians gained full control of Mall of America by spending US $1 billion. On May 18, 2008, the Mall of America received a tax break for a proposed $2 billion expansion. The bill gave the city of Bloomington the ability to increase taxes on sales, lodging and food and beverages to finances a parking ramp at the mall. On March 24, 2012, the Triple Five Group announced the start of a $200 million expansion that would build into the north parking lot of the mall. The plans called for an additional hotel and an additional 200,000 square feet (19,000 m) of retail space. The project broke ground in the fall of 2013 and began opening in stages in the summer of 2015. In March 2014, ground was broken on the mall 's north side for the $104 million, 14 - story JW Marriott hotel, owned and financed by the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community. In 2018, it was announced that MOA had proposed to build an indoor water park, with a cost between $150 to $200 million for the project. The Mall of America has a gross area of 4,870,000 sq ft (452,000 m) or 96.4 acres (390,000 m), enough to fit seven Yankee Stadiums inside, with 2,500,000 sq ft (230,000 m) available as retail space. The mall is nearly symmetric, with a roughly rectangular floor plan. More than 530 stores are arranged along three levels of pedestrian walkways on the sides of the rectangle, with a fourth level on the east side. Four anchor department stores are located at the corners. The mall is organized into four different zones, each of those zones had its own decorative style until a series of renovations from 2010 to 2015 led to a unified and more luxurious style, as well as to coincide with the mall 's first major expansion. Despite Minnesota 's cold winters, only the mall 's entrances and some below ground areas are heated. Heat is allowed in through skylights above the central amusement park area. The majority of the heat is produced by lighting fixtures, other electric devices, and people in the mall. In fact, even during the winter, air conditioning systems may still be in use during peak hours to ensure a comfortable shopping environment. Although the common areas are unheated, the individual stores do have heating systems. Two nearly identical seven - story parking ramps on the east and west sides of the mall provide 12,287 parking spaces. Overflow parking north of the building provides an additional 1,200 -- 1,500 spaces, and 1,407 spaces are provided by IKEA. Level One is the location of Nickelodeon Universe amusement park (formerly Camp Snoopy), and first level of general retail which includes Sea Life Minnesota Aquarium, Hard Rock Cafe, Lego Store, American Girl Place, Apple Store, Barnes & Noble, Fabletics, Nordstrom, Sears, Macy 's, and Microsoft Store, Level Two features restaurants, shopping, MOA ® Moments, and the first Verizon Wireless Destination Store. Level Three has two food courts with more than 20 fast food and full service restaurants, mini-golf, shopping, and Crayola Experience. Level Four is the entertainment level with Hooters, Cantina # 1, Rick Bronson 's House of Comedy, Gameworks, Dick 's Last Resort, Sky Deck Sports Grille and Lane, and the first U.S. location of SMAAASH, a virtual reality sports entertainment center. During its run as an all - encompassing entertainment and retail venue, certain aspects, particularly its bars, have come under scrutiny. In early - 2000 a Mardi Gras - themed bar, Fat Tuesday, shut its doors due to indecent exposure and alcohol - related offenses. On November 29, 2011, Google announced indoor maps for Mall of America along with several other places like airports, parks and public spaces. On January 3, 2012, Macy 's Inc. announced it would close its Bloomingdale 's location at the Mall of America. The Theatres at Mall of America (Initially run by General Cinemas, bought out then rebranded by AMC Theatres, and eventually operated by mall management) occupied the south side of the fourth floor through December 2016, when it closed permanently. It was replaced by Cinemex subsidiary CMX Cinemas in fall 2017. Nickelodeon Universe is an indoor theme park in the center of the mall. The park features roller coasters, among numerous other rides and attractions, and is the largest indoor theme park in the United States. Unlike many indoor amusement parks, Nickelodeon Universe has a great deal of natural foliage in and about the park, and its floor has a wide variance in height -- the highest ground level in the park is 15 feet (4.6 m) above the lowest. The rides include the roller coasters SpongeBob SquarePants Rock Bottom Plunge and Avatar Airbender, and a thrill ride called BrainSurge. The latter attraction bills itself as a "rather peculiar '' ride. It also has a miniature golfing section called Moose Mountain. This miniature golf course features eighteen holes and a relatively fast astroturf surface. At the Sea Life Minnesota Aquarium, guests travel through a 300 - foot - long (91 m) curved tunnel through 14 feet (4.3 m) of water to view over 4,500 sea creatures including sharks, turtles, stingrays, and many more. Sea Life Minnesota Aquarium offers special events such as sleepovers, scuba diving, snorkeling, and birthday parties. The Mall recently added Crayola Experience and FlyOver America to the list of family attractions. In the lower level of the eastern parking ramp is the Mall of America Transit Station, the busiest transit hub in Minnesota with services to and from many destinations in the Minneapolis -- St. Paul metropolitan area. The Transit Station contains two stops on the Metro Transit network: the southern terminus of the METRO Blue Line (light rail) to Downtown Minneapolis via MSP Airport and Hiawatha Avenue (operated by Metro Transit), and the northern terminus of the METRO Red Line (BRT) to Lakeville (operated by the Minnesota Valley Transit Authority). Both agencies also operate many local bus services to the Transit Station, and many area hotels along with the Mystic Lake Casino offer free shuttles to their establishments. The mall is not a park and ride facility, and overnight parking is banned to prevent passengers taking the train to the airport. Commuters are required to use the nearby 28th Avenue Station 's parking ramp. The Mall of America Transit Station is undergoing a study to increase efficiency and capacities, and to provide a better experience for its users. Estimates for the upgrade are approximately $20 million. The Mall of America 's security program is unique and in many ways the first of its kind. Michael Rozin, who used to be employed as the mall 's Special Operations Security Captain, developed and implemented a behavior detection unit specifically focused on mitigating the threat of terrorism and enhancing counter-terrorism capabilities. Behavior Detection Officers (BDOs) are trained extensively in Israel, each one going through at least 240 hours of training that includes communication techniques, first aid, defensive tactics, crisis intervention, terrorism awareness, and rapid response. As Doug Reynolds, the Security Director at the mall, noted in a congressional testimony in 2008, BDOs are taught to "look for intent, rather than means. The objective is to focus on suspicious indicators in three categories: People, vehicles and unattended items like backpacks, shopping bags, suitcases. '' This methodology has prepared the mall for a variety of threats, both from terrorists and everyday criminals. In 2010, it was noted that mall security officials were instructed to question or detain individuals exhibiting what they deemed "suspicious behavior ''. Signs of suspicious behavior included photographing air - conditioning ducts, or signs that a shopper was hiding something. At the time, some officials within the Bloomington Police Department worried that the mall 's security methods may infringe on rights. In 2011, NPR 's All Things Considered and Morning Edition and PBS 's Newshour both aired programs documenting security abuses by the mall 's security personnel. On December 31, 2013, members from the First Nations protest movement Idle No More attempted to repeat a successful Native - American round dance held at the mall in 2012, but failed after being stopped by mall security. Organizers of the dance, Patricia Shepard and Reyna Crow from Duluth were arrested on site for trespassing. In February 2015, the Al - Shabaab militant group also released a propaganda video calling for attacks on the Mall of America and other Western shopping centers. Although the group had never launched attacks in North America, security at the mall was tightened in response and Homeland Security issued a one - day alert to shoppers to remain vigilant. On December 21, 2014, thousands of protesters attended an unauthorized demonstration organized by Black Lives Matter in the mall 's rotunda. The demonstration was in response to the Michael Brown fatal shooting in Ferguson, Missouri, and the then recent jury decision not to prosecute the white officer in that case, as well as the death of Eric Garner of New York. In response to the demonstration, the Mall of America closed the areas of the mall around the rotunda. Police arrested 25 demonstrators. The Bloomington City Attorney, Sandra Johnson, pursued charges against the organizers, and the city is sought compensatory damages from some of the organizers for out - of - pocket costs the city incurred while paying overtime for additional security. In response to these charges, demonstrators have called for a boycott of the mall. Plans for another Black Lives Matter demonstration at the Mall of America on December 23, 2015 prompted mall officials to file a restraining order against the movement 's activists. Eight individual activists were sued in Hennepin County District Court. The mall 's lawsuit would prohibit the defendants from demonstrating and require them to delete all of their posts to social media pertaining to the demonstration. The lawsuit additionally asked that the court jail Black Lives Matter activists unless they publicly announce that the demonstration is cancelled on their social media accounts. The American Civil Liberties Union of Minnesota called the mall 's lawsuit an "improper prior restraint on speech '' and an unconstitutional overreach. The amusement park, during its "Camp Snoopy '' days. The Metropolitan Stadium home plate marker. The Harmon Killebrew chair. The carousel at the amusement park. The band organ, formerly at the carousel entrance. The Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. restaurant Another shot of the amusement park during the Camp Snoopy era. Another shot of Camp Snoopy from a different angle. The Kite - Eating Tree ride is shown in this picture. When Camp Snoopy became Nickelodeon Universe in 2008, the Kite - Eating Tree was restyled and renamed Swing - Along. The three - story American flag, which was used on July 4, 2008. The mall 's information sign, which shows the use of "MOA ''. The MPR store, emphasizing A Prairie Home Companion. This has since closed. Al 's Farm Toys, a farm - themed toy store which closed in 2016. A few of the unique sports - themed stores throughout the mall. Team Choice and Lids Locker Room (formerly Locker Room) closed, but Goldy 's and Rybicki Cheese remain and Goldy 's has since become Goldy 's Locker Room. The legendary mural imitating Seurat; formerly near the food court. The Lego "Imagination Center '', the longest - standing Mall attraction. The Lego Store after 2009 remodeling. The Mall of America was used as a filming location for various movies and television shows, including:

which of the following are characteristic of well-formed xml documents

Well - formed document - wikipedia A well - formed document in XML is a document that adheres to the syntax rules specified by the XML 1.0 specification in that it must satisfy both physical and logical structures. '' At its base level well - formed documents require that: To be a well - formed document, rules must be established about the declaration and treatment of entities. Tags are case sensitive, with attributes delimited with quotation marks. Empty elements have rules established. Overlapping tags invalidate a document. Ideally, a well - formed document conforms to the design goals of XML. Other key syntax rules provided in the specification include: A valid XML document is defined in the XML specification as a well - formed XML document which also conforms to the rules of a Document Type Definition (DTD). According to JavaCommerce.com XML tutorial, "Well formed XML documents simply markup pages with descriptive tags. You do n't need to describe or explain what these tags mean. In other words a well formed XML document does not need a DTD, but it must conform to the XML syntax rules. If all tags in a document are correctly formed and follow XML guidelines, then a document is considered as well formed. '' An XML processor that encounters a violation of the well - formedness rules is required to report such errors and to cease normal processing. This policy, occasionally referred to as draconian, stands in notable contrast to the behavior of programs that process HTML, which are designed to produce a reasonable result even in the presence of severe markup errors in the spirit of Postel 's law ("Be conservative in what you send; be liberal in what you accept ''). The concept of a well - formed document allows for a better understanding of the fundamental construction of XML. It helps to clarify XML beyond the typical sense of it. For example, while most XML Document Type Definitions utilize left and right angle brackets as content delimiters, strictly speaking this is not a necessity (though a delimiter should be terse and concise). The left and right angle bracket codes are a convention, albeit clear and distinctive, not an absolute requirement. The concept of well - formed document also allows for the comprehension of the abstract nature of XML. In reality, there is no such thing as XML. Rather, XML is a principle that represents a set of behaviors and practices. It is possible to discuss types of XML, as expressed within a Document Type Definition (DTD). Well - formed documents also bring into focus the issue of valid versus correct XML. According to the W3 Organization, valid documents are those that validate against a DTD. The rules of validity mean that a document complies with the restraints stated within a DTD. Thus, tags or entities must be in conformity to the rules and relations established within a DTD. However, there is no control on whether a tag or entity is correct. Thus a first level head tag could be applied to a second level head object and be valid, while incorrect. The emphasis on well - formed documents has developed within the publishing industry where the use of left and right angle bracket delimited information has become problematic. Emphasis on the well - formed document allows for the definition, delimiting, and nesting of content to be managed within programs that are not XML, per se, but exhibit the characteristics or potential for being well formed. There are several tools available to determine if a given XML document is well formed. One example is:

once upon a time season 1 episode 7

The heart is a Lonely Hunter (Once Upon a Time) - wikipedia "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter '' is the seventh episode of the first season of the American fairy tale / drama television series Once Upon a Time, and the seventh overall. The episode was co-written by series creators Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis, while being directed by David M. Barrett. Horowitz and Kitsis had intended to kill off Graham since the pilot episode was picked up, believing that it would add "stakes '' to the series and show viewers that the story is "not in Henry 's head. '' The episode is considered significant, as Graham 's death reveals that Regina is aware of her fairytale past. The series takes place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke, Maine, in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales that were transported to the "real world '' town by a powerful curse. This episode 's story follows Sheriff Graham (Jamie Dornan) as he remembers his fairytale counterpart, leading to significant consequences that parallel his previous life as the Huntsman. It first aired in the United States on ABC on December 11, 2011. An estimated 8.91 million viewers watched the episode, placing third in its timeslot behind NBC and CBS. The episode received mixed reviews from television critics, as some praised Dornan 's character but were divided on the ending sequence. It was the series ' mid-season finale. A wolf is shown in the forest. In Granny 's Cafe, Sheriff Graham (Jamie Dornan) throws darts at a picture of a deer very accurately. Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison) arrives but leaves immediately because she has not forgiven him for hiding his relationship with Regina (Lana Parrilla). Emma attempts to avoid conversation, but Graham is insistent on explaining to her he feels nothing for Regina. He kisses Emma and suddenly sees a vision of a wolf, only to have Emma push him away. Frustrated by Emma 's lack of understanding, Graham, drunk, later has sex with Regina. In the middle of the night, he awakens abruptly from a dream of a deer and a wolf. When Graham tells Regina that the dream felt like a memory, Regina tries to convince him to stay, telling him that he 's still drunk, but Graham leaves. As Graham attempts to get to his car, the wolf from his visions appears next to him, startling him before it leaves. As he tries to find the wolf in the woods, he runs into Mr. Gold (Robert Carlyle). Graham tells him about the wolf, and Mr. Gold suggests to him that dreams are memories from another life. The following morning, Emma discovers flowers on the table and throws them out, assuming they are from Graham, but Mary Margaret (Ginnifer Goodwin) says that they were hers from Dr. Whale (David Anders), with whom she had a one - night stand. Emma is glad to hear that Mary Margaret appears to be getting over David (Josh Dallas). Mary Margaret tells Emma that it is obvious that she has feelings for Graham, but does not acknowledge them because she is putting up a "wall '' to keep herself from getting hurt. The sheriff finds the wolf in the woods, and when he whistles, the wolf goes to him. As he pets the wolf 's head, he sees himself holding a knife, about to hurt the woman he only knows as Mary Margaret. Graham pays a visit to her classroom, telling her that he believes they know each other from another life, before Storybrooke. Mary Margaret assumes that the sheriff has been talking to Henry, and while this is not the case, this gives Graham the idea to consult Henry about his book. Meanwhile, at the sheriff 's office, Regina shows up and warns Emma to stay away from Graham, apparently jealous of his connection with Emma. Graham visits Henry (Jared S. Gilmore) and describes his visions, to which Henry replies that he must be the queen 's Huntsman. The Huntsman was hired by the Evil Queen to remove Snow White 's heart and bring it back to her, but when he does not do so, she removes his heart. Graham later attempts to explain to Emma that he could not feel anything with Regina because he does not have a heart. Graham and Emma then encounter the wolf from Graham 's visions, and follow it to a graveyard and vault marked with a symbol Graham saw in his visions and in Henry 's book. Looking for his heart, Graham fervently searches the vault, which turns out to be the tomb of Henry Mills. Regina arrives to place flowers on her father 's grave and is furious to find them there. Regina accuses Emma of stealing the sheriff from her, and Emma responds that Regina has chased everyone away. Graham defends Emma, and the women exchange blows. Later, while Graham cleans Emma 's wounds, Regina pushes aside the stone inside the vault, which turns out not to be a tomb after all; the stone reveals a staircase. Emma realizes her feelings for Graham and the two kiss just as Regina opens a storage box in the hidden room and clutches Graham 's heart, crushing it to dust, showing that she remembers being the Evil Queen. Before he collapses and dies, Graham 's last words to Emma are "I remember! Thank you. '' In the Enchanted Forest, the Evil Queen mourns the death of her husband, Snow White 's father, although she herself is responsible for his death. Snow (Goodwin) and the Queen seemingly comfort each other over the loss. The Queen consults her magic mirror (Esposito) to ask how she can kill Snow, who is beloved by the people but a threat to her bid for the throne. She says that the king 's knights will not kill his daughter, and the mirror tells her that she needs a huntsman. As Graham saw in his flashbacks, the Huntsman (Dornan) and his brother wolf seem to enjoy living a peaceful life in the woods. The Huntsman kills only for himself to live, and has no compassion for humans, who do not understand the wild. As the Huntsman and his wolf enter a tavern, the other patrons begin harassing him, prompting him to successfully defend himself. His performance is viewed in the magic mirror by the Queen, who is greatly impressed. She summons the Huntsman to offer him anything he wants on the condition that he brings her Snow 's heart. He agrees to this deal, in return asking for the protection of all the wolves in the Enchanted Forest. Snow and the Huntsman walk together in the forest, and she sees through his disguise and correctly guesses that he was sent by the Queen to kill her. Snow flees, but as the Huntsman catches up with her, he finds her writing a letter, which she requests he deliver to the queen after she is killed. The Huntsman takes out his knife, but instead of killing her, he fashions a whistle out of a bamboo stick, telling her that it will summon help and then telling her to run. The Huntsman then returns to the queen with a deer heart, hoping that she will not know the difference. The queen asks him to read her the letter, which is an apology for past wrongs as well as a request from Snow that her stepmother rule the kingdom with compassion. The queen burns the letter and takes the box with the heart in it to store in her vault. When she can not open one of her storage safes, it proves that the Huntsman lied to her; the heart is not human. The Queen has her guards drag him down to the vault and she yanks his glowing heart out of his body. She tells the Huntsman that from now on he will be her pet and will do her bidding forever, and if he ever betrays her, all she has to do is squeeze. The episode was co-written by co-creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz, and was directed by The Mentalist veteran David M. Barrett. Guest actor Giancarlo Esposito made his second appearance in the series as Magic Mirror / Sidney Glass. Meghan Ory returned as Ruby / Red Riding Hood, while Scott Heindl made his only appearance for the series as Bartholomew. Leading up to the episode broadcast, Kitsis and Horowitz noted that "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter '' would feature consequences of events that occurred in the previous episode. Horowitz explained, "Emma is in a raw emotional place, trying to come to terms with her feelings about what she discovered about Graham. Graham is also in a very raw emotional place because he 's clearly conflicted and it 's this cauldron of emotions that leads to the kiss. '' Kitsis added that, "We 're really excited that the kiss that you 've seen is really just the jumping off point of the story we 're telling. It 's not like it ends with the kiss, it starts with that and it takes us somewhere that we 're excited to show you. '' In the episode, the character of Sheriff Graham was killed off, something that actor Jamie Dornan had known would happen since ABC picked up the pilot. It was the first major death of the series. In an interview with E! reporter Kristin Dos Santos, Dornan hinted that while his counterpart in Storybrooke has died, the huntsman could return at some point, as Dornan is still a regular on the series. As much of the episode involves Graham discovering his fairytale past, the writers designed the episode to mislead viewers by having them invest in the character. Kitsis and Horowitz commented that while the death made them "sad, '' the battle between Emma and Regina requires "stakes and unfortunately, sometimes stakes are people 's lives. '' They also decided to kill the character relatively early in the series in order to show viewers that "it 's real. It 's not in Henry 's head. '' Kitsis continued, "It 's interesting, but part of the intent was to make you love him and we loved him very much. And the fact that the audience seems to have loved him means a lot to us, in that we feel like we succeeded on that front. If you do n't feel sad, then it was a failure of the execution of the story. '' Actress Lana Parrilla believed that Graham helped fill a void for her character, commenting that his loss "was not easy for (Regina). That 's why, when she crushes his heart, there 's a tear coming out of her eye. She did n't want to do it, but she had no choice -- almost like how she had no choice to kill her father. I 'm not saying I agree with it, but for the character, it 's what she had to do. '' Parrilla also cited "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter '' as the first episode where viewers see "how the two worlds collided, '' a reference to Regina 's ability to kill Graham by squeezing the heart of his fairytale counterpart. The revelation of the vault, Kitsis and Horowitz explained, "is a very important thing for us in terms of moving forward in the season in that we wanted to send a very clear message that Regina knows what 's going on and has some very clear intentions in Storybrooke. '' The episode was included in Reawakened: A Once Upon a Time Tale -- a novelization of the first season -- which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013. For the third week in a row, the ratings once again slipped, as it placed 2.9 / 7 among adults aged 18 -- 49 and a 5.2 / 8 overall, with only 8.91 million viewers tuning in. It ranked third in its timeslot, being beaten by Football Night In America on NBC and 60 Minutes on CBS but ahead of The Simpsons on the Fox network. "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter '' served as the series ' mid-season finale, as the next episode aired on January 8, 2012. In Canada, the episode finished in twelfth place for the week with an estimated 1.6 million viewers, a slight increase from the 1.55 million of the previous episode. "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter '' received mixed reviews from television critics. TV Fanatic writer C. Orlando enjoyed the episode, remarking "I love Once Upon a Time because it 's like a mini-movie every week and I 'm completely enthralled by this intriguing other world filled with characters that feel familiar yet completely new. '' He called the ending scene "heartbreaking. '' IGN writer Amy Ratcliffe rated the episode 9 / 10, giving particular praise to Jamie Dornan 's ability to be "magnetic in every scene. '' Ratcliffe called his backstory her favorite fairytale of the series up to that point. Television Without Pity 's Cindy McLennan wished they had not killed Graham, but gave credit to the writers for making her care about him. She concluded, "Episodes like this give me strong hope for the second part of this season, one - nighters and all. Bring on the pain, boys. '' She graded the episode with an A. -- Entertainment Weekly writer Shaunna Murphy Blast Magazine columnist Christopher Peck was disappointed that the writers had not yet revealed the reason for the Evil Queen 's grudge, commenting, "If the thing that sticks out most about an episode of television is what I did n't get out, that 's an ominous sign: a foreshadowing that the show has no goddamn clue where it 's headed. '' He did however enjoy seeing Graham 's memories, calling them and the other series flashbacks "the freshest and most thrilling part of the show. '' While describing Graham 's death as "heartbreaking, '' Peck felt that it "completely nullifies any advancement the episode made. '' He graded the episode with a C+. Entertainment Weekly 's Shaunna Murphy was a little more critical of the episode, though she did call it "game - changing. '' Noting that it "felt rushed, '' she "would have preferred a slow - burning mystery spread out over several episodes over this dramatic, Nikki and Paulo - style stand - alone sendoff. '' Murphy however concluded that Graham 's death was "one of the coolest sequences we 've seen so far on this show. '' The A.V. Club columnist Oliver Sava graded "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter '' with a C. He also noted negative similarities to the television series Lost, explaining, "Remember when Jack, Sawyer, and Kate were stuck in the polar - bear cages, and the plot just wandered in an aimless haze? The time when a bunch of viewers started jumping off because the writers kept adding questions without ever giving answers? What took Lost 44 episodes, OUAT has done in seven. '' Unlike other reviewers, Sava called the ending a "frustrating conclusion, '' and believed that "Horowitz and Kitsis (took) one step forward and two steps back with this development. ''

when was the grand hotel in scarborough built

Grand hotel (Scarborough) - wikipedia The Grand Hotel is a large hotel in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England, overlooking the town 's South Bay. It is a Grade II * listed building that is owned by Britannia Hotels and has undergone a £ 7 million refurbishment. At the time of its grand opening in 1867, it was the largest hotel and the largest brick structure in Europe. The hotel was designed by the Hull architect Cuthbert Brodrick, who was better known as the designer of several Leeds buildings, and when completed in 1867 was one of the largest hotels in the world, as well as one of the first giant purpose - built hotels in Europe. The hotel 's distinctive yellow (also referred to as tawny) brickwork was made locally in Hunmanby and is complemented with traditional red brickwork around the windows. The building is designed around the theme of time: four towers to represent the seasons, 12 floors for the months of the year, 52 chimneys symbolise the weeks, and originally there were 365 bedrooms, one for each day of the year. Following the renovation the room count was reduced to 280. The hotel itself is in the shape of a ' V ' in honour of Queen Victoria. The hotel 's heyday was arguably during Victorian times, when wealthy holidaymakers made up the establishment 's clientele. As Scarborough was a famous spa town, the building 's baths originally included an extra pair of taps, so guests could wash in seawater as well as fresh. The design has similarities to contemporaries of the period that were stylised as "French Second Empire mode ''. The windows on the ground and first floors are round headed. Those on the first floor also have a continuous iron rail balcony. All first to third floor windows have a cornice over the top denoting the floor boundary. The Eaves level windows are located between the projecting brackets for the eaves. The attic windows are squared dormer on the lower level and rounded on the upper. The attic levels, being part of the roof are covered in slate. On the narrow end of the building there is domed structure between the two towers. Facing the sea, the three basement levels can be seen clearly extended the full length of the building. A glass - enclosed terrace has been added on top of this. The building was first listed on 8 June 1973 with number 1243163 under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 as amended for its special architectural or historic interest. Construction began in 1863 and was completed in 1867, at a cost of over £ 100,000. At the time, it was the largest brick building in Europe. The first manager was M. Augustus Fricour, who had previously been in charge at the Hotel Mirabeau in Paris. The grand opening was on 24 July 1867. From 1887, the hotel forged a link with the local annual cricket festival and allowed guests attending the exclusive use of the old dining room. The connection was extended to the cricket ground in the late 1940s, when staff from the hotel would serve food and drink to the players. In 1939, the hotel became the home to RAF trainees and the corner cupolas housed anti-aircraft guns. The hotel was badly damaged when the German Navy bombarded the town in 1914. The bombardment of the town occurred on 16 December 1914 soon after 8 a.m. by the battlecruisers Derfflinger and Von der Tann, accompanied by the light cruiser Kolberg. It was reported that the hotel was hit at least 30 times. Following the Iranian Embassy siege in 1980, the hotel was used in a covert training exercise by the SAS in preparation for other anticipated terrorist incidents. Currently, the hotel caters towards the budget end of the spectrum. The hotel was bought by Butlins, the company better known for its holiday camps, in 1978 and was run as an inexpensive choice of accommodation. In November 2004, the hotel was purchased by Britannia from Grand Leisure Group. During the first decade of the 21st century, the hotel suffered a number of health and safety issues. Several cases of sickness had been reported in the mid-1990s under its previous ownership, and in 2002, an outbreak of gastroenteritis hospitalised one man and affected more than 200 guests and staff. A month later, 54 people fell ill, leading to ten days ' closure to carry out cleaning. In October 2004, a number of guests were quarantined in their rooms because of reports of sickness. In December, the hotel shut for ten days after an outbreak of the Norwalk virus. That incident, in which no one required hospital treatment, closed the establishment for several days. A spokesperson for the North Yorkshire Health Protection Unit blamed the incidents on the age of the building and "bad luck ''. In 2006, the hotel was fined £ 10,000 after a guest drank water that contained dangerous levels of bleach. In June 2011, seventy guests were affected by an outbreak of vomiting and diarrhoea. The cause was said to most likely to be a viral gastrointestinal infection, but that had not been confirmed.In March 2007, 120 people fell ill with the Norwalk virus; infection control specialists stressed that the management should not be held responsible, as similar outbreaks are commonplace elsewhere. In 2005, an investigative BBC report revealed several health issues at the hotel, including the presence of E. coli bacteria. This report was branded "sensationalist '' by Scarborough council 's environmental health officer. In May 2006, a fire broke out on the sixth floor of the building, possibly caused by renovation work. The hotel was quickly evacuated while local fire crews dealt with what they described as "quite a severe fire ''. Extinguishing the blaze took over 40 minutes because of the number of stairs in the building and the amount of smoke, which both hampered firefighters ' movements. In September 2006, the management installed extra netting and spikes on the exterior of the building to deter nesting seagulls. The birds, which are regarded as a nuisance in parts of the town, had been disturbing guests with mating calls. Their droppings were also responsible for a significant proportion of the hotel 's cleaning expenses. In 2016 the local council was set to take action against the increasing numbers of gulls within the town and local area. The hotel has a three blue plaques. One notes that Anne Brontë, the Yorkshire writer, died at lodgings on the site of the current hotel. Another mentions that the RAF trainees during the Second World War were stationed there. Still another commemorates the opening of the building. Winston Churchill stayed in the hotel during a Conservative Party Conference.

differences between tf-idf based ranking and bm25 ranking

Okapi BM25 - wikipedia In information retrieval, Okapi BM25 (BM stands for Best Matching) is a ranking function used by search engines to rank matching documents according to their relevance to a given search query. It is based on the probabilistic retrieval framework developed in the 1970s and 1980s by Stephen E. Robertson, Karen Spärck Jones, and others. The name of the actual ranking function is BM25. To set the right context, however, it is usually referred to as "Okapi BM25 '', since the Okapi information retrieval system, implemented at London 's City University in the 1980s and 1990s, was the first system to implement this function. BM25 and its newer variants, e.g. BM25F (a version of BM25 that can take document structure and anchor text into account), represent state - of - the - art TF - IDF - like retrieval functions used in document retrieval. BM25 is a bag - of - words retrieval function that ranks a set of documents based on the query terms appearing in each document, regardless of the inter-relationship between the query terms within a document (e.g., their relative proximity). It is not a single function, but actually a whole family of scoring functions, with slightly different components and parameters. One of the most prominent instantiations of the function is as follows. Given a query Q, containing keywords q 1,..., q n (\ displaystyle q_ (1),..., q_ (n)), the BM25 score of a document D is: where f (q i, D) (\ displaystyle f (q_ (i), D)) is q i (\ displaystyle q_ (i)) ' s term frequency in the document D, D (\ displaystyle D) is the length of the document D in words, and avgdl is the average document length in the text collection from which documents are drawn. k 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (1)) and b are free parameters, usually chosen, in absence of an advanced optimization, as k 1 ∈ (1.2, 2.0) (\ displaystyle k_ (1) \ in (1.2, 2.0)) and b = 0.75 (\ displaystyle b = 0.75). IDF (q i) (\ displaystyle (\ text (IDF)) (q_ (i))) is the IDF (inverse document frequency) weight of the query term q i (\ displaystyle q_ (i)). It is usually computed as: where N is the total number of documents in the collection, and n (q i) (\ displaystyle n (q_ (i))) is the number of documents containing q i (\ displaystyle q_ (i)). There are several interpretations for IDF and slight variations on its formula. In the original BM25 derivation, the IDF component is derived from the Binary Independence Model. Please note that the above formula for IDF shows potentially major drawbacks when using it for terms appearing in more than half of the corpus documents. These terms ' IDF is negative, so for any two almost - identical documents, one which contains the term and one which does not contain it, the latter will possibly get a larger score. This means that terms appearing in more than half of the corpus will provide negative contributions to the final document score. This is often an undesirable behavior, so many real - world applications would deal with this IDF formula in a different way: Here is an interpretation from information theory. Suppose a query term q (\ displaystyle q) appears in n (q) (\ displaystyle n (q)) documents. Then a randomly picked document D (\ displaystyle D) will contain the term with probability n (q) N (\ displaystyle (\ frac (n (q)) (N))) (where N (\ displaystyle N) is again the cardinality of the set of documents in the collection). Therefore, the information content of the message "D (\ displaystyle D) contains q (\ displaystyle q) '' is: Now suppose we have two query terms q 1 (\ displaystyle q_ (1)) and q 2 (\ displaystyle q_ (2)). If the two terms occur in documents entirely independently of each other, then the probability of seeing both q 1 (\ displaystyle q_ (1)) and q 2 (\ displaystyle q_ (2)) in a randomly picked document D (\ displaystyle D) is: and the information content of such an event is: With a small variation, this is exactly what is expressed by the IDF component of BM25.

purpose of accreditation in higher education in the philippines

Higher Education in the Philippines - Wikipedia The higher education in the Philippines is offered through various degree programs (commonly known as courses in the Philippines) by a wide selection of colleges and universities -- also known as higher education institutions (HEIs). These are administered and regulated by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). HEIs are either classified as a college or a university, and either public or private, and also either secular or religious. As of August 2010, records from CHED showed that the country had 1,573 private and 607 public HEIs. In the Philippines, college is a tertiary institution that typically offer a number of specialized courses in the sciences, liberal arts, or in specific professional areas, e.g. nursing, hotel and restaurant management and information technology. Meanwhile, to be classified as a university -- such as state universities and colleges (SUCs), CHED - supervised higher education institutions (CHEIs), private higher education institutions (PHEIs) and community colleges (CCs) -- it must meet the following requirements: Local universities have less stringent requirements than private HEIs. They are only required to operate at least five undergraduate programs -- as opposed to eight for private universities -- and two graduate - level programs. Public universities are all non-sectarian entities, and are further classified into two types: State university and college (SUC) or Local college and university (LCU). State universities and colleges (SUCs) refers to any public institution of higher learning that was created by an Act passed by the Congress of the Philippines. These institutions are fully subsidized by the national government, and may be considered as a corporate body. SUCs are fully funded by the national government as determined by the Philippine Congress. The University of the Philippines, being the "national university '', receives the biggest chunk of the budget among the 456 SUCs, and has likewise been strengthened by law through Republic Act 9500. SUCs lamented the Philippine government 's inadequate financial aid. For the fiscal year 2008, the Congress of the Philippines allotted PHP 20.8 billion in subsidy for the operation of the SUCs, where PHP 15.4 billion of the amount goes solely to the salaries of faculty members and employees. Collectively, SUCs have a student population of approximately 865,000, which means that every student is subsidized by an average of PHP 24,000 per school year. Each Filipino family contributes PHP 1,185 a year to run these schools through their tax payments. During the growth and restructuring of the systems of SUCs, names such as University of the Philippines have changed their meanings over time. SUCs are confronted by annual budget cutbacks. As a result, these schools impose enrolment quotas and increase fees. In recent years, tuition and miscellaneous fees in the SUCs have seen huge increases. In 2007, the University of the Philippines hiked its tuition by 300 percent, from PHP 300 to PHP 1,000 per unit, while Eulogio "Amang '' Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology implemented a 600 percent tuition hike, from PHP 15 per unit to PHP 100 per unit, resulting in a 50 percent drop in enrollment. During the same period, the Polytechnic University of the Philippines was poised to increase its rate by 525 percent, but because of massive student demonstration the administration had to shelve the plan. SUCs are also forced to accept only a limited number of students due to budget cuts. In 2007, some 66,000 high school graduates took the University of the Philippines College Admission Test (UPCAT) but only around 12,000 were admitted. The same is true in Polytechnic University of the Philippines where only 10,000 to 13,000 are admitted from more than 50,000 examinees of Polytechnic University of the Philippines College Entrance Test (PUPCET). Only 10 percent of college students were in state - run schools in 1980, but this rose to 21 percent in 1994 and to almost 40 percent in 2008. The SUCs are banded together in one organization called the Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC). As of 2004, PASUC 's membership comprises 111 SUCs and 11 satellite associations. There are 436 state universities and colleges in the Philippines (including satellite campuses). Local colleges and universities (LCUs), on the other hand, are run by local government units. The Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila is first and largest among the LCUs. LCUs appeared to be having some political difficulties. On March 1, 2011, the Senate Committee on Education, Arts and Culture of the Senate of the Philippines announced that it will push for a law regulating LCUs all over the country. The Senate hearing received evidence from CHED that only a few of the courses offered in LCU institutions have permits from the national government. Attorney Lily Milla of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) gave evidence to the hearing that out of 450 degree programs offered by the country 's 93 LCUs, around 42 have permits to operate. The chairman of the committee, Senator Edgardo Angara, told the same hearing that without a law regulating LCUs, "We will add to the number of diploma mills. We already have enough mills. Many of the poor send their kids to those schools and they 're being shortchanged right now ''. Private colleges and universities may either be sectarian or non-sectarian entities. Institutions may either be not - for - profit or profit - oriented. Most private schools are not - for - profit Catholic like Adamson University (Vincentian), the Ateneo de Manila University (Jesuit), De La Salle University (Christian Brothers), Don Bosco Technical College (Salesian), Notre Dame of Dadiangas University (Marist Brothers of the Schools), Saint Louis University (Philippines) (CICM), San Beda College (Benedictine), University of the Immaculate Conception (Religious of the Virgin Mary) University of San Agustin (Augustinian), San Sebastian College -- Recoletos (Augustinian Recollects), University of San Carlos, and the Divine Word College of Vigan (SVD), and the University of Santo Tomas and Colegio de San Juan de Letran (Dominican). However, there are also non-Catholic not - for - profit sectarian institutions such as Silliman University (Presbyterian), The MARIAM School of Nursing Inc. - Lamitan City (Marians), Adventist University of the Philippines (Seventh - day Adventist), Wesleyan University Philippines (Methodist), Central Philippine University (Baptist), Philippine Christian University (Methodist), Trinity University of Asia (Episcopalian), New Era University (Iglesia ni Cristo). Non-sectarian private schools, on the other hand, are corporations licensed by the Securities and Exchange Commission. Examples of these are AMA Computer University, Centro Escolar University, Far Eastern University, Southern City Colleges and STI College which are likewise registered on the Philippine Stock Exchange. Accreditation is a process for assessing and upgrading the educational quality of higher education institutions and programs through self - evaluation and peer judgment. It is a system of evaluation based on the standards of an accrediting agency, and a means of assuring and improving the quality of education. The process leads to a grant of accredited status by an accrediting agency and provides public recognition and information on educational quality. Voluntary accreditation of all higher education institutions is subject to the policies of the Commission on Higher Education. Voluntary accrediting agencies in the private sector are the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU), the Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities ' Commission on Accreditation (PACUCOA), and the Association of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities Accrediting Association Inc. (ACSCU - AAI) which all operate under the umbrella of the Federation of Accrediting Agencies of the Philippines (FAAP), which itself is the certifying agency authorized by CHED. Accreditation can be either of programs or of institutions. All of the institutions accredited by these three agencies certified by FAAP are private institutions. Under CHED 's Revised Policies and Guidelines on Voluntary Accreditation in Aid of Quality and Excellence and Higher Education, there are four levels of program accreditation, with Level IV being the highest. Two institutions, Ateneo de Manila University and De La Salle University - Manila were granted Level IV accreditation pursuant to the provisions of CHED Order, CMO 31 of 1995, but their Level IV institutional accreditation lapsed. Ateneo was granted Level IV re-accreditation in 2011. At present, nine universities have current institutional accreditation. Institutional accreditation is the highest certification that can be given to an educational institution after a consideration of the university 's number of individual program accreditations and the result of an overall evaluation of the quality of its facilities, services and faculty. These schools are Adventist University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, Ateneo de Davao University, Ateneo de Naga University, Centro Escolar University, Central Philippine University, De La Salle University -- Dasmariñas, Silliman University, Trinity University of Asia, and University of Santo Tomas. At present the Ateneo de Manila University, is the only university in the Philippines that has been simultaneously granted both Level IV Status and institutional accreditation. Silliman University on the other hand is recorded to have the highest number of accredited programs in the country, fourteen of which are on Level IV accreditation status while simultaneously bearing Institutional Accreditation by the Federation of Accrediting Agencies of the Philippines. Accrediting agencies for government - supported institutions are the Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP), and the Association of Local Colleges and Universities Commission on Accreditation (ALCUCOA). Together they formed the National Network of Quality Assurance Agencies (NNQAA) as the certifying agency for government - sponsored institutions. However NNQAA does not certify all government - sponsored institutions. The Technical Vocational Education Accrediting Agency of the Philippines (TVEAAP) was established and registered with the Securities Exchange Commission on 27 October 1987. On 28 July 2003, the FAAP board accepted the application of TVEAAP to affiliate with FAAP. AACCUP and PAASCU are active members of the International Network of Quality Assurance Agencies for Higher Education (INQAAHE), and the Asia Pacific Quality Network (APQN). In an effort to rationalize its supervision of institutions of higher learning, CHED has also prescribed guidelines for granting privileges of autonomy and deregulation to certain schools. According to the guidelines, the general criteria examined by CHED are an institution 's "long tradition of integrity and untarnished reputation '', "commitment to excellence '', and "sustainability and viability of operations ''. Autonomous status allows universities to design their own curricula, offer new programs and put up branches or satellite campuses without having to secure permits, confer honorary degrees, and carry out operations without much interference from CHED. Aside from all host state colleges and universities and other chartered public universities, such as the University of the Philippines, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Mindanao State University and Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, fifty - three (53) private higher education institutions (HEIs) have been granted autonomous status, which are: CHED regularly reviews its list of autonomous institutions, with the latest published list valid until 31 May 2014. HEIs granted autonomous status shall enjoy benefits accorded to autonomous institutions until the specified date of validity or unless such status is revoked or suspended. Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) with deregulated status enjoy the same privilege as autonomous HEIs, but they must still secure permits for new programs and campuses. CHED regularly updates its list of autonomous institutions with the latest published list valid until 31 May 2014. As at that date 15 deregulated HEIs were listed by CHED. There are no set methods for ranking institutions in the Philippines. Aside from comparisons in terms of accreditation, autonomy, and centers of excellence awarded by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), there are attempts to rank schools based on performance in board exams conducted by the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC). The PRC and CHED sometimes publish reports on these results. FindUniversity.ph publishes the lists of top schools in each PRC regulated board exam, aggregated over the past four exams. These lists are updates regularly based on the PRC 's publications of the performance of schools in each exam. The FindUniversity.ph website has also created the Weighted Board Exam Ranking which ranks Philippines HEI based on their ranking in all board exams their graduates have participated in. This ranking is also based on the last four exams of each board exam, and takes into account first time takers only, and only schools that had a total of at least 10 participants in the last four exams of each board exam. In 2009, CHED executive director Julito Vitriolo said that they are in the process of establishing appropriate guidelines to rank Philippine universities and colleges for each specific academic program or discipline. As of June 2015, such rankings do not exist yet. Internationally, the Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, the University of the Philippines, and the University of Santo Tomas are those that had been regularly listed as among the region and world 's top universities in league tables and surveys such as in the now - defunct Asiaweek university rankings (which last ranked universities in 1999 and 2000), and the THES - QS World University Rankings in 2005, 2006, and 2008. In the 2007 THES - QS rankings, only UP and the Ateneo remained in the THES - QS rankings ' top 500. In 2008, Ateneo, La Salle, UP, and UST once again placed in the rankings, with the Ateneo ranked 254th in the world, UP at 276th while De La Salle University and the University of Santo Tomas both placed in the Top 401 - 500 category Ateneo and UP were also ranked among the top 100 universities worldwide in the field of the arts and humanities. The THES - QS rankings are mainly based on peer review survey, while the Asiaweek rankings were measured on the university 's endowment and resources. In the 2009 world rankings, two Philippine universities made it to the top 300, with the Ateneo de Manila University ranked 234th and the University of the Philippines ranked 262nd. De La Salle University was ranked within the 401 - 500 range, whereas the University of Santo Tomas was ranked below 500. Individual subject areas were also ranked in the following categories: Arts and Humanities, Engineering / Technology, Natural Sciences, Life Sciences & Biomedicine, and Social Sciences. The Ateneo and UP ranked 88th and 93rd, respectively, in Arts and Humanities, 243rd and 281st, respectively, in Engineering / Technology, 114th and 176th, respectively, in Natural Sciences, 186th and 171st, respectively, in Life Sciences & Biomedicine, and 138th and 123rd, respectively, in Social Sciences, where La Salle was ranked 292nd. There are other university rankings based on different methodologies and criteria. In the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities by a Spanish research body, which measures a university 's Internet presence and the volume of research output freely accessible online, has UP and La Salle ranked ahead of other local universities. On the other hand, in the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities, which is based on Nobel Prize winners, Fields medals for mathematicians, highly cited researchers, or articles in Nature or Science; and, the École des Mines de Paris rankings, which is according to the number of alumni who are the CEOs of the Fortune 500 companies, do not have Philippine universities in the top 500. In the QS 2009 top Asian universities rankings, 16 Philippine schools participated or have been included in the survey. These schools were: Adamson University, the Ateneo de Davao University, the Ateneo de Manila University, Central Mindanao University, De La Salle University, Father Saturnino Urios University, the Mapua Institute of Technology, Mindanao State University, the Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Saint Louis University (Philippines), Silliman University, the University of the Philippines, the University of San Carlos, the University of Santo Tomas, the University of Southeastern Philippines, and Xavier University. Unlike the THE - QS world university rankings, the QS 2009 Asian University Rankings is limited in scope to Asian institutions, surveys only parties in Asia, and utilizes different criteria compared to those used in the THE - QS rankings. Given these criteria, four Philippine schools ranked among the top 200: the University of the Philippines (63rd), De La Salle University (76th), Ateneo de Manila University (84th) and the University of Santo Tomas (104th). In the subject areas, four Philippine universities figured in the region 's top 100: For Arts and Humanities, the University of the Philippines (12th), the Ateneo de Manila University (19th), De La Salle University (44th), and the University of Santo Tomas (55th) were recognized. For Life Sciences and Biomedicine, the University of the Philippines (47th), the Ateneo de Manila University (52nd), De La Salle University (79th), and the University of Santo Tomas (85th) were recognized. For Natural Sciences, the Ateneo de Manila University (24th), the University of the Philippines (32nd), the University of Santo Tomas (94th), and De La Salle University (97th) were recognized. For Social Sciences, the University of the Philippines (22nd), the Ateneo de Manila University (28th), De La Salle University (51st), and the University of Santo Tomas (75th) were recognized. For IT and Engineering, the University of the Philippines (63rd), the Ateneo de Manila University (64th), and De La Salle University (79th) were recognized. For other indicators, Philippine schools made it to the top 100 in all but three of the ranking criteria (student - faculty ratio, papers per faculty, and citations per paper). In the same 2009 QS Asian University Ranking, more Philippine universities were included in the top 500 bracket. In terms International Student Review: Ateneo de Manila University (70th), De La Salle University (76th), Silliman University (111th), University of Santo Tomas (183rd), Saint Louis University (Philippines) (216th), University of San Carlos (250th), Mapua Institute of Technology (267th), University of the Philippines (281st), Polytechnic University of the Philippines (345th), Fr. Saturnino Urios University (368th). In terms of International Faculty Review, the rankings were as follows: Ateneo de Manila University (73rd), University of the Philippines (151st), Silliman University (216th), De La Salle University (283rd), Saint Louis University (Philippines) (288th), University of Santo Tomas (321st), while Fr. Saturnino University, Mapua Institute of Technology, Polytechnic University of the Philippines and the University of San Carlos tied at the 324th spot. In 2010, the universities above were included in the QS Asian Universities Survey. Overall, the Ateneo de Manila University (58th), the University of the Philippines (78th), the University of Santo Tomas (101st), and De La Salle University (106th) were ranked among the top 100 in Asia. In the various subject areas, the four universities were among the Asian top 100. For Arts and Humanities, the Ateneo de Manila University (14th), the University of the Philippines (16th), De La Salle University (54th), and the University of Santo Tomas (69th) were recognized. For Life Sciences and Biomedicine, the University of the Philippines (32nd), the Ateneo de Manila University (38th), the University of Santo Tomas (69th), and De La Salle University (84th) were recognized. For Natural Sciences, the Ateneo de Manila University (22nd), the University of the Philippines (31st), and De La Salle University (88th) were recognized. For Social Sciences, the University of the Philippines (18th), the Ateneo de Manila University (25th), De La Salle University (48th), and the University of Santo Tomas (83rd) were recognized. For IT and Engineering, the Ateneo de Manila University (57th), the University of the Philippines (62nd), and De La Salle University (80th) were recognized. In the other academic criteria, Philippine universities were represented in all but two indicators (international student review and international faculty review). For Academic Peer Review, the University of the Philippines and Ateneo de Manila University posted the same scores (96.0), and were ranked 23rd and 24th, respectively. De La Salle University and the University of Santo Tomas were ranked 70th and 90th, respectively. For Asian recruiter review, the University of the Philippines (22nd), the Ateneo de Manila University (25th), De La Salle University (29th), and the University of Santo Tomas (59th) were recognized. For Student - Faculty ratio, the University of Southeastern Philippines was the only Philippine school recognized, at 43rd. For citations per paper, the University of Santo Tomas was ranked 8th, the only Philippine school recognized in that category. For International Student Exchange - Inbound, the Ateneo de Manila University (48th) and University of San Carlos (53rd) were recognized. For International Student Exchange - Outbound, the Ateneo de Manila University was the only Philippine school recognized, ranking 41st. Quacquarelli Symonds Asian Rankings 2013 Quacquarelli Symonds Asian Rankings 2014 Rankings such as the THES - QS have been received with mixed reactions. In 2006, Ang Pamantasan, the official student paper of Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, published the university 's criticism on the rankings, saying that the THES - QS criteria do not apply to the unique landscape of each participating universities, and that such rankings say nothing or very little about whether students are actually learning at particular colleges or universities. On the same year, the University of the Philippines, through its University President Emerlinda Román, expressed that it does not want to participate in the THES - QS Ranking, but was included in 2007 with an incomplete academic profile. That same year, Ateneo de Manila University President Fr. Bienvenido Nebres, S.J. commented on the rankings, pointing out that rankings such as these did not adequately reflect the university 's progress or how well it has been working toward achieving its mission - vision. In 2007, the Ateneo administration reiterated its position on several occasions, even given an improvement in the 2007 rankings. In 2008, the University of the Philippines questioned the validity of the 2008 THES - QS rankings, claiming that the methodology used was "problematic '', and cited the International Ranking Systems for Universities and Institutions: A Critical Appraisal, which found out that The Times simply asks 190,000 ' experts ' to list what they regard as the top 30 universities in their field of expertise without providing input data on any performance indicators, as one of the bases for rejecting the said survey. Furthermore, the UP said that THES - QS refused to divulge how and where the data were taken from, and instead, advised the university to advertise at the THES - QS website for US $ 48,930 publicity package. CHED Chairperson Emmanuel Angeles, on the other hand, commended all four Philippine universities that made it to the list. He also suggested that Philippine schools would get better in the future THES - QS rankings if they choose to advertise in the THES - QS publications and when budgetary allocations for faculty and researchers, particularly at UP, would become better in the coming years. The Ateneo administration, instead of directly commenting on the 2008 rankings, allowed the publication of an opinion - editorial article on its website, which basically reiterated the same position, even after further improvement. In 2009, the University of Santo Tomas expressed that "it will be very difficult for a university to rank high in such surveys unless they enjoy big media mileage or they have extensive press releases to advertise themselves ''. Furthermore, UST lamented that, "it is quite puzzling that another university in the country ranked much higher than UST in the field of Life Sciences and Biomedicine when it hardly offers any course in the field like Pharmacy, Medical Technology, Nursing, Physical and Occupational Therapy ''. Despite repeated invitations to participate in conference sponsored by the THES - QS and to advertise the University in its websites and publications, UST strongly refused to do so. The Ateneo administration maintained its previous positions following the 2009 rankings, however actively participates in the survey. In 2010, following publication of the 2010 QS Asian University Rankings, there were varied responses. The Ateneo administration maintained its previous positions, and together with some faculty members, expressed some satisfaction with the rankings, but committed to continue work on improving the university. In the University of Santo Tomas, some administrators noted their performance vis - a-vis other schools in terms of academic peer review, while the editorial of their student paper noted that some things were amiss with the rankings, noting their university 's performance in local board examinations and the marketing and advertising aspect of the rankings.

last time wolverhampton was in the premier league

List of Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. Seasons - wikipedia Wolverhampton Wanderers Football Club is an English professional football club. The club played its first match in 1877 as St Luke 's, after being formed by pupils of a school in Blakenhall, Wolverhampton bearing this name. Two years later they merged with the local cricket and football club The Wanderers to become Wolverhampton Wanderers. After competing in numerous local league and cup competitions during its formative years, the club became a founder member of The Football League, the first professional league in world football, in 1888. The club has won a total of thirteen "major '' trophies, including the League Championship three times, the FA Cup four times, the League Cup twice and the Charity Shield four times. Wolves have also featured in UEFA European competitions during seven seasons; their best performance coming in 1972 when they were runners - up in the inaugural UEFA Cup. They have also had successes in less high - profile cup competitions such as the Texaco Cup and the Football League Trophy. This list details the club 's performance at first team level in league and cup competitions and the top scorers for each season since their first entry into the FA Cup in 1883 -- 84.

what kind of pepper is used in crushed red pepper

Crushed red pepper - Wikipedia Crushed red pepper (CRP) or red pepper flakes (RPF) is a condiment consisting of dried and crushed (as opposed to ground) red chili peppers. This condiment is most often produced from cayenne - type peppers, although commercial producers may use a variety of different cultivars, usually within the 30,000 -- 50,000 Scoville unit range. The town of Bukovo in the Republic of Macedonia is credited with the creation of crushed red pepper. The name of the village -- or a derivative of it -- is now used as a name for crushed red pepper in general in a number of Southeast European languages: "буковка '' (bukovka, Macedonian), "bukovka '' (Serbian, Croatian and Slovene) and "μπούκοβο '' (búkovo, Greek). Crushed red pepper shakers have become a standard on tables at Mediterranean restaurants and especially pizza parlors around the world. Often there is a high ratio of seeds, which are popularly believed to contain the most spice. Crushed red pepper is used by food manufacturers in pickling blends, chowders, spaghetti sauce, pizza sauce, soups and sausage. Crushed red pepper in Turkey, served as a common condiment with very few seeds, is known as pul biber in English. One specially prepared variety of it is the Urfa pul biber (isot).

how many teams have come back from a 3 1 deficit in the nhl playoffs

List of teams to overcome 3 -- 1 series deficits - wikipedia The following is the list of teams to overcome 3 -- 1 series deficits by winning three straight games to win the best - of - seven playoff series. In the history of major North American pro sports, teams that were down 3 -- 1 in the series came back and won the series 52 times, more than half of them were accomplished by National Hockey League (NHL) teams. Teams overcame 3 -- 1 deficit in the final championship round eight times, six were accomplished by Major League Baseball (MLB) teams in the World Series. Teams overcoming 3 -- 0 deficit by winning four straight games were accomplished five times, four of them occurred in the NHL. The Boston Red Sox of MLB and the Vancouver Canucks of NHL each overcame 3 -- 1 deficits the most at three times, while the Washington Capitals of NHL blew 3 -- 1 deficits the most at five times, followed by the St. Louis Cardinals of MLB at four times (including twice in the World Series). Two teams have overcame 3 -- 1 deficits multiple times in the single playoffs, done by the Kansas City Royals of MLB in 1985 and the Minnesota Wild of NHL in 2003. Two teams have also overcame 3 - 1 deficits in a single playoffs, only to have the favor returned to them, done by the Golden State Warriors of NBA in 2016, and Vancouver Canucks of NHL in 2003. MLB teams have overcame 3 -- 1 deficits 13 times (including 3 -- 0 deficit 1 time), six of which occurred in the World Series. NBA teams have overcame 3 -- 1 deficits 11 times, only one of which occurred in the NBA Finals. NHL teams have overcame 3 -- 1 deficits 28 times (including 3 -- 0 deficits 4 times), only one of which occurred in the Stanley Cup Finals.

which u.s. government agency was established to pursue technological advances during the cold war

Science and technology in the United States - Wikipedia The United States of America came into being around the Age of Enlightenment (circa 1680 to 1800), an era in Western philosophy in which writers and thinkers, rejecting the perceived superstitions of the past, instead chose to emphasize the intellectual, scientific and cultural life, centered upon the 18th century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority. Enlightenment philosophers envisioned a "republic of science, '' where ideas would be exchanged freely and useful knowledge would improve the lot of all citizens. The United States Constitution itself reflects the desire to encourage scientific creativity. It gives the United States Congress the power "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. '' This clause formed the basis for the U.S. patent and copyright systems, whereby creators of original art and technology would get a government granted monopoly, which after a limited period would become free to all citizens, thereby enriching the public domain. In the early decades of its history, the United States was relatively isolated from Europe and also rather poor. At this stage America 's scientific infrastructure was still quite primitive compared to the long - established societies, institutes, and universities in Europe. Two of America 's founding fathers were scientists of some repute. Benjamin Franklin conducted a series of experiments that deepened human understanding of electricity. Among other things, he proved what had been suspected but never before shown: that lightning is a form of electricity. Franklin also invented such conveniences as bifocal eyeglasses. Franklin also conceived the mid-room furnace, the "Franklin Stove. '' However, Franklin 's design was flawed, in that his furnace vented the smoke from its base: because the furnace lacked a chimney to "draw '' fresh air up through the central chamber, the fire would soon go out. It took David R. Rittenhouse, another hero of early Philadelphia, to improve Franklin 's design by adding an L - shaped exhaust pipe that drew air through the furnace and vented its smoke up and along the ceiling, then into an intramural chimney and out of the house. Thomas Jefferson (1743 - 1826), was among the most influential leaders in early America; during the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 83), Jefferson served in the Virginia legislature, the Continental Congress, was governor of Virginia, later serving as U.S. minister to France, U.S. secretary of state, vice president under John Adams (1735 - 1826), writer of the Declaration of Independence and the third U.S. president. During Jefferson 's two terms in office (1801 - 1809), the U.S. purchased the Louisiana Territory and Lewis and Clark explored the vast new acquisition. After leaving office, he retired to his Virginia plantation, Monticello, and helped spearhead the University of Virginia. Jefferson was also a student of agriculture who introduced various types of rice, olive trees, and grasses into the New World. He stressed the scientific aspect of the Lewis and Clark expedition (1804 -- 06), which explored the Pacific Northwest, and detailed, systematic information on the region 's plants and animals was one of that expedition 's legacies. Like Franklin and Jefferson, most American scientists of the late 18th century were involved in the struggle to win American independence and forge a new nation. These scientists included the astronomer David Rittenhouse, the medical scientist Benjamin Rush, and the natural historian Charles Willson Peale. During the American Revolution, Rittenhouse helped design the defenses of Philadelphia and built telescopes and navigation instruments for the United States ' military services. After the war, Rittenhouse designed road and canal systems for the state of Pennsylvania. He later returned to studying the stars and planets and gained a worldwide reputation in that field. As United States Surgeon General, Benjamin Rush saved countless lives of soldiers during the American Revolutionary War by promoting hygiene and public health practices. By introducing new medical treatments, he made the Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia an example of medical enlightenment, and after his military service, Rush established the first free clinic in the United States. Charles Willson Peale is best remembered as an artist, but he also was a natural historian, inventor, educator, and politician. He created the first major museum in the United States, the Peale Museum in Philadelphia, which housed the young nation 's only collection of North American natural history specimens. Peale excavated the bones of an ancient mastodon near West Point, New York; he spent three months assembling the skeleton, and then displayed it in his museum. The Peale Museum started an American tradition of making the knowledge of science interesting and available to the general public. American political leaders ' enthusiasm for knowledge also helped ensure a warm welcome for scientists from other countries. A notable early immigrant was the British chemist Joseph Priestley, who was driven from his homeland because of his dissenting politics. Priestley, who went to the United States in 1794, was the first of thousands of talented scientists who emigrated in search of a free, creative environment. Other scientists had come to the United States to take part in the nation 's rapid growth. Alexander Graham Bell, who arrived from Scotland by way of Canada in 1872, developed and patented the telephone and related inventions. Charles Steinmetz, who came from Germany in 1889, developed new alternating - current electrical systems at General Electric Company, and Vladimir Zworykin, an immigrant from Russia in 1919 arrived in the States bringing his knowledge of x-rays and cathode ray tubes and later won his first patent on a television system he invented. The Serbian Nikola Tesla went to the United States in 1884, and would later adapted the principle of rotating magnetic field in the development of an alternating current induction motor and polyphase system for the generation, transmission, distribution and use of electrical power. Into the early 1900s Europe remained the center of science research, notably in England and Germany. From the 1920s onwards, the tensions heralding the onset of World War II spurred sporadic but steady scientific emigration, or "Brain Drain '', in Europe. Many of these emigrants were Jewish scientists, fearing the repercussions of anti-Semitism, especially in Germany and Italy, and sought sanctuary in the United States. One of the first to do so was Albert Einstein in 1933. At his urging, and often with his support, a good percentage of Germany 's theoretical physics community, previously the best in the world, left for the US. Enrico Fermi, came from Italy in 1938 and led the work that produced the world 's first self - sustaining nuclear chain reaction. Many other scientists of note moved to the US during this same emigration wave, including Niels Bohr, Victor Weisskopf, Otto Stern, and Eugene Wigner. Indeed, several scientific and technological breakthroughs during the Atomic Age were the handiwork of such immigrants, who recognized the potential threats and uses of new technology. For instance, it was the German professor Einstein and his Hungarian colleague, Leó Szilárd, who took the initiative and convinced president Franklin D. Roosevelt to pursue the pivotal Manhattan Project. Many physicists instrumental to the project were also European immigrants, such as the Hungarian Edward Teller, "father of the hydrogen bomb, '' and German Nobel laureate Hans Bethe. Their scientific contributions, combined with Allied resources and facilities helped establish the United States during World War II as an unrivaled scientific juggernaut. In fact, the Manhattan Project 's Operation Alsos and its components, while not designed to recruit European scientists, successfully collected and evaluated Axis military scientific research at the end of the war, especially that of the German nuclear energy project, only to conclude that it was years behind its American counterpart. When World War II ended, the US, the UK and the Soviet Union were all intent on capitalizing on Nazi research and competed for the spoils of war. While President Harry S. Truman refused to provide sanctuary to ideologically committed members of the Nazi party, the Office of Strategic Services introduced Operation Paperclip, conducted under the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency. This program covertly offered otherwise ineligible intellectuals and technicians white - washed dossiers, biographies, and employment. Ex-Nazi scientists overseen by the JIOA had been employed by the US military since the defeat of the Nazi regime in Project Overcast, but Operation Paperclip ventured to systematically allocate German nuclear and aerospace research and scientists to military and civilian posts, beginning in August 1945. Until the program 's termination in 1990, Operation Paperclip was said to have recruited over 1,600 such employees in a variety of professions and disciplines. In the first phases of Operation Paperclip, these recruits mostly included aerospace engineers from the German V - 2 combat rocket program, experts in aerospace medicine and synthetic fuels. Perhaps the most influential of these was Wernher Von Braun, who had worked on the Aggregate rockets (the first rocket program to reach outer space), and chief designer of the V - 2 rocket program. Upon reaching US soil, Von Braun first worked on the U.S. Air Force ICBM program before his team was reassigned to NASA. Often credited as "The Father of Rocket Science, '' his work on the Redstone rocket and the successful deployment of the Explorer 1 satellite as a response to Sputnik 1 marked the beginning of the American Space program, and therefore, of the Space Race. Von Braun 's subsequent development of the Saturn V booster for NASA in the mid-to late sixties resulted in the first manned moon landing, the Apollo 11 mission, in 1969. In the post-war era the US was left in a position of unchallenged scientific leadership, being one of the few industrial countries not ravaged by war. Additionally, science and technology were seen to have greatly added to the Allied war victory, and were seen as absolutely crucial in the Cold War era. This enthusiasm simultaneously rejuvenated American industry, and celebrated Yankee ingenuity, instilling a zealous nationwide investment in "Big Science '' and state - of - the - art government funded facilities and programs. This state patronage presented appealing careers to the intelligentsia, and further consolidated the scientific preeminence of the United States. As a result, the US government became, for the first time, the largest single supporter of basic and applied scientific research. By the mid-1950s the research facilities in the US were second to none, and scientists were drawn to the US for this reason alone. The changing pattern can be seen in the winners of the Nobel Prize in physics and chemistry. During the first half - century of Nobel Prizes -- from 1901 to 1950 -- American winners were in a distinct minority in the science categories. Since 1950, Americans have won approximately half of the Nobel Prizes awarded in the sciences. See the List of Nobel laureates by country. The American Brain Gain continued throughout the Cold War, as tensions steadily escalated in the Eastern Bloc, resulting in a steady trickle of defectors, refugees and emigrants. The partition of Germany, for one, precipitated over three and a half million East Germans -- the Republikflüchtling - to cross into West Berlin by 1961. Most of them were young, well - qualified, educated professionals or skilled workers - the intelligentsia - exacerbating human capital flight in the GDR to the benefit of Western countries, including the United States. During the 19th century, Britain, France, and Germany were at the forefront of new ideas in science and mathematics. But if the United States lagged behind in the formulation of theory, it excelled in using theory to solve problems: applied science. This tradition had been born of necessity. Because Americans lived so far from the well - springs of Western science and manufacturing, they often had to figure out their own ways of doing things. When Americans combined theoretical knowledge with "Yankee ingenuity '', the result was a flow of important inventions. The great American inventors include Robert Fulton (the steamboat); Samuel Morse (the telegraph); Eli Whitney (the cotton gin); Cyrus McCormick (the reaper); and Thomas Alva Edison, the most fertile of them all, with more than a thousand inventions credited to his name. Edison was not always the first to devise a scientific application, but he was frequently the one to bring an idea to a practical finish. For example, the British engineer Joseph Swan built an incandescent electric lamp in 1860, almost 20 years before Edison. But Edison 's light bulbs lasted much longer than Swan 's, and they could be turned on and off individually, while Swan 's bulbs could be used only in a system where several lights were turned on or off at the same time. Edison followed up his improvement of the light bulb with the development of electrical generating systems. Within 30 years, his inventions had introduced electric lighting into millions of homes. Another landmark application of scientific ideas to practical uses was the innovation of the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright. In the 1890s they became fascinated with accounts of German glider experiments and began their own investigation into the principles of flight. Combining scientific knowledge and mechanical skills, the Wright brothers built and flew several gliders. Then, on December 17, 1903, they successfully flew the first heavier - than - air, mechanically propelled airplane. An American invention that was barely noticed in 1947 went on to usher in the Information Age. In that year John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories drew upon highly sophisticated principles of quantum physics to invent the transistor, a small substitute for the bulky vacuum tube. This, and a device invented 10 years later, the integrated circuit, made it possible to package enormous amounts of electronics into tiny containers. As a result, book - sized computers of today can outperform room - sized computers of the 1960s, and there has been a revolution in the way people live -- in how they work, study, conduct business, and engage in research. Part of America 's past and current preeminence in applied science has been due to its vast research and development budget, which at $401.6 bn in 2009 was more than double that of China 's $154.1 bn and over 25 % greater than the European Union 's $297.9 bn. One of the most spectacular -- and controversial -- accomplishments of US technology has been the harnessing of nuclear energy. The concepts that led to the splitting of the atom were developed by the scientists of many countries, but the conversion of these ideas into the reality of nuclear fission was accomplished in the United States in the early 1940s, both by many Americans but also aided tremendously by the influx of European intellectuals fleeing the growing conflagration sparked by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini in Europe. During these crucial years, a number of the most prominent European scientists, especially physicists, immigrated to the United States, where they would do much of their most important work; these included Hans Bethe, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller, Felix Bloch, Emilio Segrè, and Eugene Wigner, among many, many others. American academics worked hard to find positions at laboratories and universities for their European colleagues. After German physicists split a uranium nucleus in 1938, a number of scientists concluded that a nuclear chain reaction was feasible and possible. The Einstein -- Szilárd letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt warned that this breakthrough would permit the construction of "extremely powerful bombs. '' This warning inspired an executive order towards the investigation of using uranium as a weapon, which later was superseded during World War II by the Manhattan Project the full Allied effort to be the first to build an atomic bomb. The project bore fruit when the first such bomb was exploded in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. The development of the bomb and its use against Japan in August 1945 initiated the Atomic Age, a time of anxiety over weapons of mass destruction that has lasted through the Cold War and down to the anti-proliferation efforts of today. Even so, the Atomic Age has also been characterized by peaceful uses of nuclear power, as in the advances in nuclear power and nuclear medicine. Along with the production of the atomic bomb, World War II also began an era known as "Big Science '' with increased government patronage of scientific research. The advantage of a scientifically and technologically sophisticated country became all too apparent during wartime, and in the ideological Cold War to follow the importance of scientific strength in even peacetime applications became too much for the government to any more leave to philanthropy and private industry alone. This increased expenditure on scientific research and education propelled the United States to the forefront of the international scientific community -- an amazing feat for a country which only a few decades before still had to send its most promising students to Europe for extensive scientific education. The first US commercial nuclear power plant started operation in Illinois in 1956. At the time, the future for nuclear energy in the United States looked bright. But opponents criticized the safety of power plants and questioned whether safe disposal of nuclear waste could be assured. A 1979 accident at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania turned many Americans against nuclear power. The cost of building a nuclear power plant escalated, and other, more economical sources of power began to look more appealing. During the 1970s and 1980s, plans for several nuclear plants were cancelled, and the future of nuclear power remains in a state of uncertainty in the United States. Meanwhile, American scientists have been experimenting with other renewable energy, including solar power. Although solar power generation is still not economical in much of the United States, recent developments might make it more affordable. For the past 80 years, the United States has been integral in fundamental advances in telecommunications and technology. For example, AT&T 's Bell Laboratories spearheaded the American technological revolution with a series of inventions including the first practical light emitted diode (LED), the transistor, the C programming language, and the Unix computer operating system. SRI International and Xerox PARC in Silicon Valley helped give birth to the personal computer industry, while ARPA and NASA funded the development of the ARPANET and the Internet. Herman Hollerith was just a twenty - year - old engineer when he realized the need for a better way for the U.S. government to conduct their Census and then proceeded to develop electromechanical tabulators for that purpose. The net effect of the many changes from the 1880 census: the larger population, the data items to be collected, the Census Bureau headcount, the scheduled publications, and the use of Hollerith 's electromechanical tabulators, was to reduce the time required to process the census from eight years for the 1880 census to six years for the 1890 census. That kick started The Tabulating Machine Company. By the 1960s, the company name had been changed to International Business Machines, and IBM dominated business computing. IBM revolutionized the industry by bringing out the first comprehensive family of computers (the System / 360). It caused many of their competitors to either merge or go bankrupt, leaving IBM in an even more dominant position. IBM is known for its many inventions like the floppy disk, introduced in 1971, supermarket checkout products, and introduced in 1973, the IBM 3614 Consumer Transaction Facility, an early form of today 's Automatic Teller Machines. Running almost in tandem with the Atomic Age has been the Space Age. American Robert Goddard was one of the first scientists to experiment with rocket propulsion systems. In his small laboratory in Worcester, Massachusetts, Goddard worked with liquid oxygen and gasoline to propel rockets into the atmosphere, and in 1926 successfully fired the world 's first liquid - fuel rocket which reached a height of 12.5 meters. Over the next 10 years, Goddard 's rockets achieved modest altitudes of nearly two kilometers, and interest in rocketry increased in the United States, Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union. As Allied forces advanced during World War II, both the American and Russian forces searched for top German scientists who could be claimed as spoils for their country. The American effort to bring home German rocket technology in Operation Paperclip, and the bringing of German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun (who would later sit at the head of a NASA center) stand out in particular. Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial satellites, as well as manned spacecraft. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, and the United States followed with Explorer I in 1958. The first manned space flights were made in early 1961, first by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin and then by American astronaut Alan Shepard. From those first tentative steps, to the 1969 Apollo program landing on the Moon and the partially reusable Space Shuttle, the American space program brought forth a breathtaking display of applied science. Communications satellites transmit computer data, telephone calls, and radio and television broadcasts. Weather satellites furnish the data necessary to provide early warnings of severe storms. Global positioning satellites were first developed in the US starting around 1972, and became fully operational by 1994. Interplanetary probes and space telescopes began a golden age of planetary science and advanced a wide variety of astronomical work. As in physics and chemistry, Americans have dominated the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine since World War II. The private sector has been the focal point for biomedical research in the United States, and has played a key role in this achievement. As of 2000, for - profit industry funded 57 %, non-profit private organizations such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute funded 7 %, and the tax - funded National Institutes of Health (NIH) funded 36 % of medical research in the U.S. However, by 2003, the NIH funded only 28 % of medical research funding; funding by private industry increased 102 % from 1994 to 2003. The NIH consists of 24 separate institutes in Bethesda, Maryland. The goal of NIH research is knowledge that helps prevent, detect, diagnose, and treat disease and disability. At any given time, grants from the NIH support the research of about 35,000 principal investigators. Five Nobel Prize - winners have made their prize - winning discoveries in NIH laboratories. NIH research has helped make possible numerous medical achievements. For example, mortality from heart disease, the number - one killer in the United States, dropped 41 percent between 1971 and 1991. The death rate for strokes decreased by 59 percent during the same period. Between 1991 and 1995, the cancer death rate fell by nearly 3 percent, the first sustained decline since national record - keeping began in the 1930s. And today more than 70 percent of children who get cancer are cured. With the help of the NIH, molecular genetics and genomics research have revolutionized biomedical science. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers performed the first trial of gene therapy in humans and are now able to locate, identify, and describe the function of many genes in the human genome. Research conducted by universities, hospitals, and corporations also contributes to improvement in diagnosis and treatment of disease. NIH funded the basic research on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), for example, but many of the drugs used to treat the disease have emerged from the laboratories of the American pharmaceutical industry; those drugs are being tested in research centers across the country.

who played in the 1996 afl grand final

1996 AFL Grand Final - wikipedia The 1996 AFL Grand Final was an Australian rules football game contested between the North Melbourne Football Club and the Sydney Swans, held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in Melbourne on 28 September 1996. It was the 100th annual Grand Final of the Australian Football League (formerly the Victorian Football League), staged to determine the premiers for the 1996 AFL season. The match, attended by 93,102 people, was won by North Melbourne by a margin of 43 points, marking that club 's third premiership victory. North Melbourne were awarded a gold premiership cup instead of the usual silver in honour of the centenary grand final. Sydney were playing in a Grand Final for the first time since relocating from South Melbourne. It was the Swans ' first appearance in a premiership decider since losing the 1945 VFL Grand Final, while it was North Melbourne 's first since losing the 1978 VFL Grand Final. At the conclusion of the home and away season, Sydney had finished first on the AFL ladder with 16 wins and 5 losses and one draw, winning the McClelland Trophy. North Melbourne had finished second with 16 wins and 6 losses. The lead - up to the game was dominated by the tribunal case of Sydney defender Andrew Dunkley, who was to be the Swans ' match - up for star Kangaroos forward Wayne Carey. On the Wednesday before the Grand Final, Dunkley was reported on video evidence -- which was still relatively uncommon practice at the time -- for striking Essendon 's James Hird in the previous week 's preliminary final. On the Thursday, Sydney successfully obtained an Supreme Court injunction to prevent the case from being heard until after the Grand Final, with the judge ruling that requiring Dunkley to face the tribunal only one day after learning of the charge and two days before the Grand Final would deny him natural justice and deny him the time required to prepare a defence. Consequently, Dunkley was free to play. When Dunkley ultimately faced the tribunal, he was suspended for three weeks. The AFL 's centenary year was crowned by North Melbourne which made amends for the disappointment of three successive failed finals campaigns. The Kangaroos won their third flag (and the only Gold Premiership Cup in history) despite a slow start. Led by bullocking defender Glenn Archer and superstars Corey McKernan and Wayne Carey, the Kangaroos were hellbent in their premiership quest. The Swans, although overwhelmed at the finish, started well and kicked the last three goals of the first quarter to lead by 18 points at quarter time. When Jason Mooney goalled early in the second quarter the Swans ' lead extend to 24 points. However, Glenn Freeborn 's move to the forward line sparked the Kangaroos, with Freeborn kicking three goals for the quarter and Darren Crocker and Brett Allison each kicking one, and by half time the Kangaroos led by 2 points. North Melbourne dominated the third quarter, with two goals to Craig Sholl and one each to Peter Bell and Crocker, which saw them leading by 26 points at three quarter time. The Kangaroos kicked the first two goals of the final quarter through Anthony Stevens and Mark Roberts to effectively kill the contest. The two teams traded goals until the end of the game, with North ultimately triumphing by 43 points. Tony Lockett tried hard for the Swans in his first and only Grand Final, booting six goals. Paul Roos was playing in his 314th game of VFL / AFL football. He continues to hold the record for the most games played before participating in his first Grand Final. The Norm Smith Medal was awarded to Archer for being judged the best player afield. North Melbourne Sydney

when were semi automatic weapons banned in the us

Federal assault weapons ban - wikipedia The Federal Assault Weapons Ban (AWB), officially the Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Use Protection Act, is a subsection of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, a United States federal law, which included a prohibition on the manufacture for civilian use of certain semi-automatic firearms that were defined as assault weapons as well as certain ammunition magazines that were defined as "large capacity. '' The 10 - year ban was passed by the US Congress on September 13, 1994, following a close 52 -- 48 vote in the US Senate, and was signed into law by US President Bill Clinton on the same day. The ban applied only to weapons manufactured after the date of the ban 's enactment. It expired on September 13, 2004, in accordance with its sunset provision. Several constitutional challenges were filed against provisions of the ban, but all were rejected by the courts. There were multiple attempts to renew the ban, but none succeeded. Studies have shown the ban had little effect in criminal activity, but that may have been caused by various loopholes. Efforts to create restrictions on assault weapons at the federal government level intensified in 1989 after 34 children and a teacher were shot and five children killed in Stockton, Calif. with a semi-automatic AK - 47 rifle. The Luby 's shooting in October 1991, which left 23 people dead and 27 wounded, was another factor. The July 1993 101 California Street shooting also contributed to passage of the ban. The shooter killed eight people and wounded six. Two of the three firearms he used were TEC - 9 semi-automatic handguns with Hell - Fire triggers. The ban tried to address public concerns about mass shootings by restricting firearms that met the criteria for what it defined as a "semiautomatic assault weapon '', as well as magazines that met the criteria for what it defined as a "large capacity ammunition feeding device ''. In November 1993, the proposed legislation passed the U.S. Senate. The bill 's author, Dianne Feinstein (D - CA) and other advocates said that it was a weakened version of the original proposal. In May 1994, former presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan, wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives in support of banning "semi-automatic assault guns ''. They cited a 1993 CNN / USA Today / Gallup Poll that found 77 percent of Americans supported a ban on the manufacture, sale, and possession of such weapons. Rep. Jack Brooks (D - TX), then chair of the House Judiciary Committee, tried unsuccessfully to remove the assault weapons ban section from the crime bill. The National Rifle Association (NRA) opposed the ban. In November 1993, NRA spokesman Bill McIntyre said that assault weapons "are used in only 1 percent of all crimes ''. The low usage statistic was supported in a 1999 Department of Justice brief. The legislation passed in September 1994 with the assault weapon ban section expiring in 2004 due to its sunset provision. The Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Act was enacted as part of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. The prohibitions expired on September 13, 2004. The Act prohibited the manufacture, transfer, or possession of "semiautomatic assault weapons, '' as defined by the Act. "Weapons banned were identified either by specific make or model (including copies or duplicates thereof, in any caliber), or by specific characteristics that slightly varied according to whether the weapon was a pistol, rifle, or shotgun '' (see below). The Act also prohibited the transfer and possession of "large capacity ammunition feeding devices '' (LCAFDs). An LCAFD was defined as "any magazine, belt, drum, feed strip, or similar device manufactured after the date (of the act) that has the capacity of, or that can be readily restored or converted to accept, more than 10 rounds of ammunition ''. The Act included a number of exemptions and exclusions from its prohibitions: In 1989, the George H.W. Bush administration had banned the importation of foreign - made, semiautomatic rifles deemed not to have "a legitimate sporting use. '' It did not affect similar but domestically - manufactured rifles. (The Gun Control Act of 1968 gives discretion to the Attorney General of the United States to choose whether to "authorize a firearm or ammunition to be imported or brought into the United States, '' under what is known as "the sporting purposes test. '') Following the enactment of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, the ATF determined that "certain semiautomatic assault rifles could no longer be imported even though they were permitted to be imported under the 1989 ' sporting purposes test ' because they had been modified to remove all of their military features other than the ability to accept a detachable magazine '' and so in April 1998, it "prohibited the importation of 56 such rifles, determining that they did not meet the ' sporting purposes test. ' '' Under the Assault Weapons Ban of 1994, the definition of "semiautomatic assault weapon '' included specific semi-automatic firearm models by name, and other semi-automatic firearms that possessed two or more from a set certain features: The ban defined the following semi-automatic firearms and any copies or duplicates of them, in any caliber, as assault weapons: Gun control advocates and gun rights advocates have referred to at least some of the features outlined in the federal Assault Weapon Ban of 1994 as cosmetic. The NRA Institute for Legislative Action and the Violence Policy Center both used the term in publications that were released by them in September 2004, when the ban expired. In May 2012, the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence said that "the inclusion in the list of features that were purely cosmetic in nature created a loophole that allowed manufacturers to successfully circumvent the law by making minor modifications to the weapons they already produced. '' The term was repeated in several stories after the 2012 Aurora shooting and Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Senator Marco Rubio cited that issue during a town hall forum, responding to questions from survivors of the 2018 Stoneman - Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida. A February 2013 Congressional Research Service (CRS) report to Congress said that the "Assault Weapons Ban of 1994 was unsuccessfully challenged as violating several constitutional provisions '' but that challenges to three constitutional provisions were easily dismissed. The ban did not make up an impermissible bill of attainder. It was not unconstitutionally vague. Also, it was ruled to be compatible with the Ninth Amendment by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. Challenges to two other provisions took more time to decide. In evaluating challenges to the ban under the Commerce Clause, the court first evaluated Congress 's authority to regulate under the clause and then analyzed the ban 's prohibitions on manufacture, transfer, and possession. The court held that "it is not even arguable that the manufacture and transfer of ' semiautomatic assault weapons ' for a national market can not be regulated as activity substantially affecting interstate commerce. '' It also held that the "purpose of the ban on possession has an ' evident commercial nexus ' ''. The law was also challenged under the Equal Protection Clause. It was argued that it banned some semi-automatic weapons that were functional equivalents of exempted semi-automatic weapons and that to do so, based upon a mix of other characteristics, served no legitimate governmental interest. The reviewing court held that it was "entirely rational for Congress... to choose to ban those weapons commonly used for criminal purposes and to exempt those weapons commonly used for recreational purposes. '' It also found that each characteristic served to make the weapon "potentially more dangerous '' and were not "commonly used on weapons designed solely for hunting. '' The Federal Assault Weapons Ban was never directly challenged under the Second Amendment. Since its 2004 expiration, there has been debate on how the ban would fare in light of cases decided in following years, especially District of Columbia v. Heller (2008). A 2002 study by Koper and Roth found that around the time when the ban became law, assault weapon prices increased significantly, but the increase was reversed in the several months afterward by a surge in assault weapons production that occurred just before the ban took effect. In 2003, the Task Force on Community Preventive Services, an independent, non-federal task force, examined an assortment of firearms laws, including the AWB, and found "insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of any of the firearms laws reviewed for preventing violence. '' A 2004 critical review of firearms research by a National Research Council committee said that an academic study of the assault weapon ban "did not reveal any clear impacts on gun violence outcomes. '' The committee noted that the study 's authors said the guns were relatively rarely used criminally before the ban and that its maximum potential effect on gun violence outcomes would be very small. In 2004, a research report commissioned by the National Institute of Justice found that if the ban was renewed, the effects on gun violence would likely be small and perhaps too small for reliable measurement, because rifles in general, including rifles referred to as "assault rifles '' or "assault weapons '', are rarely used in gun crimes. That study, by Christopher S. Koper, Daniel J. Woods, and Jeffrey A. Roth of the Jerry Lee Center of Criminology, University of Pennsylvania, found no statistically significant evidence that either the assault weapons ban or the ban on magazines holding more than 10 rounds had reduced gun murders. The authors also report that "there has been no discernible reduction in the lethality and injuriousness of gun violence, based on indicators like the percentage of gun crimes resulting in death or the share of gunfire incidents resulting in injury. '' In 2004, the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence examined the impact of the Assault Weapons Ban, On Target: The Impact of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapon Act. Examining 1.4 million guns involved in crime, "in the five - year period before enactment of the Federal Assault Weapons Act (1990 -- 1994), assault weapons named in the Act constituted 4.82 % of the crime gun traces ATF conducted nationwide. Since the law 's enactment, however, these assault weapons have made up only 1.61 % of the guns ATF has traced to crime. Page 10 of the Brady report, however, adds that "an evaluation of copycat weapons is necessary ''. Including "copycat weapons '', the report concluded that "in the post-ban period, the same group of guns has constituted 3.1 % of ATF traces, a decline of 45 %. '' A spokesman for the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) stated that he "can in no way vouch for the validity '' of the report. A study conducted by Dube in 2013, showed that the passing of the FAWB in 1994 had an insignificant impact on violent crime in Mexico, while the expiration of the FAWB in 2004 combined with political instability was correlated with an increase in gun - related homicides among Mexican municipalities near the border. Also in 2013, Koper reviewed the literature on the ban 's effects and concluded that its effects on crimes committed with assault weapons were mixed due to its various loopholes. He also concluded that the ban did not seem to affect gun crime rates, but may have been able to reduce shootings if it had been renewed in 2004. Research by gun advocate John Lott found no impact of these bans on violent crime rates, but provided evidence that the bans may have reduced the number of gun shows by over 20 percent. Koper, Woods, and Roth studies focus on gun murders, while Lott 's look at murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assaults. Unlike their work, Lott 's research accounted for state assault weapon bans and 12 other different types of gun control laws. In a 2013 report Samantha Bricknell from the Australian Institute of Criminology, Frederic Lemieux and Tim Prenzler compared mass shootings between America and Australia and found the "1996 NFA coincided within the cessation of mass shooting events '' in Australia, and that there were reductions in America that were evident during the 1994 -- 2004 US Federal Assault Weapon Ban. The assault weapons ban expired on September 13, 2004. Legislation to renew or replace the ban was proposed numerous times unsuccessfully. Between May 2003 and June 2008, U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein, D - CA, and Representatives Michael Castle, R - DE, Alcee Hastings, D - FL, and Mark Kirk, R - IL, introduced bills to reauthorize the ban. At the same time, Senator Frank Lautenberg, D - NJ, and Representative Carolyn McCarthy, D - NY, introduced similar bills to create a new ban with a revised definition for assault weapons. None of the bills left committee. After the November 2008 election, the website of President - elect Barack Obama listed a detailed agenda for the forthcoming administration. The stated positions included "making the expired federal Assault Weapons Ban permanent. '' Three months later, newly sworn - in Attorney General Eric Holder reiterated the Obama administration 's desire to reinstate the ban. The mention came in response to a question during a joint press conference with DEA Acting Administrator Michele Leonhart, discussing efforts to crack down on Mexican drug cartels. Attorney General Holder said that "there are just a few gun - related changes that we would like to make, and among them would be to reinstitute the ban on the sale of assault weapons. '' Efforts to pass a new federal assault weapons ban were made in December 2012 after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, in Newtown, Connecticut. On January 24, 2013, Senator Feinstein introduced S. 150, the Assault Weapons Ban of 2013 (AWB 2013). The bill was similar to the 1994 ban, but differed in that it would not expire after 10 years, and it used a one - feature test for a firearm to qualify as an assault weapon rather than the two - feature test of the defunct ban. The GOP Congressional delegation from Texas, and the NRA, condemned Feinstein 's bill. On March 14, 2013, the Senate Judiciary Committee approved a version of the bill along party lines. On April 17, 2013, AWB 2013 failed on a Senate vote of 40 to 60.

who voices copper in the fox and the hound

The Fox and the Hound - wikipedia The Fox and the Hound is a 1981 American animated drama film produced by Walt Disney Productions and loosely based on the novel of the same name by Daniel P. Mannix. The 24th Disney animated feature film, the film tells the story of two unlikely friends, a red fox named Tod and a hound dog named Copper, who struggle to preserve their friendship despite their emerging instincts and the surrounding social pressures demanding them to be adversaries. Directed by Ted Berman, Richard Rich, and Art Stevens, the film features the voices of Mickey Rooney, Kurt Russell, Pearl Bailey, Jack Albertson, Sandy Duncan, Jeanette Nolan, Pat Buttram, John Fiedler, John McIntire, Dick Bakalyan, Paul Winchell, Keith Mitchell, and Corey Feldman. The Fox and the Hound was released to theaters on July 10, 1981 to financial success. At the time of release it was the most expensive animated film produced to date, costing $12 million. It was re-released to theaters on March 25, 1988. A direct - to - video followup, The Fox and the Hound 2, was released to DVD on December 12, 2006. After a young red fox is orphaned, Big Mama the owl, with the help of her friends Dinky the finch and Boomer the woodpecker, arranges for him to be adopted by a kindly farmer named Widow Tweed. Tweed names him Tod, because he reminds her of a toddler. Meanwhile, her neighbor, a hunter named Amos Slade, brings home a young hound puppy named Copper and introduces him to his hunting dog Chief. One day, Tod and Copper meet and become playmates, vowing to remain "friends forever ''. Slade grows frustrated at Copper for constantly wandering off to play, and places him on a leash. While playing with Copper outside his doghouse, Tod awakens Chief. Slade and Chief chase Tod until they are stopped by Tweed. After an argument, Slade threatens to kill Tod if he trespasses on his farm again. Hunting season comes and Slade takes his dogs into the wilderness for the interim. Meanwhile, Big Mama, Dinky and Boomer attempt to explain to Tod that his friendship with Copper can no longer continue, as they are natural enemies, but Tod naively refuses to believe them, hoping that he and Copper will remain friends forever. As months pass, Tod and Copper both reach adulthood. Copper has become an experienced hunting dog, while Tod has grown up into a handsome fox. On the night of Copper 's return, Tod sneaks over to visit him. Copper explains that while he still values Tod as a friend, he is now a hunting dog and things are different. Their conversation awakens Chief, who alerts Slade. In the ensuing chase Copper catches Tod. Against better judgement, Copper lets Tod go and diverts Chief and Slade. Tod tries escaping on a railroad track, but is caught and pursued by Chief as a train suddenly passes by them. Tod ducks under the train, but Chief is struck by the train and falls into a river below, breaking his leg. Angered by this, Copper and Slade blame Tod for the accident and vow vengeance. Tweed, realizing that Tod is no longer safe with her, takes him on a drive and leaves him at a game preserve. Tod 's first night alone in the woods proves disastrous, as he inadvertently trespasses into an irritable old badger 's den. Thankfully, a friendly porcupine offers Tod shelter. That same night, Slade and Copper plan revenge on Tod. The next morning, Big Mama finds Tod and introduces him to a female fox named Vixey. Wanting to impress her, Tod tries to catch a fish, but fails due to not having survival skills. Vixey and the other animals laugh at him, but Big Mama straightens the matter by directing Tod to be himself. The two foxes reconcile and Vixey helps Tod adapt to life in the forest. Meanwhile, Slade and Copper trespass into the preserve to hunt Tod. As Tod manages to escape Slade 's leghold traps, Copper and Slade pursue both foxes. They hide in their burrow while Slade tries trapping them by setting fire to the other end of the burrow. The foxes narrowly escape without getting burned as Slade and Copper chase them up the top of a hill until they reach a waterfall. There, Slade and Copper close in for the kill, but a large bear suddenly emerges from the bushes and attacks Slade. Slade trips and falls into one of his own traps, dropping his gun slightly out of reach. Copper tries fighting the bear but is no match for it. Not willing to let his old friend die, Tod intervenes and fights off the bear until they both fall down the waterfall. With the bear gone, a bewildered Copper approaches Tod as he lies exhausted near the bank of a waterfall - created lake. When Slade appears, Copper positions himself in front of Tod to prevent Slade from shooting him, refusing to move away. Slade lowers his gun and leaves with Copper. The former friends share one last smile before parting. At home, Tweed nurses Slade back to health while the dogs rest. Copper, before resting, smiles as he remembers the day when he first met Tod. On a hill, Vixey joins Tod as they look down on the homes of Slade and Tweed. Wolfgang Reitherman read the original novel and found it particularly touching because one of his sons had once owned a pet fox years before. He decided it would make for a good animated feature. Thus the film began production in spring 1977. Reitherman, Art Stevens, and Ron Miller quarreled over key sections of the film with Miller supporting the younger Stevens. Miller instructed Reitherman to surrender reins over the junior personnel, but Reitherman resisted due to a lack of trust in the young animators. Thinking the film had a weak second act, Reitherman decided to add a musical sequence of two swooping cranes voiced by Phil Harris and Charo who would sing a silly song titled "Scoobie - Doobie Doobie Doo, Let Your Body Turn Goo ''. Live - action reference footage was shot of Charo in a sweaty pink leotard, but the scene was strongly disliked by studio personnel who felt the song was a distraction from the main plot with Stevens stating "We ca n't let that sequence in the movie! It 's totally out of place! '' Stevens notified studio management and after many story conferences, the scene was removed. Reitherman later walked into Stevens 's office, slumped in a chair, and said, "I dunno, Art, maybe this is a young man 's medium. '' He later moved onto to undeveloped projects such as Catfish Bend and died in a car accident in 1985. By late 1978, Frank Thomas, Ollie Johnston, and Cliff Nordberg had completed their animation. Thomas had animated scenes of Tod and Cooper using dialogue Larry Clemmons had written and recorded with the child actors. This project would mark the last film to have the involvement of the Disney 's Nine Old Men who had retired early during production, and animation was turned over the next generation of directors and animators, which included John Lasseter, John Musker, Ron Clements, Glen Keane, Tim Burton, Brad Bird, Henry Selick, Chris Buck, and Mark Dindal, all of whom would finalize the animation and complete the film 's production. These animators had moved through the in - house animation training program, and would play an important role in the Disney Renaissance of the 1980s and 1990s. However, the transition between the old guard and the new resulted in arguments over how to handle the film. Reitherman had his own ideas on the designs and layouts that should be used, but the newer team backed Stevens. Animator Don Bluth animated several scenes including of Widow Tweed milking her cow, Abigail, while his team worked on the rest of the sequence, and when Tweed fires at Amos Slade 's automobile. Nevertheless, he declared Disney 's work "stale '' and on his 42nd birthday, September 13, 1979, Bluth, along with Gary Goldman and John Pomeroy, entered Ron Miller 's office and turned in their resignation. Following their resignations, thirteen animators followed suit in their resignations. Though Bluth and his team had animated substantial scenes, they asked not to receive screen credit. With 17 % of the animators now gone, Miller ordered all of the resigning animators off the studio lot by noon of that same day and would later push the release of The Fox and the Hound from Christmas 1980 to summer 1981. New animators were hired and promoted to fill the ranks. To compensate for the lack of experience of the new animators, much of the quality control would rely upon a corp of veteran assistant animators. Four years after production started, the film was finished with approximately 360,000 drawings, 110,000 painted cels and 1,100 painted backgrounds making up the finished product. A total of 180 people, including 24 animators, worked on the film. In an earlier version of the film, Chief was slated to die the same as in the novel. However, the scene was modified to have Chief survive with a cast on his back paw. Animator Ron Clements, who had briefly transitioned into the story department, protested that "Chief has to die. The picture does n't work if he just breaks his leg. Copper does n't have motivation to hate the fox. '' Likewise, younger members of the story team pleaded with Stevens to have Chief killed. Stevens countered that "Geez, we never killed a main character in a Disney film and we 're not starting now! '' The younger crew members took the problem to upper management who would also back Stevens. Ollie Johnston 's test animation of Chief stomping around the house with his leg in a cast was eventually kept, and Randy Cartwright re-animated the scene where Copper finds Chief 's body and had him animate Chief 's eyes opening and closing so the audience knew that he was not dead. Early into production, the principal characters such as young Tod and Copper, Big Mama, and Amos Slade had already been cast. The supporting characters were cast by Disney voice regulars including Pat Buttram for Chief, Paul Winchell for Boomer, and Mickey Rooney for adult Tod who had just finished filming Pete 's Dragon. Jeanette Nolan was the second choice for Widow Tweed after Helen Hayes turned down the part. The last role to be cast was for adult Cooper. Jackie Cooper had auditioned for the role, but left the project when he demanded more money than the studio was willing to pay. While filming the Elvis television movie, former Disney child actor Kurt Russell was cast following a reading that had impressed the filmmakers, and completed his dialogue in two recording sessions. The soundtrack album for the film was released in 1981 by Walt Disney Records. It contains songs written by Stan Fidel, Jim Stafford, and Jeffrey Patch. The Fox and the Hound was first released on North American VHS on March 4, 1994 as the last video of the "Walt Disney Classics '' collection (it was not included in the "Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection '') and in the UK in 1995. On May 2, 2000, it was released to Region 1 DVD for the first time under the "Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection ''. A 25th anniversary special edition DVD was released on October 10, 2006. The Fox and the Hound was released on Blu - ray Disc on August 9, 2011 to commemorate the film 's 30th anniversary. The film was released in a 3 - disc Blu - ray / DVD Combo pack alongside its direct - to video followup The Fox and the Hound 2 in a 2 - movie Collection Edition. Featuring a new digital restoration, the Blu - ray transfer presents the film for the first time in 1.66: 1 widescreen and also features 5.1 DTS - HD Master Audio. The Fox and the Hound 2 is presented in 1.78: 1 widescreen and features the same sound as the first film. A DVD - only edition was also released on the same day. In The Animated Movie Guide, Jerry Beck considered the film "average '', though he praises the voice work of Pearl Bailey as Big Mama, and the extreme dedication to detail shown by animator Glen Keane in crafting the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear. In The Disney Films, Leonard Maltin also notes that the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear received great praise in the animation world. Maltin felt the film relied too much on "formula cuteness, formula comedy relief, and even formula characterizations ''. Overall, he considered the film "charming '' stating that it is "warm, and brimming with personable characters '' and that it "approaches the old Disney magic at times. '' Craig Butler from All Movie Guide stated that the film was a "warm and amusing, if slightly dull, entry in the Disney animated canon. '' He also called it "conventional and generally predictable '' with problems in pacing. However, he praised the film 's climax and animation, as well as the ending. His final remark is that "Two of the directors, Richard Rich and Ted Berman, would next direct The Black Cauldron, a less successful but more ambitious project. '' Richard Corliss of Time, praised the film for an intelligent story about prejudice. He argued that the film shows that biased attitudes can poison even the deepest relationships, and the film 's bittersweet ending delivers a powerful and important moral message to audiences. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Times also praised the film, saying that "for all of its familiar qualities, this movie marks something of a departure for the Disney studio, and its movement is in an interesting direction. The Fox and the Hound is one of those relatively rare Disney animated features that contains a useful lesson for its younger audiences. It 's not just cute animals and frightening adventures and a happy ending; it 's also a rather thoughtful meditation on how society determines our behavior. '' TV Guide gave the film four out of five stars, saying that "The animation here is better than average (veteran Disney animators Wolfgang Reitherman and Art Stevens supervised the talents of a new crop of artists that developed during a 10 - year program at the studio), though not quite up to the quality of Disney Studios in its heyday. Still, this film has a lot of "heart '' and is wonderful entertainment for both kids and their parents. Listen for a number of favorites among the voices. '' Michael Scheinfeld of Common Sense Media gave the film 's quality a rating of 4 out of 5 stars, stating that the film "develops into a thoughtful examination of friendship and includes some mature themes, especially loss. '' The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received a 69 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.6 / 10 based on 26 reviews. The website 's consensus states that "The Fox and the Hound is a likeable, charming, unassuming effort that manages to transcend its thin, predictable plot ''. In its original release, The Fox and the Hound grossed $39.9 million in domestic grosses. Its distributor rentals were reported to be $14.2 million while its international rentals grossed $43 million. The film was re-released theatrically on March 25, 1988, where it grossed $23.5 million. The Fox and the Hound has had a lifetime gross of $63.5 million across its original release and reissue. The film was awarded a Golden Screen Award (German: Goldene Leinwand) in 1982. In the same year, it was also nominated for a Young Artist Award and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film. As well as adaptations of the film itself, comic strips featuring the characters also appeared in stories unconnected to the film. Examples include The Lost Fawn, in which Copper uses his sense of smell to help Tod find a fawn who has gone astray; The Chase, in which Copper must safeguard a sleepwalking Chief; and Feathered Friends, in which the birds Dinky and Boomer have to go to desperate lengths to save one of Widow Tweed 's chickens from a wolf. A comic adaptation of the film, drawn by Richard Moore, was published in newspapers as part of Disney 's Treasury of Classic Tales. A comic - book titled The Fox and the Hound followed, with new adventures of the characters. Since 1981 and up to 2007, a few Fox and the Hound Disney comics stories were produced in Italy, Netherlands, Brazil, France, and the United States. A direct - to - video followup, The Fox and the Hound 2, was released to DVD on December 12, 2006. The film takes place during the youth of Tod and Copper, before the events of the later half of the first film. The story - line involves Copper being tempted to join a band of singing stray dogs, thus threatening his friendship with Tod. The film was critically panned, with critics calling it a pale imitation of its predecessor.

hold back the river hold back the river

Hold Back the River (James Bay song) - wikipedia "Hold Back the River '' is a song by the English singer - songwriter James Bay. It was released in the United Kingdom on 17 November 2014 by Republic Records as the second single from Bay 's first studio album Chaos and the Calm (2015). The song was written by the Ivor Novello award winner Iain Archer with Bay and produced by Jacquire King. The song peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Song, after the success of "Let It Go '', it was planned to go for adds on 27 September 2016, but it was cancelled. A music video to accompany the release of "Hold Back the River '' was first released onto YouTube on 24 October 2014 at a total length of four minutes and six seconds. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone

how can large bodies of water affect climate

Lake - effect snow - wikipedia Lake - effect snow is produced during cooler atmospheric conditions when a cold air mass moves across long expanses of warmer lake water, warming the lower layer of air which picks up water vapor from the lake, rises up through the colder air above, freezes and is deposited on the leeward (downwind) shores. The same effect also occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean - effect or bay - effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the moving air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores. This uplifting can produce narrow but very intense bands of precipitation, which deposit at a rate of many inches of snow each hour, often resulting in a large amount of total snowfall. The areas affected by lake - effect snow are called snowbelts. These include areas east of the Great Lakes, the west coasts of northern Japan, the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia, and areas near the Great Salt Lake, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, Adriatic Sea and parts of the northern Atlantic Ocean. A lake - effect blizzard is the blizzard - like conditions resulting from lake - effect snow. Under certain conditions, strong winds can accompany lake - effect snows creating blizzard - like conditions; however the duration of the event is often slightly less than that required for a blizzard warning in both the US and Canada. If the air temperature is low enough to keep the precipitation frozen, it falls as lake - effect snow. If not, then it falls as lake - effect rain. For lake - effect rain or snow to form, the air moving across the lake must be significantly cooler than the surface air (which is likely to be near the temperature of the water surface). Specifically, the air temperature at an altitude where the air pressure is 850 millibars (85 kPa) (roughly 1.5 kilometers or 0.93 miles vertically) should be 13 ° C (23 ° F) lower than the temperature of the air at the surface. Lake - effect occurring when the air at 850 millibars (85 kPa) is much colder than the water surface can produce thundersnow, snow showers accompanied by lightning and thunder (caused by larger amounts of energy available from the increased instability). There are several key elements that are required to form lake - effect precipitation and which determine its characteristics: instability, fetch, wind shear, upstream moisture, upwind lakes, synoptic (large) - scale forcing, orography / topography, and snow or ice cover. A temperature difference of 13 ° C (23 ° F) (or as past researchers have estimated: between 15 ° C and 25 ° C) between the lake temperature and the height in the atmosphere (~ 1,500 meters or 4,921 feet at which barometric pressure measures 850 millibars (85 kilopascals)) provides for absolute instability and allows vigorous heat and moisture transportation vertically. Atmospheric lapse rate and convective depth are directly affected by both the mesoscale lake environment and the synoptic environment; a deeper convective depth with increasingly steep lapse rates and a suitable moisture level will allow for thicker, taller lake effect precipitation clouds and naturally a much greater precipitation rate. The distance that an air mass travels over a body of water is called fetch. Because most lakes are irregular in shape, different angular degrees of travel will yield different distances; typically a fetch of at least 100 km (62 mi) is required to produce lake effect precipitation. Generally, the larger the fetch the more precipitation that will be produced. Larger fetches provide the boundary layer with more time to become saturated with water vapor and for heat energy to move from the water to the air. As the air mass reaches the other side of the lake, the engine of rising and cooling water vapor pans itself out in the form of condensation and falls as snow, usually within 40 kilometers (25 miles) of the lake but sometimes up to about 100 miles. Directional shear is one of the most important factors governing the development of squalls; environments with weak directional shear typically produce more intense squalls than those with higher shear levels. If directional shear between the surface and the height in the atmosphere at which the barometric pressure measures 700 mb (70 kPa) is greater than 60 degrees, nothing more than flurries can be expected. If the directional shear between the body of water and the vertical height at which the pressure measures 700 mb (70 kPa) is between 30 and 60 degrees, weak lake - effect bands are possible. In environments where the shear is less than 30 degrees, strong, well organized bands can be expected. Speed shear is less critical, but should be relatively uniform. The wind speed difference between the surface and vertical height at which the pressure reads 700 mb (70 kPa) should be no greater than 40 knots (74 km / h) so as to prevent the upper portions of the band from shearing off. However, assuming the surface to 700 mb (70 kPa) winds are uniform, a faster overall velocity will work to transport moisture quicker from the water, and the band will travel much farther inland. A lower upstream relative humidity will make it more difficult and time consuming for lake effect condensation, clouds and precipitation to form. The opposite is true if the upstream moisture has a high relative humidity, allowing lake effect condensation, cloud and precipitation to form more readily and in a greater quantity. Any large body of water upwind will impact lake - effect precipitation to the lee of a downwind lake by adding moisture or pre-existing lake - effect bands, which can re-intensify over the downwind lake. Upwind lakes do not always lead to an increase of precipitation downwind. Vorticity advection aloft and large upscale ascent help increase mixing and the convective depth, while cold air advection lowers the temperature and increases instability. Typically lake - effect precipitation will increase with elevation to the lee of the lake as topographic forcing squeezes out precipitation and dries out the squall much faster. As a lake gradually freezes over, its ability to produce lake - effect precipitation decreases for two reasons. Firstly, the open ice - free liquid surface area of the lake shrinks. This reduces fetch distances. Secondly, the water temperature nears freezing, reducing overall latent heat energy available to produce squalls. To end the production of lake - effect precipitation, a complete freeze is often not necessary. Even when precipitation is not produced, cold air passing over warmer water may produce cloud cover. Fast moving mid-latitude cyclones, known as Alberta clippers, often cross the Great Lakes. After the passage of a cold front, winds tend to switch to the northwest, and a frequent pattern is for a long - lasting low - pressure area to form over the Canadian Maritimes, which may pull cold northwestern air across the Great Lakes for a week or more, commonly identified with the negative phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Since the prevailing winter winds tend to be colder than the water for much of the winter, the southeastern shores of the lakes are almost constantly overcast, leading to the use of the term The Great Gray Funk as a synonym for winter. These areas allegedly contain populations that suffer from high rates of seasonal affective disorder, a type of psychological depression thought to be caused by lack of light. Cold winds in the winter typically prevail from the northwest in the Great Lakes region, producing the most dramatic lake - effect snowfalls on the southern and eastern shores of the Great Lakes. This lake - effect produces a significant difference between the snowfall on the southern / eastern shores and the northern and western shores of the Great Lakes. The most affected areas include the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Central New York, Western New York, Northwestern Pennsylvania, Northeastern Ohio, southwestern Ontario and central Ontario, Northeastern Illinois (along the shoreline of Lake Michigan), northwestern and northcentral Indiana (mostly between Gary and Elkhart), and West Michigan. Tug Hill in New York 's North Country region has the 2nd most snow amounts of any non-mountainous location within the continental U.S., only trailing the Upper Peninsula, which can average over 200 inches (508 centimeters) of snow per year. Lake - effect snows on the Tug Hill plateau (east of Lake Ontario) can frequently set daily records for snowfall in the United States. Tug Hill receives, on average, over 20 feet (240 in; 610 cm) of snow each winter. In February 2007, a prolonged lake - effect snow event left 141 inches (358 cm) of snow on the Tug Hill Plateau. Syracuse, New York, directly south of the Tug Hill Plateau, receives significant lake - effect snow from Lake Ontario, and averages 115.6 inches (294 cm) of snow per year, which is enough snowfall to be considered one of the "snowiest '' large cities in America. A small amount of lake - effect snow from the Finger Lakes falls in upstate New York as well. If the wind blows almost the entire length of either Cayuga Lake or Seneca Lake, Ithaca or Watkins Glen respectively can have a small lake effect snow storm. The Appalachian Mountains and Atlantic Ocean largely shield New York City and Philadelphia from picking up any lake - effect snow; snow there tends to come from mesocyclonic storm systems mixing with cold temperatures. Lake Erie produces a similar effect for a zone stretching from the eastern suburbs of Cleveland through Erie to Buffalo. Remnants of lake - effect snows from Lake Erie have been observed to reach as far south as Garrett County, Maryland and as far east as Geneva, New York. Because it 's not as deep as the other lakes, Erie warms rapidly in the spring and summer and is frequently the only Great Lake to freeze over in winter... Once frozen, the resulting ice cover alleviates lake - effect snow downwind of the lake. Based on stable isotope evidence from lake sediment coupled with historical records of increasing lake effect snow, it has been predicted that Global Warming will result in a further increase in lake effect snow. A very large snowbelt in the United States exists on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, near the cities of Houghton, Marquette, and Munising. These areas average 250 -- 300 inches (635 -- 762 cm) of snow each season. For comparison, on the western shore, Duluth, Minnesota receives 78 inches (198 cm) per season. Lake Superior and Lake Huron rarely freeze because of their size and depth; hence, lake - effect snow can fall continually in the Upper Peninsula and Canadian snowbelts during the winter months. Main areas of the Upper Peninsula snow belt include the Keweenaw Peninsula and Baraga, Marquette and Alger counties, where Lake Superior contributes to lake - effect snow, making them a prominent part of the Midwestern snow belt. Records of 390 inches (991 cm) of snow or more have been set in many communities in this area. The Keweenaw Peninsula averages more snowfall than almost anywhere in the United States -- more than anywhere east of the Mississippi River and the most of all non-mountainous regions of the continental United States. Because of the howling storms across Lake Superior, which cause dramatic amounts of precipitation, it has been said that the lake - effect snow makes the Keweenaw Peninsula the snowiest place east of the Rockies. Only one official weather station exists in this region. Located in Hancock, Michigan, this station averages well over 210 inches (533 cm) per year. Farther north in the peninsula, lake - effect snow can occur with any wind direction. The road commission in Keweenaw County, Michigan collects unofficial data in a community called Delaware, and it strictly follows the guidelines set forth by the National Weather Service. This station averages over 240 inches (610 cm) per season. Even farther north, a ski resort called Mount Bohemia receives an unofficial annual average of 273 inches (693 cm). Herman, Michigan, averages 236 inches (599 cm) of snow every year. Lake - effect snow can cause blinding whiteouts in just minutes, and some storms can last days. Western Michigan, western Northern Lower Michigan, and Northern Indiana can get heavy lake - effect snows as winds pass over Lake Michigan and deposit snows over Muskegon, Traverse City, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, New Carlisle, South Bend, and Elkhart, but these snows abate significantly before Lansing or Fort Wayne, Indiana. When winds become northerly, or aligned between 330 and 390 degrees, a single band of lake - effect snow may form, which extends down the length of Lake Michigan. This long fetch often produces a very intense, yet localized, area of heavy snowfall, affecting cities such as Laporte and Gary. Lake - effect snow is uncommon in Detroit, Toledo, Milwaukee, and Chicago, because the region 's dominant winds are from the northwest, making them upwind from their respective Great Lakes. However, they too can see lake - effect snow during easterly or north - easterly winds. More frequently, the north side of a low - pressure system picks up more moisture over the lake as it travels west, creating a phenomenon called lake - enhanced precipitation. Buffalo, New York, after 82.3 inches (209 cm) of snow fell from December 24, 2001 to December 28, 2001 Fulton, New York after a snowburst dropped 4 -- 6 feet (122 -- 183 cm) of snow over most of Oswego County January 28 -- 31, 2004. The Veteran 's Day storm of November 9 -- 14, 1996 may be the most severe early season lake effect snow (LES) storm the Great Lakes has witnessed in the past fifty years. At the height of the storm, over 160,000 customers were without power in Greater Cleveland alone, as the storm produced isolated snowfall tallies approaching 70 inches (178 cm). Because Southwestern Ontario is surrounded by water on three sides, many parts of Southwestern and Central Ontario get a large part of their winter snow from lake - effect snow. This region is notorious for the whiteouts which can suddenly reduce highway visibility on the world 's busiest highway (Ontario Highway 401) from clear to zero. The region most commonly affected spans from Port Stanley in the west, the Bruce Peninsula in the north, Niagara - on - the - Lake to the east, and Fort Erie to the south. The heaviest accumulations usually happen in the Bruce Peninsula, which is between Lake Huron and Georgian Bay. So long as the Great Lakes are not frozen over, the only time the Bruce Peninsula does not get lake - effect snow is when the wind is directly from the south. Toronto and Hamilton are usually spared lake - effect squalls because they are not on the leeward side of Lake Ontario during the dominant northwest winds. However, some central and northern portions of the Greater Toronto Area can be affected a few times each year by lake - effect snow from Georgian Bay. Downtown Toronto and Hamilton get most of their lake - effect snow when the wind comes from the southeast or east, over Lake Ontario. Such easterly winds are usually associated with a winter cyclone passing just to the south of the Great Lakes. When the wind is from the north, the snowbelt runs north - south from Grand Bend to Sarnia and London. Areas such as Lucan and Arkona have experienced some of the heaviest snowsqualls from Lake Huron in this region. When the wind is slightly more westerly, the snowbelt runs from Tobermory, Owen Sound, and Grand Bend to as far south and east as Arthur, Orangeville and Caledon. This snowbelt often reaches Kitchener and can affect the Halton and Peel regions of the Greater Toronto Area. These northwesterly winds usually also bring snow southeast of Georgian Bay, which can reach beyond Lake Scugog. A westerly wind sends lake - effect streamers east from Owen Sound to Gravenhurst, Barrie, and Orillia, and may even reach as far south and east as York Region in the Greater Toronto Area. When the wind is from the southwest, lake - effect streamers from Lake Huron and Georgian Bay run from Noelville to Sudbury, Gravenhurst, and Algonquin Provincial Park. Winds from this same direction coming over Lake Ontario will cause squalls to come ashore from Cobourg through the Belleville area to Kingston and the Thousand Islands, with Prince Edward County being the area most vulnerable to extreme snowfall amounts. Some snow bands can occasionally reach Quebec and Maine, while snow originating from Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and even Lake Michigan can impact southern Ontario. Easterly winds primarily affect the Niagara Peninsula. Local lake - effect snowsqualls can occasionally occur downwind of Lake Simcoe when the lake is unfrozen, usually in early winter or late fall. Lake Superior has its own independent snowbelts, affecting Wawa, Sault Ste. Marie, Marathon, the Keweenaw Peninsula in Upper Michigan, and Pukaskwa National Park. Thunder Bay is usually not affected by lake - effect snow, unless it is associated with a winter storm. Similar snowfall can occur near large inland bays, where it is known as bay - effect snow. Bay - effect snows fall downwind of Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and Massachusetts Bay when the basic criteria are met, and on rarer occasions along Long Island. The southern and southeastern sides of the Great Salt Lake receive significant lake - effect snow. Since the Great Salt Lake never freezes, the lake effect can influence the weather along the Wasatch Front year - round. The lake effect largely contributes to the 55 -- 80 inches (140 -- 203 cm) annual snowfall amounts recorded south and east of the lake, and in average snowfall reaching 500 inches (13 m) in the Wasatch Range. The snow, which is often very light and dry because of the semi-arid climate, is referred to as "The Greatest Snow on Earth '' in the mountains. Lake - effect snow contributes to approximately 6 -- 8 snowfalls per year in Salt Lake City, with approximately 10 % of the city 's precipitation being contributed by the phenomenon. The Finger Lakes of New York are long enough for lake - effect precipitation. The Texas twin cities of Sherman and Denison are known, in rare instances, to have experienced lake - effect snow from nearby Lake Texoma due to the lake 's size (it is the third - largest lake in Texas or along its borders). On one occasion in December 2016, lake effect snow fell in central Mississippi from a lake band off Ross Barnett Reservoir. Oklahoma City even saw a band of lake effect snow off of Lake Hefner in February 2018. The Truckee Meadows and other parts of Northern Nevada which are normally in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada can, when conditions are right, have severe snowfall as a result of lake effect from Lake Tahoe. Recent severe examples of this phenomenon have occurred as recently as 2004, dumping several feet of snow in the normally dry region. The West Coast occasionally experiences ocean - effect showers, usually in the form of rain at lower elevations south of about the mouth of the Columbia River. These occur whenever an Arctic air mass from western Canada is drawn westward out over the Pacific Ocean, typically by way of the Fraser Valley, returning shoreward around a center of low pressure. Cold air flowing southwest from the Fraser Valley can also pick up moisture over the Strait of Georgia and Strait of Juan de Fuca, then rise over the northeastern slopes of the Olympic Mountains, producing heavy, localized snow between Port Angeles and Sequim, as well as areas in Kitsap County and the Puget Sound region. Rarely, the phenomenon of gulf - effect snow has been observed along the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, notably during Florida 's Great Blizzard of 1899. Another extreme occurrence of "ocean effect '' snow occurred on January 24, 2003, when wind off the Atlantic, combined with air temperatures in the 20 ° F (− 7 ° C), brought snow flurries to the Atlantic coast of Florida as far south as Cape Canaveral. Lake Winnipeg and Lake Winnipegosis in Manitoba historically have seen lake - effect snow as early as late October, and it is common throughout early to mid November. Towards the end of November the lakes sufficiently cool and begin to freeze ending the lake effect snow. A brief period of lake - effect snow is also common near Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories during early winter (usually early to mid October); however the lake - effect season for both lakes is very short. The lakes are frozen roughly eight months of the year and as a result have very little time to warm during the summer months. Other small lakes such as Lake Athabasca in northern Saskatchewan and Lake Nipigon in northwestern Ontario produce early season lake - effect snows. Smallwood Reservoir, a man - made lake located in Labrador has on occasion generated lake - effect snow. The Canadian Maritimes, specifically Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, are often affected by such snow squalls when an Arctic winter airmass moves over unfrozen waters. In PEI, sea - effect snow is often generated when a cold north wind blows over the unfrozen Gulf of St. Lawrence, dumping heavy snow on the north shore. In Nova Scotia, a cold north - west wind can produce sea - effect snow over the Cape Breton Highlands from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the Annapolis Valley from the Bay of Fundy; in the latter case, the sea - effect snow season can continue all winter as the Bay of Fundy remains open owing to its extreme tidal currents. Lake - effect or sea - effect snow occurs in other countries, near large lakes or large sea areas. In Eurasia, it occurs in the regions of the Black Sea in Georgia and Turkey, the Caspian sea in Iran, the Adriatic Sea in Italy, the North Sea, the Aegean Sea, the Balearic Islands, the Baltic Sea as well as areas surrounding the Sea of Japan. Because the southern Black Sea is relatively warm (around 13 ° C or 55 ° F at the beginning of winter, typically 10 to 6 ° C or 50 to 43 ° F by the end), sufficiently cold air aloft can create significant snowfalls in a relatively short period of time. Due to its location on a peninsula between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara, Istanbul is very prone to lake - effect snow and this weather phenomenon occurs almost every winter. This type of precipitation is generated by the warmer Black Sea temperature and colder air temperature, over the Istanbul area. In February 2005, a lake - effect snowfall left 50 centimeters (20 in) of snow, and in March 1987, a three - week - long lake - effect snowfall accompanied with strong winds (lake - effect blizzard) left 80 centimeters (31 in) of snow in Istanbul. The snowfall in the eastern regions of the Black Sea is amplified by the orographic effect of the nearby Caucasus Mountains, often resulting in snowfall of several meters, especially at higher elevations. In Northern Europe, cold, dry air masses from Russia can blow over the Baltic Sea and cause heavy snow squalls on areas of the southern and eastern coasts of Sweden, as well as on the Danish island of Bornholm and the east coast of Jutland. In the United Kingdom, easterly winds bringing cold continental air across the North Sea can lead to a similar phenomenon. Locally it is also known as "lake - effect snow '' despite the snow coming in from the sea rather than a lake. Similarly during a north - westerly wind, snow showers can form coming in from the Liverpool Bay, coming down the Cheshire gap, causing snowfall in the West Midlands -- this formation resulted in the white Christmas of 2004 in the area, and most recently the heavy snowfall of 8 December 2017. A similar phenomenon can affect the city of Inverness in the Scottish Highlands, where cold north east winds cause heavy snow to form in the Moray Firth; this was the case with the White Hogmanay of 2009, which caused the street party to be canceled. Northerly and north - westerly winds can cause the effect to occur over the Irish Sea and Bristol Channel feeding snow into south - west England and Eastern Ireland. Western Scotland and the north of Ireland can also see snow showers from a north or north - westerly wind over the Atlantic. Since the North Sea is relatively warm (around 13 ° C or 55.4 ° F at the beginning of winter, typically 10 to 6 ° C or 50 to 43 ° F by the end), sufficiently cold air aloft can create significant snowfalls in a relatively short period of time. The best - known example occurred in January 1987, when record - breaking cold air (associated with an upper low) moved across the North Sea towards the UK. The end result was over a foot of snow for coastal areas, leading to communities being cut off for over a week. In recent years, lake - effect snow has been much lighter and less frequent. The most recent lake - effect snowfall event along the east coast of England was on 30 November 2017, coming four years after the previous event. Similarly, northern winds blowing across the relatively warm waters of the English Channel during cold spells can bring significant snowfall to the French region of Normandy, where snow drifts exceeding ten feet (3 m) were measured in March 2013. The Sea of Japan creates snowfall in the mountainous western Japanese prefectures of Niigata and Nagano, parts of which are known collectively as Snow country ("Yukiguni ''). In addition to the Sea of Japan, other parts of Japan, as well as Korea and Scandinavia, experience these same conditions. Because the Aegean Sea (Greece), is warm in the winter, when cold air masses from Siberia advance in the area, they pick up lots of moisture, resulting in heavy snowfalls in eastern Central Greece, eastern Thessaly, eastern Peloponnese, south - eastern Chalkidiki, the Cyclades and Crete (more commonly in the mountainous areas). In 2008 a severe snowstorm blanketed Athens dropping 40 cm of snow and causing huge traffic jams. Moving of polar or Siberian high pressure centers along Caspian Sea regarding to relatively warmer water of this sea can make heavy snowfalls in the northern coast of Iran. Several blizzards have been reported in this region during the last decades. in Feb 2014 heavy snowfall reached two meters in the coast line in Gilan and Mazandaran provinces of Iran. The heaviest snowfall was reported in Abkenar village near Anzali Lagoon Warnings about lake - effect snow:

where did doc hudson go in cars 2

Doc Hudson - wikipedia Doc Hudson ("Dr. Hudson '' or simply "Doc '') was an animated, anthropomorphic retired race car who appears in the 2006 Pixar film Cars as a medical doctor and a local judge. He is voiced by actor Paul Newman in the first and third films and video game, and Corey Burton in all other media. Six - time Turismo Carretera champion Juan María Traverso voiced the character in the Rioplatense Spanish version. He is modeled after a 1951 Hudson Hornet. Doc Hudson (voiced by Paul Newman in his last non-documentary film role) is Radiator Springs ' local physician. His license plate read 51HHMD, which is a reference to his year and track number (51), model (Hudson Hornet) and profession (medical doctor). A racer - turned - mechanic, the character has Newman 's blue eyes. Doc 's stickers say "twin H power '', which was an optional dealer - installed dual carburetor intake manifold, with twin 1 - barrel carburetors and air filters. It was standard on 1952 model Hornets. Doc was once known as the Fabulous Hudson Hornet (# 51), one of the most famous race cars to have ever lived; he won three consecutive Piston Cups (1951 / 52 / 53), and he still held the record for most wins in a single season (27, also the number of NASCAR Grand National races won by Hudson Hornets in 1952). All that changed for the famous Hornet when a terrible crash on the track during the final lap of the 1954 Piston Cup championship race saw him put out for the season in a career - ending injury which closely parallels the fate of Herb Thomas, NASCAR 's 1951 and 1953 champion. Upon his return, he was received with a complete absence of fanfare and told that he was a has - been who had been passed up for the next rookie in line. He kept a newspaper article on the career - ending crash as a reminder never to return to the life that nearly killed him. Jaded by the racing scene, he left that world, apparently taking out time to study medicine. The famous No. 51 disappeared into obscurity, leaving many wondering where he had gone. He instead opted for a simple navy blue paint job and the life of a physician in the tiny town of Radiator Springs, the "shining Gemstone '' of the Mother Road -- Route 66. He runs Doc 's Clinic as a "doctor of internal combustion ''. As times changed and the town was bypassed by Interstate 40, Doc stayed on, even when the population had dwindled to a meager dozen or so residents. He is respected, well - loved, and served not only as the town 's physician, but as its judge. Nobody in the town has any idea of his past as a racer, knowing him merely as an ordinary Hudson Hornet, and he uses his Piston Cup trophies to hold his tools instead of putting them on display. Upon meeting the rookie hotshot Lightning McQueen after he got arrested for destroying the town by accident, Doc sees far too much of the past he 'd left behind. His one token attempt to explain a controlled skid on an abrupt turn in dirt - track racing to Lightning is met with misunderstanding and skepticism, leaving Doc disillusioned and bitter about the young hot rod who seems to care only about himself. "This ai n't asphalt, son. This is dirt. You do n't have three - wheel brakes, so you got to pitch it hard, break it loose and then just drive it with the throttle. Give it too much, you 'll be outta the dirt and into the tulips. I 'll put it simple. If you 're goin ' hard enough right, you 'll find yourself turnin ' left. '' He is less than happy when an amazed McQueen discovers his past and asks, "Why did you quit at the top of your game? '' After McQueen finishes fixing the Radiator Springs road that he damaged when arriving in town, as part of Hudson 's court ruling, McQueen decides to stay in town for a while, but Doc was unable to bear having him around any longer and calls the news and press, prompting McQueen to immediately leave for the Piston Cup championship race in California. But seeing how disheartened everyone was by the unplanned departure, Doc realizes Lightning had become more important to them than he thought. He eventually admits the truth to everyone about his racecar days and takes back his # 51 racing colors to become McQueen 's pit crew chief. Nearly the entire town travels to California as McQueen 's pit crew and cheering section. At the race, Doc finally receives a long - overdue acknowledgment for his return. At the end of the film, Doc keeps his racing colors, becoming a trainer as well as a friend to the young McQueen. Just like McQueen, Doc learned some lessons: friendship, promises, how greed affects others, and that secrets can not be kept forever. When a racing museum subsequently opens in Radiator Springs, one entire wing is devoted to his racing career. Much as Junior # 8 acknowledges to "The King '' that "you 've been an inspiration to me '', The King indicates "the Hudson Hornet was my inspiration ''. By the start of Cars 2, Doc has died of Engine Cancer (The same thing as Heart Cancer, and is very rare). The Piston Cup has been renamed in his honor, and his clinic has been converted into a museum that displays trophies and mementos from his career. John Lasseter had announced that Cars 3 would include a tribute to Doc. McQueen 's crash in the teaser is a reference to Doc 's accident, and he often recalls pieces of advice that Doc gave him in flashbacks. Lightning goes to Doc 's old trainer Smokey for help and watches movies of Doc 's old races for inspiration. Smokey also explains that training Lightning, not racing, was the most enjoyable part of Doc 's life. At the end, Lightning adopts Doc 's old racing colors and paints "The Fabulous Lightning McQueen '' on himself in honor of Doc, "The Fabulous Hudson Hornet. '' Cruz Ramirez, a trainer who subsequently starts a racing career of her own, takes on Doc 's old number 51 as a second tribute. The car is based on the real - life Fabulous Hudson Hornet in NASCAR competition, with Doc 's racing career most closely resembling that of Herb Thomas. Newman, a racing enthusiast and former driver, drew upon his experiences for the grumpy old race car 's personality. The character has strong parallels to the Doc Hollywood of a 1991 film and shares the "Doc '' moniker with the late Walter "Doc '' Mason, interviewed on Route 66 as research for the film. A close friend of Michael Wallis (the voice of "Sheriff ''), country veterinarian Dr. Walter S. Mason Jr. owned the Tradewinds Courtyard Inn from 1963 until 2003 and donated land for the Oklahoma Route 66 Museum in Clinton. Doc Mason died in June 2007 after a lengthy battle with Alzheimer 's disease. After his demise the inn, which once hosted Elvis Presley went into a steep decline, losing its Best Western membership and receiving many highly - negative reviews. The original Hudson Hornet was introduced in 1951 and manufactured until 1954. Fabulous Hudson Hornets won NASCAR cups for three consecutive years (Herb Thomas in 1951 and 1953, and Tim Flock in 1952), paralleling Doc Hudson 's three Piston Cup wins in those same years. The Hudson Motor Company was merged into Nash Motors on January 14, 1954 to form American Motors Corporation (AMC). After brief use as a marque on Nash - designed AMC vehicles, the Hudson name disappeared entirely by 1957. The automaker continued until its March 9, 1987 takeover by Chrysler, but never won another NASCAR championship cup. The "Fabulous Hudson Hornet '' name, which appeared on three famous NASCAR entries between 1951 and 1954, vanished once Hudson was merged into AMC. Herb Thomas # 92 raced Buick and Chevrolet cars in 1955; severe injuries in a 1956 racing wreck in Shelby effectively ended his career, despite two unsuccessful starts in 1957 and one in 1962. Tim Flock # 91 switched to Ford cars in 1955; he was one of two drivers forced out of NASCAR after supporting a 1961 unionisation attempt, the Federation of Professional Athletes. Marshall Teague # 6 left NASCAR after the 1952 season in a dispute with NASCAR 's owner Bill France, Sr.; he was killed in a 140 - mile - per - hour (225 km / h) rollover collision at Daytona on February 11, 1959. Doc Hudson does not appear in Cars 2 as his voice actor Paul Newman died from lung cancer in September 2008. Pixar decided having Doc appear in Cars 2 would be not a good idea. A conversation between McQueen and Mater indicates that Doc died before the second film. Doc 's memory lives on, as the Piston Cup was renamed after him. During the Japan leg of the World Grand Prix, one of the commentators notes that Doc was one of the best dirt - track racers of all time. Herb Thomas ' 1952 Fabulous Hudson Hornet is currently displayed in the Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Museum in Michigan; Tim Flock 's car is in the Memory Lane Museum in Mooresville, North Carolina. Herb Thomas entered NASCAR 's hall of fame for 2013 as the first to win two NASCAR premier series championships (1951 and 1953).

who said i have yet begun to fight

John Paul Jones - wikipedia American Revolutionary War John Paul Jones (born John Paul; July 6, 1747 -- July 18, 1792) was the United States ' first well - known naval commander in the American Revolutionary War. He made many friends and enemies -- who accused him of piracy -- among America 's political elites, and his actions in British waters during the Revolution earned him an international reputation which persists to this day. As such, he is sometimes referred to as the "Father of the American Navy '' (a sobriquet he shares with John Barry and John Adams). Jones grew up in Scotland, became a sailor, and served as commander of several British merchant ships. After having killed one of his crew members with a sword, he fled to the Colony of Virginia and around 1775 joined the newly founded Continental Navy in their fight against Britain in the American Revolutionary War. He commanded U.S. Navy ships stationed in France and led several assaults on England and Ireland. Left without a command in 1787, he joined the Imperial Russian Navy and obtained the rank of rear admiral. John Paul was born (he added "Jones '' in later life to hide from law enforcement) on the estate of Arbigland near Kirkbean in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright on the southwest coast of Scotland. His father John Paul, Sr. was a gardener at Arbigland, and his mother was Jean McDuff (1708 -- 1767). His parents married on November 29, 1733 in New Abbey, Kirkcudbright. Living at Arbigland at the time was Helen Craik (1751 -- 1825), later a novelist. John Paul started his maritime career at the age of 13, sailing out of Whitehaven in the northern English county of Cumberland as apprentice aboard Friendship under Captain Benson. Paul 's older brother William Paul had married and settled in Fredericksburg, Virginia, the destination of many of the younger Jones ' voyages. For several years, John sailed aboard a number of British merchant and slave ships, including King George in 1764 as third mate and Two Friends as first mate in 1766. In 1768, he abandoned his prestigious position on the profitable Two Friends while docked in Jamaica. He found his own passage back to Scotland, and eventually obtained another position. John Paul 's career was quickly and unexpectedly advanced during his next voyage aboard the brig John, which sailed from port in 1768, when both the captain and a ranking mate suddenly died of yellow fever. Paul managed to navigate the ship back to a safe port and, in reward for this feat, the vessel 's grateful Scottish owners made him master of the ship and its crew, giving him 10 percent of the cargo. He then led two voyages to the West Indies before running into difficulty. During his second voyage in 1770, John Paul had one of his crew flogged, leading to accusations that his discipline was "unnecessarily cruel. '' These claims initially were dismissed, but his favorable reputation was destroyed when the sailor died a few weeks later. John Paul was arrested for his involvement in the man 's death, and was imprisoned in Kirkcudbright Tolbooth, but later released on bail. The negative effect of this episode on his reputation is indisputable, although the man 's death has been linked to yellow fever. The man who died of his injuries was not a usual sailor but an adventurer from a very influential Scottish family. Leaving Scotland, John Paul commanded a London - registered vessel named Betsy, a West Indiaman mounting 22 guns, engaging in commercial speculation in Tobago for about 18 months. This came to an end, however, when John killed a mutinous crew member named Blackton with a sword in a dispute over wages. He claimed that it was in self - defense, years later in a letter to Benjamin Franklin describing this incident, but he was not willing to be tried in an Admiral 's Court, where the family of his first victim had been influential. He felt compelled to flee to Fredericksburg, Province of Virginia, leaving his fortune behind. He went to Fredericksburg to arrange the affairs of his brother, who had died there without leaving any relatives; and about this time he assumed the surname of Jones, in addition to his original surname. There is a long - held tradition in the state of North Carolina that John Paul adopted the name "Jones '' in honor of Willie Jones of Halifax, North Carolina. From that period, America became "the country of his fond election, '' as he afterwards expressed himself to Baron Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol. It was not long afterward that John Paul "Jones '' joined the American navy to fight against Britain. Sources struggle with this period of Jones ' life, especially the specifics of his family situation, making it difficult to pinpoint historically Jones ' exact motivations for emigrating to America. It is not known whether his plans were not developing as expected for the plantation, or if he was inspired by a revolutionary spirit. What is clearly known is that Jones left for Philadelphia shortly after settling in North America to volunteer his services around 1775 to the newly founded Continental Navy, precursor to the United States Navy. During this time, the Navy and Marines were being formally established, and suitable ship 's officers and captains were in great demand. Jones 's potential would likely have gone unrecognized were it not for the endorsement of Richard Henry Lee, who knew of his abilities. With help from influential members of the Continental Congress, Jones was appointed as a 1st Lieutenant of the newly converted 24 - gun frigate Alfred in the Continental Navy on December 7, 1775. Jones sailed from the Delaware River in February 1776 aboard Alfred on the Continental Navy 's maiden cruise. It was aboard this vessel that Jones took the honor of hoisting the first U.S. ensign − the Grand Union Flag − over a naval vessel. The fleet had been expected to cruise along the coast but was ordered instead by Commodore Esek Hopkins to sail for The Bahamas, where Nassau was raided for military supplies. The fleet had an unsuccessful encounter with a British packet ship on their return voyage. Jones was then assigned command of the sloop USS Providence (1776). Congress had recently ordered the construction of thirteen frigates for the American Navy, one of which was to be commanded by Jones. In exchange for this prestigious command, Jones accepted his commission aboard the smaller Providence. During this six - week voyage to Nova Scotia, Jones captured sixteen prizes and inflicted significant damage in the Raid on Canso (1776). Jones ' next command came as a result of Commodore Hopkins 's orders to liberate hundreds of American prisoners forced to labor in coal mines in Nova Scotia, and also to raid British shipping. On November 1, 1776, Jones set sail in command of Alfred to carry out this mission. Winter conditions prevented freeing the prisoners, but the mission did result in the capture of Mellish, a vessel carrying a vital supply of winter clothing intended for General John Burgoyne 's troops in Canada. Despite his successes at sea, Jones 's disagreements with those in authority reached a new level upon arrival in Boston on December 16, 1776. While at the port, he began feuding with Commodore Hopkins, as Jones believed that Hopkins was hindering his advancement by talking down his campaign plans. As a result of this and other frustrations, Jones was assigned the smaller command of the newly constructed USS Ranger on June 14, 1777, the same day that the new Stars and Stripes flag was adopted. After making the necessary preparations, Jones sailed for France on November 1, 1777, with orders to assist the American cause however possible. The American commissioners in France were Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, and they listened to Jones 's strategic recommendations. They promised him the command of Indien, a new vessel being constructed for America in Amsterdam. Britain, however, was able to divert L'Indien away from American hands by exerting pressure to ensure its sale to France instead (which had not yet allied with America). Jones was again left without a command, an unpleasant reminder of his stagnation in Boston from late 1776 until early 1777. It is thought that during this time Jones developed his close friendship with Benjamin Franklin, whom he greatly admired. On February 6, 1778, France signed the Treaty of Alliance with America, formally recognizing the independence of the new American republic. Eight days later, Captain Jones 's Ranger became the first American naval vessel to be formally saluted by the French, with a nine - gun salute fired from captain Lamotte - Piquet 's flagship. Jones wrote of the event: "I accepted his offer all the more for after all it was a recognition of our independence and in the nation. '' On April 10, 1778, Jones finally set sail from Brest, France, for the western coasts of Britain. Jones had some early successes against British merchant shipping in the Irish Sea, then he persuaded his crew on April 17, 1778, to participate in an assault on Whitehaven, the town where his maritime career had begun. Jones later wrote about the poor command qualities of his senior officers (having tactfully avoided such matters in his official report): "' Their object, ' they said, ' was gain not honor. ' They were poor: instead of encouraging the morale of the crew, they excited them to disobedience; they persuaded them that they had the right to judge whether a measure that was proposed to them was good or bad. '' As it happened, contrary winds forced them to abandon the attempt and drove Ranger towards Ireland, causing more trouble for British shipping on the way. On April 20, 1778, Jones learned from captured sailors that the Royal Navy sloop of war HMS Drake was anchored off Carrickfergus, Ireland. According to the diary of Ranger 's surgeon Jones 's first intention was to attack the vessel in broad daylight, but his sailors were "unwilling to undertake it '' (another incident omitted from the official report). Therefore, the attack took place just after midnight, but the mate responsible for dropping the anchor to halt Ranger right alongside Drake misjudged the timing in the dark (Jones claimed in his memoirs that the man was drunk), so Jones had to cut his anchor cable and run. The wind shifted, and Ranger recrossed the Irish Sea to make another attempt at raiding Whitehaven. Jones led the assault with two boats of fifteen men just after midnight on April 23, 1778, hoping to set fire to and sink all Whitehaven 's ships anchored in harbor, which numbered between 200 and 400 wooden vessels and consisted of a full merchant fleet and many coal transporters. They also hoped to terrorize the townspeople by lighting further fires. As it happened, the journey to shore was slowed by the still - shifting wind, as well as a strong ebb tide. They successfully spiked the town 's big defensive guns to prevent them being fired, but lighting fires proved difficult, as the lanterns in both boats had run out of fuel. To remedy this, some of the party were sent to raid a public house on the quayside, but the temptation to stop for a quick drink led to a further delay. Dawn was breaking by the time they returned and began the arson attacks, so efforts were concentrated on the coal ship Thompson in the hope that the flames would spread to adjacent vessels, all grounded by the low tide. However, in the twilight, one of the crew slipped away and alerted residents on a harbourside street. A fire alert was sounded, and large numbers of people came running to the quay, forcing the Americans to retreat, and extinguishing the flames with the town 's two fire - engines. The townspeople 's hopes of sinking Jones 's boats with cannon fire were dashed because of the prudent spiking. Jones next crossed the Solway Firth from Whitehaven to Scotland, hoping to hold for ransom the Earl of Selkirk, who lived on St Mary 's Isle near Kirkcudbright. The Earl, Jones reasoned, could be exchanged for American sailors impressed into the Royal Navy. The Earl was discovered to be absent from his estate, so his wife entertained the officers and conducted negotiations. Canadian historian Peter C. Newman gives credit to the governess for protecting the young heir and to the butler for filling a sack half with coal, and topping it up with the family silver, in order to fob off the Americans. Jones claimed that he intended to return directly to his ship and continue seeking prizes elsewhere, but his crew wished to "pillage, burn, and plunder all they could ''. Ultimately, Jones allowed the crew to seize a silver plate set adorned with the family 's emblem to placate their desires, but nothing else. Jones bought the plate himself when it was later sold off in France, and returned it to the Earl of Selkirk after the war. The attacks on St. Mary 's Isle and Whitehaven resulted in no prizes or profits which would be shared with the crew under normal circumstances, although their effect was significant on British morale and allocation of defense resources. Throughout the mission, the crew acted as if they were aboard a privateer, not a warship, led by Lieutenant Thomas Simpson, Jones 's second - in - command. Jones now led Ranger back across the Irish Sea, hoping to make another attempt at the Drake, still anchored off Carrickfergus. This time, late in the afternoon of April 24, 1778, the ships, roughly equal in firepower, engaged in combat. Earlier in the day, the Americans had captured the crew of a reconnaissance boat, and learned that Drake had taken on dozens of soldiers, with the intention of grappling and boarding Ranger, so Jones made sure that did not happen, capturing Drake after an hour - long gun battle which cost the British captain his life. Lieutenant Simpson was given command of Drake for the return journey to Brest. The ships separated during the return journey as Ranger chased another prize, leading to a conflict between Simpson and Jones. Both ships arrived at port safely, but Jones filed for a court - martial of Simpson, keeping him detained on the ship. Partly through the influence of John Adams, who was still serving as a commissioner in France, Simpson was released from Jones 's accusation. Adams implies in his memoirs that the overwhelming majority of the evidence supported Simpson 's claims. Adams seemed to believe Jones was hoping to monopolize the mission 's glory, especially by detaining Simpson on board while he celebrated the capture with numerous important European dignitaries. Even with the wealth of perspectives, including the commander 's, it is difficult if not impossible to tell exactly what occurred. It is clear, however, that the crew felt alienated by their commander, who might well have been motivated by his pride. Jones believed his intentions were honorable, and his actions were strategically essential to the Revolution. Regardless of any controversy surrounding the mission, Ranger 's capture of Drake was one of the Continental Navy 's few significant military victories during the Revolution, and was of immense symbolic importance, demonstrating as it did that the Royal Navy was far from invincible. By overcoming such odds, Ranger 's victory became an important symbol of the American spirit and served as an inspiration for the permanent establishment of the United States Navy after the revolution. In 1779, Captain Jones took command of the 42 - gun USS Bonhomme Richard (or as he preferred it, Bon Homme Richard), a merchant ship rebuilt and given to America by the French shipping magnate, Jacques - Donatien Le Ray. On August 14, as a vast French and Spanish invasion fleet approached England, he provided a diversion by heading for Ireland at the head of a five ship squadron including the 36 - gun USS Alliance, 32 - gun USS Pallas, 12 - gun USS Vengeance, and Le Cerf, also accompanied by two privateers, Monsieur and Granville. When the squadron was only a few days out of Groix, Monsieur separated due to a disagreement between her captain and Jones. Several Royal Navy warships were sent towards Ireland in pursuit of Jones, but on this occasion, he continued right around the north of Scotland into the North Sea, creating near - panic all along Britain 's east coast as far south as the Humber estuary. Jones 's main problems, as on his previous voyage, resulted from insubordination, particularly by Pierre Landais, captain of Alliance. On September 23, 1779, the squadron met a large merchant convoy off the coast of Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire. The 50 - gun British frigate HMS Serapis and the 22 - gun hired ship Countess of Scarborough placed themselves between the convoy and Jones 's squadron, allowing the merchants to escape. Shortly after 7 p.m. the Battle of Flamborough Head began. Serapis engaged Bonhomme Richard, and soon afterwards, Alliance fired, from a considerable distance, at Countess. Quickly recognizing that he could not win a battle of big guns, and with the wind dying, Jones made every effort to lock Richard and Serapis together (his famous, albeit possibly apocryphal, quotation "I have not yet begun to fight! '' was uttered in reply to a demand to surrender in this phase of the battle), finally succeeding after about an hour, following which his deck guns and his Marine marksmen in the rigging began clearing the British decks. Alliance sailed past and fired a broadside, doing at least as much damage to Richard as to Serapis. Meanwhile, Countess of Scarborough had enticed Pallas downwind of the main battle, beginning a separate engagement. When Alliance approached this contest, about an hour after it had begun, the badly damaged Countess surrendered. With Bonhomme Richard burning and sinking, it seems that her ensign was shot away; when one of the officers, apparently believing his captain to be dead, shouted a surrender, the British commander asked, seriously this time, if they had struck their colours. Jones later remembered saying something like "I am determined to make you strike, '' but the words allegedly heard by crew - members and reported in newspapers a few days later were more like: "I may sink, but I 'll be damned if I strike. '' An attempt by the British to board Bonhomme Richard was thwarted, and a grenade caused the explosion of a large quantity of gunpowder on Serapis 's lower gun - deck. Alliance then returned to the main battle, firing two broadsides. Again, these did at least as much damage to Richard as to Serapis, but the tactic worked to the extent that, unable to move, and with Alliance keeping well out of the line of his own great guns, Captain Pearson of Serapis accepted that prolonging the battle could achieve nothing, so he surrendered. Most of Bonhomme Richard 's crew immediately transferred to other vessels, and after a day and a half of frantic repair efforts, it was decided that the ship could not be saved, so it was allowed to sink, and Jones took command of Serapis for the trip to neutral (but American - sympathizing) Holland. In the following year, the King of France Louis XVI, honored him with the title "Chevalier ''. Jones accepted the honor, and desired the title to be used thereafter: when the Continental Congress in 1787 resolved that a medal of gold be struck in commemoration of his "valor and brilliant services '' it was to be presented to "Chevalier John Paul Jones ''. He also received from Louis XVI a decoration of "l'Institution du Mérite Militaire '' and a sword. By contrast, in Britain at this time, he was usually denigrated as a pirate. In June 1782, Jones was appointed to command the 74 - gun USS America, but his command fell through when Congress decided to give America to the French as replacement for the wrecked Le Magnifique. As a result, he was given assignment in Europe in 1783 to collect prize money due his former hands. At length, this too expired and Jones was left without prospects for active employment, leading him on April 23, 1787 to enter into the service of the Empress Catherine II of Russia, who placed great confidence in Jones, saying: "He will get to Constantinople. '' He was granted name as a French subject Павел де Жонес (Pavel de Zhones, Paul de Jones). Jones avowed his intention, however, to preserve the condition of an American citizen and officer. As a rear admiral aboard the 24 - gun flagship Vladimir, he took part in the naval campaign in the Dnieper - Bug Liman (an arm of the Black Sea, into which flow the Southern Bug and Dnieper rivers) against the Turks, in concert with the Dnieper Flotilla commanded by Prince Charles of Nassau - Siegen. Jones (and Nassau - Siegen) repulsed the Ottoman forces from the area, but the jealous intrigues of Nassau - Siegen (and perhaps Jones 's own inaptitude for Imperial politics) turned the Russian commander Prince Grigory Potëmkin against Jones and he was recalled to St. Petersburg for the pretended purpose of being transferred to a command in the North Sea. Another factor may have been the resentment of several ex-British naval officers also in Russian employment, who regarded Jones as a renegade and refused to speak to him. Whatever motivated the Prince, once recalled he was compelled to remain in idleness, while rival officers plotted against him and even maliciously assailed his private character through accusations of sexual misconduct. In April 1789 Jones was arrested and accused of raping a 12 - year - old girl named Katerina Goltzwart. But the Count de Segur, the French representative at the Russian court (and also Jones ' last friend in the capital), conducted his own personal investigation into the matter and was able to convince Potëmkin that the girl had not been raped and that Jones had been accused by Prince de Nassau - Siegen for his own purposes; Jones, however, admitted to prosecutors that he had "often frolicked '' with the girl "for a small cash payment, '' only denying that he had deprived her of her virginity. Even so, in that period he was able to author his Narrative of the Campaign of the Liman. On June 8, 1788, Jones was awarded the Order of St. Anne, but he left the following month, an embittered man. In 1789 Jones arrived in Warsaw, Poland, where he befriended Tadeusz Kościuszko, another veteran of the American Revolutionary War. Kościuszko advised him to leave the service of the autocratic Russia, and serve another power, suggesting Sweden. Despite Kościuszko 's backing, the Swedes, while somewhat interested, in the end decided not to recruit Jones. In May 1790 Jones arrived in Paris. He still possessed his position as Russian rear admiral with a corresponding pension, which allowed him to remain in retirement until his death two years later, although he made a number of attempts to re-enter the service in the Russian navy. By this time his memoirs had been published in Edinburgh. Inspired by them, James Fenimore Cooper and Alexandre Dumas later wrote their own adventure novels. John Paul Jones also appeared as a cameo in Herman Melville 's book "Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile ''. In June 1792, Jones was appointed U.S. Consul to treat with the Dey of Algiers for the release of American captives. Before Jones was able to fulfill his appointment, he was found dead (aged 45) lying face - down on his bed in his third - floor Paris apartment, No. 19 Rue de Tournon, on July 18, 1792. The cause of death was interstitial nephritis. A small procession of servants, friends and loyal family walked his body the four miles (6.4 km) for burial. He was buried in Paris at the Saint Louis Cemetery, which belonged to the French royal family. Four years later, France 's revolutionary government sold the property and the cemetery was forgotten. The area was later used as a garden, a place to dispose of dead animals and where gamblers bet on animal fights. In 1905, Jones 's remains were identified by U.S. Ambassador to France Gen. Horace Porter, who had searched for six years to track down the body using faulty copies of Jones 's burial record. After Jones ' death, Frenchman Pierrot Francois Simmoneau donated over 460 francs to mummify the body. It was preserved in alcohol and interred in a lead coffin "in the event that should the United States decide to claim his remains, they might more easily be identified. '' Porter knew what to look for in his search. With the aid of an old map of Paris, Porter 's team, which included anthropologist Louis Capitan, identified the site of the former St. Louis Cemetery for Alien Protestants. Sounding probes were used to search for lead coffins and five coffins were ultimately exhumed. The third, unearthed on April 7, 1905, was later identified by a meticulous post-mortem examination by Doctors Capitan and Georges Papillault as being that of Jones. The autopsy confirmed the original listing of cause of death. The face was later compared to a bust by Jean - Antoine Houdon. Jones 's body was brought to the United States aboard the USS Brooklyn (CA - 3), escorted by three other cruisers. On approaching the American coastline, seven U.S. Navy battleships joined the procession escorting Jones 's body back to America. On April 24, 1906, Jones 's coffin was installed in Bancroft Hall at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, following a ceremony in Dahlgren Hall, presided over by President Theodore Roosevelt who gave a speech paying tribute to John Paul Jones and holding him up as an example to the officers of the Navy. On January 26, 1913, the Captain 's remains were finally re-interred in a magnificent bronze and marble sarcophagus at the Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis. John Paul Jones was given an honorary pardon in 1999 by the Port of Whitehaven for his raid on the town, in the presence of Lt. Steve Lyons representing the US Naval Attaché to the UK, and Yuri Fokine the Russian Ambassador to the UK. The US Navy were also awarded the Freedom of the Port of Whitehaven, the only time the honour has been granted in its 400 - year history. The Pardon and Freedom were arranged by Gerard Richardson MBE as part of the launch of the series of Maritime Festival. Richardson 's of Whitehaven is now the honorary Consulate to the US Navy for the Town and Port of Whitehaven. The Consul is Rear Admiral (retired) US Navy, Steve Morgan and the Deputy Consul is Rob Romano. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Jones, John Paul ''. Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 499 -- 500. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Jones, John Paul ''. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

steven universe save the light how many players

Steven Universe: Save the Light - wikipedia Steven Universe: Save the Light is an action - adventure role - playing video game developed by Grumpyface Studios and published by Cartoon Network Games. Based on the television series Steven Universe, it is a sequel to the 2015 mobile game Steven Universe: Attack the Light!. It was released digitally on October 31, 2017 for PlayStation 4, and on November 3, 2017 for Xbox One. The game was first announced at PAX East in March 2017. After the events of Attack of the Light!, Steven, the Gems and their friends go on a quest to retrieve the Light Prism when it is stolen by a mysterious new enemy, a Homeworld Gem known as Hessonite. Save the Light features seven playable characters from the series, Steven, Garnet, Amethyst, Pearl, Connie, Greg and Peridot, with an eighth character to be added in a future content update; four characters can be equipped to a party at a time. The game has a "blend of real - time and turn - based combat '', and more of a focus on exploration and puzzle - solving more than its predecessor. Players are able to explore Beach City and surrounding areas, and engage in battles with enemies. During battle, the players ' actions, which include attacking and defending, will build up the star meter which allows the characters to pull off more powerful moves. A new feature allows characters to build up a relationship - based meter during battles and dialogue interactions; when filled, characters are able to fuse, such as Steven and Connie into Stevonnie. Grumpyface Studios is collaborating on the story with series creator Rebecca Sugar. The increased gameplay complexity compared to Attack the Light! was a reason for the switch to consoles. Upon release, Save the Light received mixed reviews. Polygon and Destructoid both praised the game 's art direction, battle system, and connection to the series, but criticized the amount of bugs and glitches found at launch.

which teams are in the russia world cup

2018 FIFA World Cup qualification - Wikipedia The 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification process was a series of tournaments organised by the six FIFA confederations to decide 31 of the 32 teams which will play in the 2018 FIFA World Cup, with Russia qualifying automatically as hosts. All 210 remaining FIFA member associations were eligible to enter the qualifying process, and for the first time in World Cup history, all eligible national teams registered for the preliminary competition, but Zimbabwe and Indonesia were disqualified before playing their first matches. Bhutan, South Sudan, Gibraltar and Kosovo made their FIFA World Cup qualification debuts. Myanmar, having successfully appealed against a ban from the competition for crowd trouble during a 2014 World Cup qualifying tie against Oman, were obliged to play all their home matches outside the country. While the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015, a number of qualification matches were played before that. The first began in Dili, Timor Leste, on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, with East Timorese player Chiquito do Carmo scoring the first goal of qualification. Matches were also played in CONCACAF prior to the main draw. The number of teams participating in the final tournament is 32. Even though the qualification process began in March 2015, the allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. It was decided that the same allocation as 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. In October 2013, UEFA President Michel Platini proposed that the World Cup finals should be expanded from 32 to 40 teams starting from 2018. The format would have been the same, but in groups of five instead of four. This was in response to FIFA President Sepp Blatter 's comments that Africa and Asia deserved more spots in the World Cup finals at the expense of European and South American teams. However, FIFA general secretary Jérôme Valcke said that expansion in 2018 would be "unlikely '', while Russian sports minister Vitaly Mutko said that the country was "preparing on the basis that 32 teams will be taking part. '' Expansion was ultimately delayed until 10 January 2017, when the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to 48 teams starting in the 2026 FIFA World Cup. While all FIFA members entered the tournament, not all competed. Zimbabwe were expelled from the competition on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee and Indonesia were excluded from the qualifying competition following the suspension of their football association by FIFA on 30 May 2015. Kuwait had a number of their qualifiers cancelled for a similar suspension that began while their campaign was underway, which eventually resulted in their elimination. Brazil were the first team to achieve qualification for the tournament following their 3 -- 0 victory over Paraguay on 28 March 2017. Peru became the 32nd and final team to qualify when, 233 days after Brazil secured their place, they beat New Zealand 2 -- 0 on aggregate in the OFC - CONMEBOL play - off. Note: One team each from AFC, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, and OFC played in the inter-confederation play - offs, between 10 -- 15 November 2017 (CONCACAF v AFC and OFC v CONMEBOL). Note: UEFA total includes + 1 for Russia as hosts. The formats of the qualifying competitions depended on each confederation (see below). Each round might be played in either of the following formats: In league format, the ranking of teams in each group is based on the following criteria (regulations Articles 20.6 and 20.7): In cases where teams finishing in the same position across different groups are compared for determining which teams advance to the next stage, the criteria is decided by the confederation and require the approval of FIFA (regulations Article 20.8). In knockout format, the team that has the higher aggregate score over the two legs progresses to the next round. In the event that aggregate scores finish level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scored more goals away from home over the two legs progresses. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time are played, divided into two fifteen - minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team qualifies by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot - out (regulations Article 20.9). The AFC Executive Committee meeting on 16 April 2014 approved the proposal to merge the preliminary qualification rounds of the FIFA World Cup and the AFC Asian Cup, which will be expanded to 24 teams starting in 2019: A total of 24 teams eliminated from World Cup qualification in the second round competed in the third round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification (which is separate from the third round of 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification), where they were divided into six groups of four teams and competed for the remaining slots of the 2019 AFC Asian Cup. The 24 teams consisted of the 16 highest ranked teams eliminated in the second round, and the eight teams that advanced from the play - off round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification which had been contested by the remaining 12 teams eliminated in the second round. The draw for the third round was held on 12 April 2016 at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Group A Group B The third - placed teams from each group in the third round played against each other home - and - away over two legs to determine which team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs. The CAF Executive Committee approved the format for the qualifiers of the 2018 FIFA World Cup on 14 January 2015. However, on 9 July 2015 FIFA officially announced that only three rounds would be played instead of four. Zimbabwe, even though they entered the competition, were expelled on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee. Therefore, only 53 African teams were involved in the draw. The draw for the third round was held on 24 June 2016 at the CAF headquarters in Cairo, Egypt. Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E An amendment to the qualification process for this tournament had been suggested, which would see the first three rounds played as knockout rounds, with both the fourth round and the final round (referred to as ' The Hex ') played as group stages. The first round would be played during the FIFA international dates of 23 -- 31 March 2015. CONCACAF announced the full details on 12 January 2015: The draw for the fifth round (to decide the fixtures) was held on 8 July 2016 at the CONCACAF headquarters in Miami Beach, United States. The qualification structure was the same as the previous five editions. The ten teams played in a league of home - and - away round - robin matches. The top four teams qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the fifth - placed team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs, playing the winners of the Oceania Football Confederation qualifying competition. Unlike previous qualifying tournaments where the fixtures were pre-determined, the fixtures were decided by a draw held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia. The qualification structure was as follows: The OFC had considered different proposals of the qualifying tournament. A previous proposal adopted by the OFC in October 2014 would have the eight teams divided into two groups of four teams to play home - and - away round - robin matches in the second round, followed by the top two teams of each group advancing to the third round to play in a single group of home - and - away round - robin matches to decide the winners of the 2016 OFC Nations Cup which would qualify to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup and advance to the inter-confederation play - offs. However, it was later reported in April 2015 that the OFC had reversed its decision, and the 2016 OFC Nations Cup was played as a one - off tournament similar to the 2012 OFC Nations Cup. The draw for the third round was held on 8 July 2016 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand. Group A Group B Final The draw for the final (which decided the order of legs) was held on 15 June 2017 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand. The winners of the final advanced to inter-confederation play - offs. Russia qualified automatically as hosts. The qualifying format for the remaining FIFA - affiliated UEFA teams was confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee meeting on 22 -- 23 March 2015 in Vienna. The draw for the first round was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia. In deciding the eight best runners - up, the matches against the sixth - placed team in each group were discarded. The draw for the second round (play - offs) was held on 17 October 2017 at the FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland. The winners of each tie qualified for the World Cup. There were two inter-confederation playoffs to determine the final two qualification spots for the finals. The first legs were played on 10 and 11 November 2017, and the second legs were played on 15 November 2017. The matchups were decided at the preliminary draw which was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia. For each confederation and inter-confederation play - offs, see sections in each article:

ghost in the shell live action movie sequel

Ghost in the Shell (2017 film) - Wikipedia Ghost in the Shell is a 2017 American science fiction action film directed by Rupert Sanders and written by Jamie Moss, William Wheeler, and Ehren Kruger, based on the Japanese manga of the same name by Masamune Shirow. It stars Scarlett Johansson, Takeshi Kitano, Michael Pitt, Pilou Asbæk, Chin Han and Juliette Binoche. Set in a near future when the line between humans and robots is blurring, the plot follows the Major (Johansson), a cyborg supersoldier who yearns to learn her past. Ghost in the Shell premiered in Tokyo on March 16, 2017, and was released in the United States on March 31, 2017, in 2D, 3D, IMAX 3D and 4DX. It received mixed reviews, with praise for its visual style, acting, elaborately designed future settings, practical effects, action sequences, cinematography and musical score, but received criticism for its story and lack of character development. The casting of Caucasian actors, particularly Johansson, was lambasted by critics, drawing accusations of racism and whitewashing. It grossed $169 million worldwide against a production budget of $110 million, and is considered a box office bomb. In the near future, most humans are augmented with cybernetic improvements to traits such as vision, strength, and intelligence. Hanka Robotics, the world 's leading augmentation developer, establishes a secret project to develop a mechanical body, or "shell '', that can integrate a human brain rather than an AI. Mira Killian, a young woman who is the sole survivor of a cyberterrorist attack which killed her parents, is chosen as the test subject after her body is damaged beyond repair. Over the objections of her designer, Dr. Ouelet, Hanka CEO Cutter decides to use Killian as a counter-terrorism operative. A year later, Killian has attained the rank of Major in the anti-terrorist bureau Section 9, working alongside operatives Batou and Togusa under Chief Daisuke Aramaki. The team thwarts a terrorist attack on a Hanka business conference, and Killian destroys a rogue mechanical geisha after it murders a hostage. Killian, who has been experiencing hallucinations that Ouelet dismisses as glitches, is becoming troubled by how little she remembers of her past. After learning that the geisha was hacked by an unknown entity known as Kuze, Killian breaks protocol and "dives '' into its AI for answers. The entity attempts a counter-hack, and Batou is forced to disconnect her. They trace the hacker to a yakuza nightclub, where they are lured into a trap. The explosion destroys Batou 's eyes and damages Killian 's body. Cutter is enraged by Killian 's actions, and threatens to have Section 9 shut down unless Aramaki keeps her in line. Kuze tracks down Section 9 's Hanka consultant, Dr. Dahlin, and kills her. The team links her murder to the deaths of other senior company researchers and realize that Dr. Ouelet is the next target. Kuze takes control of two sanitation workers and sends them to kill Ouelet. Batou, now with cybernetic eyes, kills one while the repaired Killian subdues the other. While they interrogate the worker, Kuze briefly speaks through him before compelling him to commit suicide. Togusa traces the hack to a secret location, where the team discovers a large number of humans mentally linked as a makeshift signal network. Killian is captured and Kuze reveals that he is a failed Hanka test subject from the same project that created Killian, otherwise known as 2571. He urges her to question her own memories, then frees her and escapes. Killian confronts Ouelet, who admits that 98 test subjects died before Killian, and that her memories are implanted. Cutter has decided that Killian is a liability and orders Ouelet to euthanize her after she returns to Hanka Robotics. Instead, Ouelet gives Killian an address and helps her escape. Cutter kills Ouelet, but blames Killian, saying that she has gone rogue. He informs Aramaki and the team that Killian must be terminated. Killian follows the address to an apartment occupied by a widowed mother, who reveals that her daughter, Motoko Kusanagi, ran away from home a year ago and was arrested. Motoko took her own life while in custody. Killian leaves and contacts Aramaki, who allows Cutter to telepathically eavesdrop on their conversation. Batou, Togusa, and Aramaki eliminate Cutter 's men trying to ambush them, while Killian follows her memories to the hideaway where Motoko was last seen. There, she and Kuze meet and recall their past lives as anti-augmentation radicals who were abducted by Hanka as test subjects. Cutter deploys a "spider - tank '' to kill them. Kuze nearly dies before Killian is able to tear off the tank 's motor, losing an arm in the process. Mortally wounded, Kuze offers to merge his "ghost '' with Killian 's, but a Hanka sniper kills him. Batou and the team rescue Killian, while Aramaki executes Cutter with Killian 's consent. The next day, Killian, now repaired and embracing her true identity as Motoko, reconnects with her mother and returns to work with Section 9. In the Japanese dub, Atsuko Tanaka, Akio Otsuka and Koichi Yamadera reprise the roles they played in the Mamoru Oshii films and the Stand Alone Complex television series. In 2008, DreamWorks (who handled U.S. theatrical distribution of Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence through its Go Fish Pictures banner) and Steven Spielberg acquired the rights to produce a live - action film adaptation of the original manga. Avi Arad and Steven Paul were later confirmed as producers, with Jamie Moss to write the screenplay. In October 2009, it was announced that Laeta Kalogridis had replaced Moss as writer. On January 24, 2014, it was reported that Rupert Sanders would direct the film, with a screenplay by William Wheeler. Wheeler worked on the script for approximately a year and a half, later saying, "It 's a vast enterprise. I think I was second or third in the mix, and I know there have been at least six or seven writers. '' Jonathan Herman also worked on the screenplay. Ultimately, credit for the screenplay was given to Moss, William Wheeler and Ehren Kruger. On September 3, 2014, Margot Robbie was in early talks for the lead role. On October 16, it was announced that DreamWorks had made a $10 million offer to Scarlett Johansson for the lead role after Robbie 's talks for the role fell apart when she was cast as Harley Quinn in Suicide Squad. In May 2015, Paramount Pictures agreed to co-produce and co-finance the film. On November 10, 2015, Pilou Asbæk was cast in the film for the role of Batou. According to TheWrap, Matthias Schoenaerts was circling the role of Batou that went to Asbæk. On November 19, 2015, it was reported that Sam Riley was in early talks to join the film for the villain role as Kuze, the leader of most dangerous criminals and extremists. But, on February 4, 2016, Variety reported that Michael Pitt was in talks for the role. On March 3, 2016, TheWrap reported that Japanese actor Takeshi Kitano had been cast as Daisuke Aramaki, the founder and leader of the elite unit Section 9 tasked with protecting the world from the most dangerous technological threats. Principal photography on the film began on location in Wellington, New Zealand, on February 1, 2016. In April 2016, the full cast was announced, which included Juliette Binoche, Chin Han, Lasarus Ratuere and Kaori Momoi. In May 2016, Rila Fukushima was cast in a role. Filming wrapped up in New Zealand on June 3, 2016. Filming also took place in the Yau Ma Tei and Jordan areas of Hong Kong, around Pak Hoi Street and Woosung Street on June 7, 8 and 10 or 14 -- 16. Ghost in the Shell was originally scheduled by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures for an April 14, 2017, release through their Touchstone Pictures banner. The film was part of DreamWorks ' distribution deal with Walt Disney Studios, which began in 2009. In April 2015, Disney moved the film 's release date in North America to March 31, 2017, with Paramount Pictures handling international distribution. However, it was reported in September 2015 that DreamWorks and Disney would not renew their distribution deal, which was set to expire in August 2016. In January 2016, Disney dropped the film from its release slate after DreamWorks ' distribution deal with Universal Pictures was finalized in December 2015. Disney 's distribution rights for the film were transferred completely to Paramount instead of Universal, with Paramount retaining Disney 's release date of March 31, 2017. Unusually, the film was not screened for critics before its release. Ghost in the Shell grossed $40.5 million in the United States and Canada and $129.2 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $169.8 million, against a production budget of $110 million. In North America, Ghost in the Shell opened alongside The Boss Baby and The Zookeeper 's Wife, and was projected to gross around $25 million from 3,440 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $1.8 million from Thursday night previews and $7.7 million on Friday. It opened to a less - than - expected $19 million, finishing third at the box office behind The Boss Baby and Beauty and the Beast. Deadline.com attributed the poor opening to below - average critical reviews, an unclear marketing campaign, and no social media presence by Johansson. In its second weekend the film grossed $7.4 million, dropping 60.4 % and finishing 5th at the box office. Kyle Davies, domestic distribution chief for Paramount, felt the controversy around the casting had damaged reviews, and said: "You 're always trying to thread that needle between honoring the source material and make a movie for a mass audience. That 's challenging, but clearly the reviews did n't help. '' Conversely, Deadline argued that the negative critical assessment was instead due to the film being "cold, boring, thoughtless, and the same old same old next to its futuristic ancestors The Matrix and Blade Runner '' and suggested that Paramount held the film from review because they "knew they had a lame duck ''. Deadline also reported that the film is expected to lose at least $60 million against its total advertising and production costs of $250 million. Compared to its U.S. gross during the same period, Japanese box office reception since the official release in the country in April 7 has been more positive, earning a modest $3.3 million in Japan during its first three days in theaters. In Japan, Ghost in the Shell made it to second place just behind Sing. In China, the film debuted at number one, grossing in $22.1 million and claiming the spot from Kong: Skull Island which held it for three weeks. Nevertheless, it performed below already muted expectations, leading to the Chinese media calling it a flop. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Ghost in the Shell has an approval rating of 44 % based on 223 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "Ghost in the Shell boasts cool visuals and a compelling central performance from Scarlett Johansson, but the end result lacks the magic of the movie 's classic source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 52 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale. Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times praised the film 's visuals and production, saying: "Some of that ravishment arrives courtesy of the movie 's setting, a stunning pan-Asian metropolis that makes boldly inventive use of the Hong Kong skyline, its tightly stacked buildings tricked out with enormous holographic billboards. (The cinematography and production design, both staggering, are by Jess Hall and Jan Roelfs, respectively.) '' Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune gave the film 3 / 4 and said, "This is n't jokey, quippy science fiction; true to the source material, it 's fairly grave about the implications of an android - dominated culture, though of course Ghost in the Shell is also about giant mecha spiders equipped with machine guns. '' Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2.5 out of 4 stars, saying: "Just about every scene in Ghost in the Shell is a visual wonder to behold -- and you 'll have ample to time to soak in all that background eye candy, because the plot machinations and the action in the foreground are largely of the ho - hum retread variety. '' Evan Narcisse of io9 commented that the film failed to capture the feel of the source material, with the biggest problem being the Major asking the wrong sort of existential questions about herself. Cecilia D'Anastasio of Kotaku commented on the film 's failure to adhere to the source material, saying: "Somebody misjudged how poorly American superhero movie tropes would map onto Ghost in the Shell '', and that "(the) final scene tried to do that ' satisfying our need for closure ' thing American directors think is kind, but is actually condescending. '' Brian Truitt of USA Today gave the film 1.5 / 4, stating: "Ghost in the Shell is a defective mess with lifeless characters, missed chances for thematic exploration and a minefield of political incorrectness. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times expressed disappointment at the absence of the original 's "big, human, all - too - human questions '' in contrast to the retention of action clichés such as chases and gun fights. Dargis also criticized the absence of the unique setting, stating that "The original manga takes place in what 's described as a "strange corporate conglomerate - state called ' Japan, ' while this movie unwinds nowhere in particular, just a universal megalopolis filled with soaring gray towers. '' Nicholas Barber of the BBC describes the film as "conceptually and visually breathtaking '', being an elaborately designed and detailed dystopia which seems disturbingly real. Peter Suderman of Vox and Emily Yoshida of Vulture criticized the removal of philosophical ideas from the story, feeling the movie westernized the story and changed the search for the idea of a soul to just finding individuality and memories. Others call it an action movie that for once does n't throw philosophy overboard. James Hadfield of the Japan Times argued that the film missed the mark but was better than Hollywood 's previous attempts at adapting anime for the big screen. The film currently has a 3.48 star (out of 5) rating on Yahoo Movies Japan, with four stars for its visuals and three for its story. On April 10, The Hollywood Reporter noted that the adaptation 's rating on Yahoo Movies Japan was higher than the 3.2 rating of the 1995 original anime film. Ghost in the Shell was released on Digital HD on July 7, 2017 and on Blu - ray and DVD on July 25, 2017. The casting of Scarlett Johansson as Major Motoko Kusanagi, (renamed "Mira Killian '' for this film), brought accusations of whitewashing. Pavan Shamdasani of Asia Times wrote: "The original is about as Asian as things get: Japanese cult manga, ground - breaking anime, Hong Kong - inspired locations, Eastern philosophy - based story. Most of that 's been downright ignored with its big - screen adaptation, and Scarlett Johansson 's casting as the dark - haired, obviously originally Asian lead sent netizens into a rage. '' In April 2016, ScreenCrush reported that the filmmakers had commissioned the use of CGI and other visual effects testing to alter Johansson 's appearance to make her appear Asian, spurring further backlash. Paramount stated the tests were short - lived and did not involve Johansson. Some fans and industry employees argued that the controversy is a symptom of a bigger issue: that modern Hollywood fears casting non-white actors would bring less profit. Marc Bernardin of Los Angeles Times wrote that "the only race Hollywood cares about is the box office race ''. In Japan, fans were surprised that the casting had caused controversy, as they had assumed that a Hollywood production would choose a white actress. They felt the appearance of the protagonist was immaterial due to the franchise 's themes of self - identity and the blurring of artificial and natural bodies. The Hollywood Reporter spoke to a group of female Japanese American actors, including Keiko Agena, about the film; the actresses argued that Japanese natives are not upset by the film because of white beauty standards held in Japan. According to Justin Charity of Ringer, "your average Japanese citizen 's outlook on diversity is much less influenced by pluralism than the outlooks of many Asian Americans, who live in a country where popular culture rarely represents them well, if at all. Hence, many Japanese Americans may find Johansson 's casting in a Ghost in the Shell movie distressing, while native Japanese observers make nothing of it. '' Paramount released a featurette of Mamoru Oshii (director of the 1995 and 2004 original anime films) visiting the studio, in which he says that Johansson exceeded his expectations for the role. Oshii told IGN that as the Major uses an assumed body and name, there was no basis for saying an Asian woman must portray her, and stated: "I can only sense a political motive from the people opposing it, and I believe artistic expression must be free from politics. '' During a launch event in Tokyo, director Rupert Sanders said of Johansson: "There are very few actresses with 20 years ' experience who have the cyberpunk ethic already baked in. I stand by my decision -- she 's the best actress of her generation. '' Addressing the controversy, producer Steven Paul referred to the film 's setting as "an international world '' with characters of numerous nationalities. Sam Yoshiba, director of the international business division at Kodansha 's Tokyo headquarters, which holds the rights to the Ghost in the Shell series, said: "Looking at her career so far, I think Scarlett Johansson is well cast. She has the cyberpunk feel. And we never imagined it would be a Japanese actress in the first place... this is a chance for a Japanese property to be seen around the world. '' Johansson said of the criticism: "I certainly would never presume to play another race of a person. Diversity is important in Hollywood, and I would never want to feel like I was playing a character that was offensive. Also, having a franchise with a female protagonist driving it is such a rare opportunity. Certainly, I feel the enormous pressure of that -- the weight of such a big property on my shoulders. '' The film attracted further criticism for its ending, which reveals that Johansson 's character was originally a Japanese girl, Motoko Kusanagi. The Media Action Network for Asian Americans accused Johansson of lying when she said she would never play the role of a person of a different race than her own. Japanese - American actress Ai Yoshihara, speaking to The Hollywood Reporter, said she felt the twist was "white people trying to justify the casting ''. Another Japanese - American actress, Atsuko Okatsuka, concluded: "Hanka Robotics (the corporation in the film) is making a being that 's the best of human and the best of robotics. For some reason, the best stuff they make happens to be white. ''

who was the o henry bar named after

Oh Henry! - Wikipedia Oh Henry! is a candy bar containing peanuts, caramel, and fudge coated in chocolate. It was first introduced in 1909 by the Williamson Candy Company of Chicago, Illinois. According to Nestle 's site, Oh Henry! was originally named for a boy who frequented the Williamson company, flirting with the girls who made the candy. In 1923, an employee of Williamson, John Glossinger, announced that he was going to make the Oh Henry! bar a national best seller. Company officials said that it was impossible and denied him the funds for an advertising campaign. Glossinger went into the streets and pasted stickers onto automobile bumpers saying merely "Oh Henry! '' People became curious as to what an Oh Henry! was, and sales for the candy rose quickly. Nestlé acquired the United States rights to the brand in 1984 and continues to produce the confection. During the 1990s, the Canadian market had humorous TV advertisements showing the protagonist saying "Oh no! '' as he searched desperately for an Oh Henry! bar until he found one and ate it, and then ending with an "Oh no! '' (standing at the top of a ladder that was about to topple, in another when he realizes that he has no money on him to pay for the bar he just ate). In Canada, the bar is currently sold by The Hershey Company and was manufactured at their Smiths Falls, Ontario facilities prior to its closure. Because of Canada 's different chocolate standards, the Canadian "Oh Henry! '' is not considered a "chocolate bar '' and is labeled instead as a "candy bar ''. The American version labels the bar as "milk chocolate '', while the Canadian version contains no milk chocolate at all; it contains a compound chocolate coating. The bars are also different in appearance: the Canadian version is one bar with the fudge in the center, the fudge surrounded with a thin layer of caramel, and the nuts surrounding that layer before it is surrounded in the coating. Hershey sells Oh Henry! bars made in Canada on a very limited basis in the United States as Rally bars, using the trademark of a Hershey product introduced in the 1970s and later discontinued.

who did donatra order to return to romulus

Romulan - wikipedia The Romulans (/ ˈrɒmjələnz /) are an extraterrestrial humanoid species in the science fiction franchise Star Trek. First appearing in the original Star Trek series in the 1966 episode "Balance of Terror '', they have since made appearances in all the main later Star Trek series: The Animated Series, The Next Generation, Deep Space Nine, Voyager and Enterprise. In addition, they have appeared in various spin - off media, and prominently in the two feature films Star Trek: Nemesis (2002) and Star Trek (2009). Throughout the series, they are generally depicted as antagonists, and are usually at war with or in a tenuous truce with the United Federation of Planets. On extremely rare occasions, they have allied with the Federation. They generally do not get along with Klingons either, whom they consider to be a savage race, while the Klingons consider Romulans dishonorable. The Romulans also act as a counterpoint to the logical Vulcan race, whom they resemble and with whom they share a common ancestry. As such, the Romulans are characterized as passionate, cunning and opportunistic -- in every way the opposite of the logical and "cold '' Vulcans. The Romulans are the dominant race of the Romulan Star Empire. Although Star Trek Star Charts place the Romulan Empire 's territory in the Beta Quadrant of the galaxy, in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine they are referred to as an Alpha Quadrant power. The Romulans were created by Paul Schneider, who said "it was a matter of developing a good Romanesque set of admirable antagonists... an extension of the Roman civilization to the point of space travel ''. There are some differences in their history and the way they are portrayed on television, in the motion pictures and in several books by Diane Duane, called the Rihannsu series, after the term they use to refer to themselves in their Romulan native language. The Romulans began as a group of Vulcan revolutionaries who refused to accept the Vulcan philosopher Surak 's teachings of the complete suppression of emotions. At some point in their shared history, this group left the planet Vulcan, eventually settling on the planets Romulus and Remus. In the original series episode "Balance of Terror '', Spock notes that while the events during the period of Surak are well documented (as per episodes that detail such like "The Savage Curtain ''), he is uncertain about their connections to the Romulans. He does state that he thinks them a likely offshoot of Vulcan. The Next Generation episode "The Chase '' implies that Romulans, Vulcans, Cardassians, Klingons and humans share a common ancestry. Like Vulcans, Romulans have pointed ears, upswept eyebrows, and copper - based blood (Hemocyanin) that is green when oxygenated in the arteries and copper or rust - colored when deoxygenated in the veins. In the original series, Romulans were essentially indistinguishable from Vulcans in appearance, but subsequent series and films introduced a V - shaped ridge above the bridge of their nose, a similar prosthetic make - up development to that of the Klingons. Like Vulcans, Romulans are almost always depicted as having dark or black hair. Romulans share the longevity common to their Vulcan cousins. In "Unification '', the Romulan Senator Pardek shared a friendship with Ambassador Spock lasting at least 80 years. Romulans also have in common with Vulcans physical strength superior to that of humans. However, the similarities end when it comes to Vulcans ' mental abilities, which the Romulans do not share, or perhaps lost after their arrival on Romulus. Romulan ale is a fictional popular blue alcoholic beverage which was illegal because of a Federation trade embargo in the late 23rd century (per Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country) through the late 24th century (per Star Trek: Nemesis). Despite this, it is often traded and consumed openly. During the alliance with the Federation during the Dominion War, Romulan ale was briefly legalized, even though it was later outlawed again after the war, as stated by Geordi La Forge in Star Trek: Nemesis. Other Romulan drinks include Kali - fal, a blue drink with an aroma that should "forcibly open one 's frontal sinuses before the first sip. '' Romulan fashion of the late 24th century had distinctive squared shoulders. Hair is generally cut straight across the brow close to the eyebrows, with longer locks framing the face, cut following the cheekbones, a style reminiscent of a helmet. In Star Trek: The Original Series, Romulan military uniforms consisted of a gray tunic with varying kinds of decorative sashes. Commanders wore red sashes, senior officers wore blue sashes, and most soldiers wore no sash at all. In subsequent series, such as Star Trek: The Next Generation, Romulan uniforms were of a different style, with varying kinds of patterns and colors. The dominant uniform style thereafter was gray under a pattern of squares. The rank insignia on the Next Generation - era Romulan uniform consisted of a series of diamond and crescent shapes, worn on the left collar. Their uniforms tend to fit rather loosely, and often feature large phaser holsters that allow the entire weapon to be ' dropped in ', hiding most of it from view. As of Star Trek: Nemesis, Romulan uniforms were more standardized. Episodes of the fourth season of Star Trek: Enterprise depicted the 22nd century Romulans wearing exactly the same uniforms as those of the 24th century Nemesis. Romulan military uniforms follow a distinct pattern through the 23rd and 24th centuries. Male hairstyles do not appear to change greatly, although 24th century hairstyles seem more distinct from Vulcan hairstyles. Females in the 23rd century wore long hair in a variety of styles. By the 24th century, females wear a style similar to males. The emblem of the Romulan Star Empire depicts a large bird of prey clutching the worlds of Romulus and Remus. The avian motif also appears on their warbird starships. Those who rejected the teachings of Surak were said to be "beneath the raptor 's wing ''. Designer Herman F. Zimmerman has said regarding interior design, "the Romulans have possessed advanced technology a lot longer than the Federation, so the look was a combination of art deco and medievalism meets high tech. Most of the designs were inspired by Italian designer Carlo Scarpa. '' Regarding exterior design of the Senate area, designer Syd Dutton said director "Stuart Baird wanted us to think about Albert Speer, the architect who did all the conceptual drawings for Hitler. Speer took that National Socialist idea to an extreme where everything was huge and classical and they have moats. "The Romulans are a people who live in a marshy area. They had little houses on stilts around mudwork. The mudwork became part of this central core and that was where the old part of the city - -- the Forum and Senate buildings - -- was located. As the city expanded going away from that, the buildings became bigger and more technological. '' The Romulan government is similar to that of the Roman Republic before it became the Roman Empire. The Romulan government consists of at least two parts: It has been implied that Romulans use a caste system. The Romulan contempt for Vulcans, their treatment of other sentient species, such as the Remans, and their need for strict conformity, suggests that Romulan society consider themselves superior to the other races in the Star Trek Universe. The Romulan Star Empire once had an empress. A member of the Q Continuum informed Kathryn Janeway that he had considered having a child with the Romulan Empress ("The Q and the Grey ''). However, it is unclear when the Romulans possessed this system of government, or how it functioned in relation to the Romulan Senate, or even if they have abandoned the monarchy. The Romulan term for their mythological place of creation is "Vorta Vor ''. In Romulan society, females are equal to males, both having equal ability to rise through the ranks of the military. In fact, there are more notable female characters than male, notable females include Sela (Tasha Yar 's daughter), Caithlin Dar (Star Trek V: The Final Frontier), Donatra (Star Trek: Nemesis), Taris and Toreth (TNG: "Contagion '' and "Face of the Enemy '', both played by Carolyn Seymour) and the Romulan Commander in the TOS episode "The Enterprise Incident '', who is never referred to by name. Praetors Senators Proconsuls Notable Military Officers In Star Trek canon, the Romulan military appears to be a "combined '' service, like Starfleet. Its version of "joint chiefs of staffs '' is the "High Command '' (TNG 's "The Defector ''), an institution most likely carried over from and modeled on the Vulcan High Command (Star Trek: Enterprise). Some Romulan military ranks are recognizable army and navy versions, while others are either carried over from the Vulcan High Command or entirely new. Perhaps army - specific ranks are reserved for the Tal Shiar. One lowly rank in the Romulan Guard is "uhlan '' (TNG 's "Unification, Part II ''). This actually derives from an in - joke in an early fanzine, Tricorder Readings circa 1970. A fan wrote in explaining who the original Uhlans were, and wisecracked that because regiments of uhlans existed in the armies of many countries, Roman uhlans could be "Rom Uhlans ''. The joke was probably reprinted in several other fanzines. The real meaning of uhlan is "lancer ''. The lowest commissioned military rank appears to be "sublieutenant ''. In TNG 's "The Defector '', Admiral Alidar Jarok initially used the cover name "Sublieutenant Setal '', a mere "logistics clerk ''. "Sublieutenant '' presupposes the next - higher rank of "lieutenant '', but this is speculation because no Romulan character has had that rank. "Centurion '' is the next - highest rank and probably the most common. In TNG 's "The Enemy '', Centurion Bochra appears to be an ordinary, midlevel officer. However, the nameless Centurion in TOS 's "Balance of Terror '' seems to be a senior officer who holds sway with his commander, having served on more than 100 campaigns with him. "Subcommander '' may be a holdover rank from the Vulcan High Command (T'Pol initially holds it in Star Trek: Enterprise). It 's usually reserved for executive officers on Romulan ships (Tal in TOS 's "The Enterprise Incident '' and N'Vek in TNG 's "Face of the Enemy ''), but in rare cases, subcommanders may captain their own Warbirds (Taris in TNG 's "Contagion ''). In addition, some subcommanders have served in exchange - officer roles (T'Rul in DS9 's "The Search, Parts I & II '') or as government attaches (Velal in DS9 's "Inter Arma Enim Silent Leges ''). "Commander '' is the rank usually reserved for individual Warbird COs (Toreth in TNG 's "Face of the Enemy '', Sirol in "The Pegasus '', and Tomalak in "The Enemy '' and "The Defector ''). However, some commanders have had charge over fleets of Warbirds (the unnamed Commander in TOS 's "The Enterprise Incident '' and Sela in TNG 's "Redemption, Part II ''). "Admiral '' is the highest naval - style rank and is accorded to sector commanders (Jarok in TNG 's "The Defector '') or fleet commanders (Mendak in TNG 's "Data 's Day ''). Other senior officer ranks, such as major, colonel and general, are army - style and may often be reserved for members of the Tal Shiar. Deanna Troi impersonated "Major Rakal '' in TNG 's "Face of the Enemy '' and served as a kind of "political officer ''. A Founder impersonated "Colonel Lovok '' in DS9 's "The Die Is Cast '' and commanded a fleet of Warbirds. The three Romulan generals mentioned in Star Trek canon may or may not have been Tal Shiar operatives. Velal, elevated from subcommander to general as of DS9 's "When It Rains... '' and "The Dogs of War '', probably was not. Perhaps the unnamed Romulan general officer who rescued Tasha Yar and fathered Sela (TNG 's "Redemption, Part II '') was with the Tal Shiar: without official canon sources, these remain purely conjectural. General Movar (also frm TNG 's "Redemption, Part II '') likely was not in the Tal Shiar, as he took orders from Sela, and TNG 's "Face of the Enemy '' implied that no one of any rank in the Tal Shiar took orders from the military. The Tal Shiar is a Romulan intelligence organization. The name is an homage to the Tal Shaya, a Vulcan method of execution from the original Star Trek series where the neck is broken with a swift stroke for a quick and merciful death. Before the Dominion War, the Tal Shiar and the Cardassian Obsidian Order secretly worked together to launch a preemptive strike on the Founder homeworld. The plan was initiated by retired head of the Obsidian Order Enabran Tain, and was supported by Tal Shiar Colonel Lovok, who was later revealed to be a changeling, as a result the entire fleet was destroyed. Soon after, the Cardassian Union joined the Dominion while the Romulan Star Empire entered a pact of neutrality with them. In the Next Generation season 6 episode "Face of the Enemy '', Counselor Deanna Troi was surgically altered by a Romulan underground organization to impersonate a Tal Shiar officer Major Rakal. In the Deep Space Nine season 6 episode "In the Pale Moonlight '', Captain Sisko and Elim Garak successfully fool the Tal Shiar into concluding that the assassination of Romulan Senator Vreenak was carried out by the Dominion. Romulus and Remus are the primary two Romulan planets. Both planets orbit the same central star (as depicted in Star Trek: Nemesis). Although they are not a binary planet system, Romulus and Remus are often referred to as "twin planets ''. Romulus had no sentient species until a revolutionary Vulcan movement colonized it around 400 AD. These revolutionaries, over time, became the Romulans. A sapient species called the Remans developed on Remus and was conquered by the Romulans, later becoming a lower class in Romulan society. The original colonization group of Romulans came to this system after they fled their homeworld in rebellion against the philosophy of peace and logic proposed by Surak. As Spock would later point out, if the Romulans retained the passions and expansionist outlook that the pre-Surak Vulcans once had, it would make them an extremely dangerous race. The Romulan government resembles the Roman Republic before it became the Roman Empire. The Romulan government consists of several parts: the Romulan Senate, the main governing and legislative body in a large chamber on Romulus. The Senate is headed by the Praetor, followed by the Proconsul. The Senate does not sit on the third day of the Romulan week. The Romulan Senate also has the Continuing Committee, which is composed of senators and the chairman of the Tal Shiar and confirms the new praetor. The Romulan military and government also have positions similar to those of the Roman Republic: Proconsul, Praetor and Senator. (See this article under the heading "Roman Republic '' for more on these offices.) In the Pocket Books novels by Diane Duane, the Romulan name for the planet is ch'Rihan, hence the endonym for the people is Rihannsu. The destruction of Romulus in the year 2387 is depicted in the 2009 Star Trek remake; Spock Prime blames it on the explosion of a nearby star, said to happen 129 years after the events portrayed in the film (2258). A sister planet or nearby solar system labeled "Romii '' appeared on a star map in the original series episode "Balance of Terror '', the first episode to feature the Romulans. The name "Remus '' is mentioned by Kirk in this episode as a planet when he says "patrolling outposts guarding the neutral zone between planets Romulus and Remus and the rest of the galaxy received an emergency call... '' But its actual inhabitants were first mentioned in the sequel film Star Trek: Nemesis (2002). (Two Remans appear in the background in an episode of Star Trek: Enterprise which, while set two hundred years before the events of Star Trek: Nemesis, was filmed after the film 's release.) As revealed in Star Trek: Nemesis, the inhabitants of Remus are the Remans, who were subjugated ever since the Romulans staked their claim to Remus and set up their new homeworld in the system. Because the planet is tidally locked to its sun, one side of the planet is in constant darkness. Living on this dark side has made the Remans extremely sensitive to light. The Remans were treated as second - class citizens within the Romulan Star Empire. Remus is the prime planet of dilithium mining and as such many Remans are forced into slave labor. Romulans are noted for their use of disruptor weapons, photon torpedoes, plasma torpedoes, and their signature cloaking technology, as well as having spaceships that are powered by artificial singularities (due to the nature of these engines, once activated, there is no way to shut them down: see black hole starship). In the 22nd century, they displayed advanced holotechnology and telepresence. A number of designs for Romulan starships have been presented. Since Star Trek: The Next Generation, Romulan warships have been referred to as Warbirds (D'deridex - class). The Romulans began as a revolutionary group of Vulcans who were referenced as "those who march beneath the Raptor 's wings '' and refused to accept the Vulcan philosopher Surak 's teachings of complete suppression of emotions. Around 400 AD, the dissident group split off from Vulcan society and began the long journey to search for a new homeworld. At some point, whether before or after reaching Romulus is unclear, dissidents developed among the Romulans themselves, and a faction of Romulans established a civilization later known as the Debrune. The Romulan Star Empire was militaristic and bent on conquest. When Senator Valdore questioned this policy, he was dismissed from the Senate (although he later joined the military, and rose quickly through the ranks, becoming Admiral by 2154). In 2152, Humans made first contact with the Romulans when Enterprise (NX - 01) encountered a Romulan - laid minefield. Communication was via audio only. The Romulans saw that Humans fostered a spirit of cooperation among the long - belligerent Vulcans, Andorians and Tellarites. Realizing that this would bring solidarity to the region and an obstacle to conquest, the Senate took steps to turn these species against each other. In 2154, Romulans covertly conspired with V'Las, head of the Vulcan High Command, to invade Andoria. V'Las's Romulan contact had the stated agenda of reunification with the Vulcans. A few months later, the Empire sent prototype holoships remote - controlled from Romulus to disrupt a peace conference between Andorians and Tellarites. The Romulans piloted the ships using an abducted Aenar; however, their scheme was thwarted by the combined efforts of the Humans, Vulcans, Andorians and Tellarites, led by Enterprise. This enraged the Romulans, who vowed revenge upon humanity. In 2156, the Earth - Romulan War began. Both sides used nuclear fusion bombs, which were some of the most advanced weapons technology available at the time, despite having been in Earth 's weapons inventory since the 1950s. The war only ended after both sides had fought to the point of exhaustion, and realized that further conflict would result in mutual destruction. It has been implied that the Earth - Romulan War reached Earth, heavily damaging it: two centuries later, it was remarked that Earth had not been subjected to the horrors of total war since the date of the Romulan Wars. Though the war ended in a stalemate, it closed with the Battle of Cheron, which was a decisive Earth victory. It has also been noted that no visual communication took place between the Humans and Romulans at that time. V'Las remained perhaps the only citizen of the future Federation to be aware of the true origins of the Romulans. In 2160, the Romulans and the Humans signed a treaty ending the war and establishing a neutral zone one light year wide between their territories. The treaty was negotiated via subspace radio, again with no visual contact. In 2161, Humans, along with Vulcans and several other species, founded the United Federation of Planets, which continued this wary peace. Using a cloaked ship, the Romulans broke the treaty of 2160 by attacking several Federation outposts, circa stardate 1709.21, in the year 2266 ("Balance of Terror ''). In response, the USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701) tracked down the cloaked Romulan ship and destroyed it. This was also the first time humans saw what the Romulans looked like physically, and Spock surmised a common ancestry. Around 2267, it is thought that the Romulans entered a treaty with the Klingon Empire: in exchange for cloaking technology, the Romulans received D7 - class battle cruisers, which were upgraded into extremely deadly war machines. This was, or was theorized to be at the time, the first Romulan experience with warp drive and speeds faster than light. (The script of "The Enterprise Incident '' originally called for a Romulan ship to appear, but the original model was not available: rather than go to the expense of building a new one, the Klingon D7 model was substituted.) Spock mentioned intelligence about this treaty when the Klingon ship appeared on the viewscreen, at the outset of "The Enterprise Incident ''. The Romulan commander further implies the common ancestry when she confronts Kirk about violation of Romulan space. The events of 2154 suggest the Vulcans withheld from humans their prior knowledge of Romulan kinship with Vulcans. Circa 2272, Klingon forces led by Kor had a victory over some Romulan opponents in the Battle of Klach D'Kel Brakt. In 2293, the Romulan ambassador to the Federation, Nanclus, took part in a conspiracy to sabotage peace talks between the Klingons and the Federation. The attempt was unsuccessful, and Nanclus was arrested on Khitomer, along with several other conspirators. During the Khitomer conference, the Romulans signed a treaty with the Federation and the Klingons. Notably, Ambassador Sarek of Vulcan sat with his Romulan cousins during the conference, indicating a dialogue, or at least a display of goodwill between the two peoples. In 2311, an event known as the Tomed Incident occurred between the Romulans and the Federation, costing thousands of lives. The details of the Tomed Incident are never revealed canonically, but it is referred to by Enterprise - D crew members in the Next Generation episode "The Neutral Zone '' as "disastrous ''; it resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Algeron, which reaffirmed the Neutral Zone as a no - fly zone and prohibited the Federation from developing cloaking technology. For the next fifty years, the Neutral Zone was quiet. There was no direct contact between the Federation and the Empire, nor were there any further Romulan incursions. In 2344, four Romulan Warbirds attacked the Klingon outpost at Narendra III. The USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701 - C) responded to the outpost 's distress call and engaged the Romulan ships, but was defeated and taken with its survivors (among them a version of Lieutenant Tasha Yar from the future of an alternate timeline) back to Romulan territory. Rumors circulated in the Federation that the Enterprises 's broken hull was displayed on Romulus, to boost the morale of Romulan fleet academy students. The Klingons considered this action dishonorable, in contrast to the honor they saw in the Starfleet ship 's attempt to defend Narendra III, despite being vastly outnumbered. As a result, relations strengthened between the Klingon Empire and the Federation. Then in 2346, the Romulans covertly assisted by a Klingon traitor, Ja'rod, attacked another Klingon planet, Khitomer and killed or captured all but two of the planet 's population. In 2351, a Romulan science vessel on a deep space mission under the command of scientist Telek R'Mor encountered an unstable temporal micro-wormhole and made contact with the Federation starship USS Voyager, stranded in the Delta Quadrant in 2371. The crew of Voyager desired for R'Mor to tell the Federation of their fate, but Voyager was 20 years into the future. As a result, R'Mor agreed to hold onto their messages for another 20 years before delivering them in order to preserve history. However, he died in 2367 before he could do so. Circa stardate 41986.0 (December 26, 2364), the Romulan Star Empire ended its five decades of isolation when the USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701 - D) intercepted a Romulan Warbird. Several Romulan outposts had been destroyed by a then unknown force (later implied to be the Borg). The Romulans opened communications to see if they could glean the information from the Federation, who had suffered similar losses. The Romulan Commander Tebok explained that the Romulans had decided to concentrate on their own internal affairs for the past fifty years and said "We are back '', indicating that Romulans would again be active in galactic affairs. In the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Past Tense, Part One '', after Earth 's history was inadvertently altered so that the Federation was never formed, the Romulans had established a presence in the Alpha Centauri system by the 24th century. Since Alpha Centauri is the star system closest to Earth, it indicates that, in the altered timeline, the Romulans invaded Earth 's stellar region, despite not even being prompted by Earth 's role in the encouragement of interplanetary cooperation. In 2366, the Romulans attempted to trick the Enterprise - D into crossing the Neutral Zone, where two Romulan Warbirds were waiting to capture or -- if necessary -- destroy it. However, Captain Jean - Luc Picard, foreseeing a possible trap, had quietly contacted the Klingons beforehand: as a result, the Enterprise was covertly accompanied into the Neutral Zone by three Klingon Birds - of - Prey. Now evenly matched, the Romulans decided that the price of the Enterprise 's destruction was too high and retreated ("The Defector ''). In 2367, the Romulans brainwashed Commander Geordi La Forge of the USS Enterprise in an attempt to incite a Federation - Klingon war, but the plan was exposed and foiled. ("The Mind 's Eye '') Later in 2367, during the Klingon Civil War, the Romulans secretly backed the House of Duras. Captain Picard, suspecting this, convinced pro-Federation leader Gowron to attack Duras ' forces to draw Romulan reinforcements out of hiding; when the Romulans attempted to enter the fray, they were revealed by a Federation tachyon blockade, and the Duras family, exposed as traitors, lost all support. ("Redemption, Part 2 '') Circa stardate 44995.3 (December 28, 2367), the Vulcan Ambassador Spock was discovered on Romulus, working with an underground movement for the reunification of the divided races. The Romulans saw this as a chance to conquer the Vulcans and sent a fleet of ships toward Vulcan, but their intent was discovered and the fleet destroyed by the Romulans themselves. Spock elected to remain underground on Romulus to teach the Vulcan heritage to those who might listen. These efforts facilitated the defection of Vice Proconsul M'Ret to the Federation. ("Unification '', "Face of the Enemy '') Sometime in 2374, a 27 - member Tal Shiar team commanded by Commander Rekar hijacked the USS Prometheus, an advanced prototype starship to be analyzed by the Tal Shiar. Two Emergency Medical Holograms, one from the USS Voyager, managed to knock out the Romulan crew by opening the bio-vents and venting gas into the ship. The Tal Shiar crew and the ship returned to Federation hands after a small battle when 2 Defiant class ships and an Akira class ship showed up to retake (or destroy) the Prometheus to prevent it from falling into Romulan hands. ("Message in a Bottle '') In 2371, the Romulan Tal Shiar intelligence agency and their Cardassian counterparts, the Obsidian Order, launched a preemptive strike against the Dominion; their entire fleet was destroyed, and it was revealed that the Tal Shiar officer leading the attack was actually a Dominion agent. ("The Die Is Cast '') Towards the end of 2373, the Romulan Empire signed a non-aggression treaty with the Dominion, which had gained a foothold in the Alpha Quadrant in Cardassian space shortly before the Dominion War broke out. Circa stardate 51721.3 (September 20, 2374), Starfleet Captain Benjamin Sisko and Elim Garak tried to trick the Romulans into joining the war against the Dominion by faking recordings of a Dominion strategy meeting discussing the plan to conquer the Romulans along with the Klingons and the Federation. They showed them to a high - ranking Romulan senator, Vreenak, who had negotiated the Romulan non-aggression treaty with the Dominion and was vice-chairman of the Tal Shiar, secretary of the War Plans Council, and one of Proconsul Neral 's most trusted advisors. Vreenak discovered the deception and attempted to leave to inform his government, but died in his shuttle sabotaged by Garak. When the Romulans examined the wreckage, they discovered the recordings; assuming the incriminating defects to have been caused by the explosion, the Romulan Star Empire entered the war against the Dominion, joining the Klingon - Federation alliance. ("In the Pale Moonlight '') In 2375, one year after Proconsul Neral became praetor, the Romulans established a presence on Deep Space Nine and secretly began stockpiling weapons on a Bajoran moon. However, Bajoran Colonel Kira Nerys, with the assistance of Starfleet Admiral William Ross, forced the Romulans to back down and remove their weapons. ("Shadows and Symbols '') The rogue Federation agency, Section 31, had an agent in the Tal Shiar to safeguard Federation interests feeling that after the Dominion War, the Federation and the Romulan Star Empire would be the only two powers left in the region and would go to war. Later that year, the allied fleet broke through Dominion lines and headed for the Dominion high command on Cardassia Prime. However, the fight went badly until a Cardassian uprising headed by the former leader Damar turned the Cardassian fleet against the Dominion. After this, the Dominion was defeated and the devastating Dominion War ended. ("What You Leave Behind '') Circa stardate 56844.9 (November 4, 2379), the Romulan Senate was briefly overthrown in a Reman uprising led by Shinzon. After the senior Romulan leadership was assassinated in the Romulan Senate, the Remans took over the Senate and Shinzon became Praetor; However, he was dispatched by Captain Jean - Luc Picard shortly afterwards, with the Romulans regaining control of their government in the aftermath. Relations between the Romulan Star Empire and the United Federation of Planets improved somewhat as a result of Picard 's assistance (Star Trek: Nemesis). There is no canonical information concerning the actual size of the Romulan Empire in comparison to the Federation. Star Trek writer / producer Ronald D. Moore has indicated that it is larger than the Klingon Empire but smaller than the Federation. However, in the Voyager computer game, Elite Force, the Romulan Star Empire is about two - thirds larger than the Klingon Empire, and is well over five times as large as the Federation, considering the Romulans ' expansionist nature. In the Star Trek Atlas, the Romulan Star Empire is about 1 / 3 the size of the Klingon Empire and surrounded by the Federation. Their territory has a spherical shape with a small tail shape extension heading to the Delta Quadrant. In the book The Romulan Way by Diane Duane and Peter Morewood set in the 23rd century, it is implied that the Federation 's resources far outstrip the Romulans, and in any conflict, the Federation would prevail by sheer weight of numbers. Several other episodes and licensed materials such as the Next Generation episode "Face of the Enemy '' and the video game Star Trek: Starfleet Command III support this, and give the indication that the force multipliers of cloaking technology and other such secrecy is the only way they can maintain an even footing with the numerically superior Federation. The Romulans have been the focus of a number of books, and have appeared or been mentioned in many others. Among their key appearances have been: The Romulans did not appear on screen in the Mirror Universe. The only canonical mention was in the 1995 Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Through the Looking Glass ''. Impersonating his Mirror Universe counterpart, Benjamin Sisko claims that he is going to negotiate with the Romulans to secure their aid for the Terran Rebellion, suggesting that the Romulans are a significant power. However, this is merely a cover - story to explain his departure from the mirror Deep Space Nine, after which he would return to his own universe. According to the 2009 Star Trek remake and the prequel comic series Star Trek: Countdown, Romulus is destroyed in 2387 by a star going supernova. Spock was dispatched to stop the supernova with a red matter device but arrived too late. However, the implosion of the supernova caused by the red matter opened a rift in space - time that sent Spock and the Romulan mining ship Narada, along with its captain, Nero, and its crew, to go back in time more than 100 years, creating an alternate timeline. Driven mad with grief, mostly because of the death of his pregnant wife, Nero and his men seek revenge against the Federation, whom they view as having caused the catastrophe indirectly, including the older version of Spock using the superior technology of their ship and equipment. Nero also destroys the Federation starship USS Kelvin, seven other Federation starships, as well as a fleet of Klingon ships, and the planet Vulcan in the film 's timeline. The problems of the Hobus supernova being so devastating to other star systems is addressed in the computer game Star Trek Online, by declaring the blast to have "traveled through subspace ''. This information below originates from the board wargame Star Fleet Battles, as well as related game systems such as Prime Directive and Federation and Empire. Much as occurred in the original series, Romulans of the (non-canon) Star Fleet Universe descended from the Vulcans, having rejected the movement toward an unemotional, logic - based society, and settled in a distant star system. The modern era Romulans initially relied on an elderly fleet of warships converted to employ primitive non-tactical scale Warp drive, powered by fusion "impulse '' drives. While the other races developed antimatter - based "tactical '' Warp drive, which allowed them to fight at warp speed and increase weapons power, the Romulans fell behind. This was as much due to political infighting as to Gorn sabotage. (This is the SFU explanation for the ' sublight ' Romulan vessel seen in "Balance of Terror '': in the SFU, sublight engines are a common term for Warp engines incapable of tactical combat maneuvering as they only allow a starship to fight at slower - than - light speeds.) The Romulans eventually signed the "Treaty of Smarba '' with the Klingon Empire, which supplied the Romulans with advanced Warp drive and a number of mothballed Klingon vessels in exchange for drawing Federation forces away from the Klingon border. These Klingon - built starships were fitted out with Romulan weaponry and cloaking devices (as seen in "The Enterprise Incident ''). This technology allowed the Romulans to develop a new series of vessels which caused significant headaches to their enemies. The Romulans in the Star Fleet Universe held a long - standing enmity with the Gorn Confederation, but their old "Eagle '' series warships were no match against the advanced Gorn warships. The Klingon Empire even launched devastating raids against Romulan frontier bases and squadrons, and was planning a full - scale invasion were it not for the misfortune of the Tholians ' arrival. The Tholians drove a wedge between the Klingons and Romulans, arriving in the region of Klingon space where the invasion was being prepared. The Klingons kept these events a secret from the Romulans for a long time. The Romulans eventually emerged in the post-Smarba period with a powerful new fleet composed of "Kestral '' (Klingon - built vessels) and "Hawk '' (hybrid) series fleets, along with extensively retrofitted "Eagle '' vessels. After the Klingon Empire persuaded the Romulans to enter the General War, the Romulans invaded the already besieged Federation on what they called "The Day of the Eagle ''. Despite significant strategic advances into Federation space, they were eventually driven back to their own borders, and suffered a devastating wartime catastrophe on Remus. After the General War, the Romulan Empire erupted in civil war, had their border stations destroyed by the Interstellar Concordium in the course of the ISC War of Pacification, and subsequently aided in resisting the extragalactic Andromedan invasion. A bruised Romulan Republic emerged from the ruins of their once proud star empire. Many of the terms used in relation to the Romulans are derived from Roman mythology and government. Romulus and Remus are the two brothers who founded the city of Rome. The proconsul and praetor were government officials during the Roman Republic and the Roman Senate was its governing body. In TOS episode "Who Mourns for Adonais? '', it is revealed that the classical Greek and Roman gods were actually a race of advanced beings who had visited Earth thousands of years ago. It has been postulated that the same beings had visited other worlds as well -- such as Vulcan, or Romulus. The theory did at one time appear on the Star Trek website, and would explain the connection between the Romulans and Roman mythology, as well as the institutions of Roman government.

biodiversity is increased via the process(es) of

Biodiversity - wikipedia Biodiversity, a portmanteau of "bio '' (life) and "diversity '', generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), biodiversity typically measures variation at the genetic, the species, and the ecosystem level. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics. These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 percent of earth 's surface, and contain about 90 percent of the world 's species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. More than 99.9 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species, are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 10 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon). In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion - year - old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion - year - old meta - sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 billion - year - old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth... then it could be common in the universe. '' Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion -- a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian -- Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs. The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity. Named the Holocene extinction, the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat destruction. Conversely, biodiversity positively impacts human health in a number of ways, although a few negative effects are studied. The United Nations designated 2011 -- 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity. The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in the year 1968 lay book A Different Kind of Country advocating conservation. The term was widely adopted only after more than a decade, when in the 1980s it came into common usage in science and environmental policy. Thomas Lovejoy, in the foreword to the book Conservation Biology, introduced the term to the scientific community. Until then the term "natural diversity '' was common, introduced by The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, "The Preservation of Natural Diversity. '' By the early 1980s TNC 's Science program and its head, Robert E. Jenkins, Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America advocated the use of the term "biological diversity ''. The term 's contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985 while planning the 1986 National Forum on Biological Diversity organized by the National Research Council (NRC). It first appeared in a publication in 1988 when sociobiologist E.O. Wilson used it as the title of the proceedings of that forum. Since this period the term has achieved widespread use among biologists, environmentalists, political leaders and concerned citizens. A similar term in the United States is "natural heritage. '' It pre-dates the others and is more accepted by the wider audience interested in conservation. Broader than biodiversity, it includes geology and landforms. "Biodiversity '' is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms, species diversity and species richness. Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region ''. An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view of the traditional types of biological variety previously identified: This multilevel construct is consistent with Datman and Lovejoy. An explicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the 1982 World National Parks Conference. Wilcox 's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of life forms... at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and ecosystem)... ''. The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity '' as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, ' inter alia ', terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems ''. This definition is used in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. One textbook 's definition is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization ''. Biodiversity can be defined genetically as the diversity of alleles, genes and organisms. They study processes such as mutation and gene transfer that drive evolution. Measuring diversity at one level in a group of organisms may not precisely correspond to diversity at other levels. However, tetrapod (terrestrial vertebrates) taxonomic and ecological diversity shows a very close correlation. Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions. Among other factors, the diversity of all living things (biota) depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soils, geography and the presence of other species. The study of the spatial distribution of organisms, species and ecosystems, is the science of biogeography. Diversity consistently measures higher in the tropics and in other localized regions such as the Cape Floristic Region and lower in polar regions generally. Rain forests that have had wet climates for a long time, such as Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, have particularly high biodiversity. Terrestrial biodiversity is thought to be up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity. A recently discovered method put the total number of species on Earth at 8.7 million, of which 2.1 million were estimated to live in the ocean. However, this estimate seems to under - represent the diversity of microorganisms. Generally, there is an increase in biodiversity from the poles to the tropics. Thus localities at lower latitudes have more species than localities at higher latitudes. This is often referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity. Several ecological mechanisms may contribute to the gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of them is the greater mean temperature at the equator compared to that of the poles. Even though terrestrial biodiversity declines from the equator to the poles, some studies claim that this characteristic is unverified in aquatic ecosystems, especially in marine ecosystems. The latitudinal distribution of parasites does not appear to follow this rule. In 2016, an alternative hypothesis ("the fractal biodiversity '') was proposed to explain the biodiversity latitudinal gradient. In this study, the species pool size and the fractal nature of ecosystems were combined to clarify some general patterns of this gradient. This hypothesis considers temperature, moisture, and net primary production (NPP) as the main variables of an ecosystem niche and as the axis of the ecological hypervolume. In this way, it is possible to build fractal hypervolumes, whose fractal dimension rises up to three moving towards the equator. A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species that has experienced great habitat loss. The term hotspot was introduced in 1988 by Norman Myers. While hotspots are spread all over the world, the majority are forest areas and most are located in the tropics. Brazil 's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else. The island of Madagascar and India are also particularly notable. Colombia is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10 % of the species of the Earth can be found in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10 % of the world 's mammals species, 14 % of the amphibian species and 18 % of the bird species of the world. Madagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of endemism. Since the island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently. Indonesia 's 17,000 islands cover 735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km) and contain 10 % of the world 's flowering plants, 12 % of mammals and 17 % of reptiles, amphibians and birds -- along with nearly 240 million people. Many regions of high biodiversity and / or endemism arise from specialized habitats which require unusual adaptations, for example, alpine environments in high mountains, or Northern European peat bogs. Accurately measuring differences in biodiversity can be difficult. Selection bias amongst researchers may contribute to biased empirical research for modern estimates of biodiversity. In 1768, Rev. Gilbert White succinctly observed of his Selborne, Hampshire "all nature is so full, that that district produces the most variety which is the most examined. '' Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. The origin of life has not been definitely established by science, however some evidence suggests that life may already have been well - established only a few hundred million years after the formation of the Earth. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life consisted of microorganisms -- archaea, bacteria, and single - celled protozoans and protists. The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the Cambrian explosion -- a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend and vertebrate diversity shows an overall exponential trend. This dramatic rise in diversity was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as mass extinction events. A significant loss occurred when rainforests collapsed in the carboniferous. The worst was the Permian - Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago. Vertebrates took 30 million years to recover from this event. The fossil record suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in history. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections. Some scientists believe that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago., whereas others consider the fossil record reasonably reflective of the diversification of life. Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million, the vast majority arthropods. Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection. The existence of a global carrying capacity, limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is the question of whether such a limit would also cap the number of species. While records of life in the sea shows a logistic pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods) shows an exponential rise in diversity. As one author states, "Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 per cent of potentially habitable modes and it could be that without human influence the ecological and taxonomic diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase in an exponential fashion until most or all of the available ecospace is filled. '' It also appears that the diversity continue to increase over time, especially after mass extinctions. On the other hand, changes through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used in population biology, demography and macrosociology, as well as fossil biodiversity) than with exponential and logistic models. The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first - order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) and / or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a second - order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth arises from a second - order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth. The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity. The similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend with cyclical and stochastic dynamics. Most biologists agree however that the period since human emergence is part of a new mass extinction, named the Holocene extinction event, caused primarily by the impact humans are having on the environment. It has been argued that the present rate of extinction is sufficient to eliminate most species on the planet Earth within 100 years. With the Biodiversity - related Niches Differentiation Theory, Roberto Cazzolla Gatti recently proposed that species themselves are the architects of biodiversity, by proportionally increasing the number of potentially available niches in a given ecosystem. This study led to the idea that biodiversity is autocatalytic. An ecosystem of interdependent species can be, therefore, considered as an emergent autocatalytic set (a self - sustaining network of mutually "catalytic '' entities), where one (group of) species enables the existence of (i.e., creates niches for) other species. This view offers a possible answer to the fundamental question of why so many species can coexist in the same ecosystem. New species are regularly discovered (on average between 5 -- 10,000 new species each year, most of them insects) and many, though discovered, are not yet classified (estimates are that nearly 90 % of all arthropods are not yet classified). Most of the terrestrial diversity is found in tropical forests and in general, land has more species than the ocean; some 8.7 million species may exists on Earth, of which some 2.1 million live in the ocean. "Ecosystem services are the suite of benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity. '' The natural species, or biota, are the caretakers of all ecosystems. It is as if the natural world is an enormous bank account of capital assets capable of paying life sustaining dividends indefinitely, but only if the capital is maintained. These services come in three flavors: There have been many claims about biodiversity 's effect on these ecosystem services, especially provisioning and regulating services. After an exhaustive survey through peer - reviewed literature to evaluate 36 different claims about biodiversity 's effect on ecosystem services, 14 of those claims have been validated, 6 demonstrate mixed support or are unsupported, 3 are incorrect and 13 lack enough evidence to draw definitive conclusions. Greater species diversity Greater species diversity Other sources have reported somewhat conflicting results and in 1997 Robert Costanza and his colleagues reported the estimated global value of ecosystem services (not captured in traditional markets) at an average of $33 trillion annually. Since the stone age, species loss has accelerated above the average basal rate, driven by human activity. Estimates of species losses are at a rate 100 - 10,000 times as fast as is typical in the fossil record. Biodiversity also affords many non-material benefits including spiritual and aesthetic values, knowledge systems and education. Agricultural diversity can be divided into two categories: intraspecific diversity, which includes the genetic variety within a single species, like the potato (Solanum tuberosum) that is composed of many different forms and types (e.g.: in the U.S. we might compare russet potatoes with new potatoes or purple potatoes, all different, but all part of the same species, S. tuberosum). The other category of agricultural diversity is called interspecific diversity and refers to the number and types of different species. Thinking about this diversity we might note that many small vegetable farmers grow many different crops like potatoes and also carrots, peppers, lettuce etc. Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is ' planned ' diversity or ' associated ' diversity. This is a functional classification that we impose and not an intrinsic feature of life or diversity. Planned diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised (e.g.: crops, covers, symbionts and livestock, among others), which can be contrasted with the associated diversity that arrives among the crops, uninvited (e.g.: herbivores, weed species and pathogens, among others). The control of associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face. On monoculture farms, the approach is generally to eradicate associated diversity using a suite of biologically destructive pesticides, mechanized tools and transgenic engineering techniques, then to rotate crops. Although some polyculture farmers use the same techniques, they also employ integrated pest management strategies as well as strategies that are more labor - intensive, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy. Interspecific crop diversity is, in part, responsible for offering variety in what we eat. Intraspecific diversity, the variety of alleles within a single species, also offers us choice in our diets. If a crop fails in a monoculture, we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with something new. If a wheat crop is destroyed by a pest we may plant a hardier variety of wheat the next year, relying on intraspecific diversity. We may forgo wheat production in that area and plant a different species altogether, relying on interspecific diversity. Even an agricultural society which primarily grows monocultures, relies on biodiversity at some point. Monoculture was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters, including the European wine industry collapse in the late 19th century and the US southern corn leaf blight epidemic of 1970. Although about 80 percent of humans ' food supply comes from just 20 kinds of plants, humans use at least 40,000 species. Many people depend on these species for food, shelter and clothing. Earth 's surviving biodiversity provides resources for increasing the range of food and other products suitable for human use, although the present extinction rate shrinks that potential. Biodiversity 's relevance to human health is becoming an international political issue, as scientific evidence builds on the global health implications of biodiversity loss. This issue is closely linked with the issue of climate change, as many of the anticipated health risks of climate change are associated with changes in biodiversity (e.g. changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agricultural biodiversity and food resources etc.) This is because the species most likely to disappear are those that buffer against infectious disease transmission, while surviving species tend to be the ones that increase disease transmission, such as that of West Nile Virus, Lyme disease and Hantavirus, according to a study done co-authored by Felicia Keesing, an ecologist at Bard College and Drew Harvell, associate director for Environment of the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future (ACSF) at Cornell University. The growing demand and lack of drinkable water on the planet presents an additional challenge to the future of human health. Partly, the problem lies in the success of water suppliers to increase supplies and failure of groups promoting preservation of water resources. While the distribution of clean water increases, in some parts of the world it remains unequal. According to 2008 World Population Data Sheet, only 62 % of least developed countries are able to access clean water. Some of the health issues influenced by biodiversity include dietary health and nutrition security, infectious disease, medical science and medicinal resources, social and psychological health. Biodiversity is also known to have an important role in reducing disaster risk and in post-disaster relief and recovery efforts. Biodiversity provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources. A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50 % of the pharmaceutical compounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals and micro-organisms, while about 80 % of the world population depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary healthcare. Only a tiny fraction of wild species has been investigated for medical potential. Biodiversity has been critical to advances throughout the field of bionics. Evidence from market analysis and biodiversity science indicates that the decline in output from the pharmaceutical sector since the mid-1980s can be attributed to a move away from natural product exploration ("bioprospecting '') in favor of genomics and synthetic chemistry, indeed claims about the value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals may not provide enough incentive for companies in free markets to search for them because of the high cost of development; meanwhile, natural products have a long history of supporting significant economic and health innovation. Marine ecosystems are particularly important, although inappropriate bioprospecting can increase biodiversity loss, as well as violating the laws of the communities and states from which the resources are taken. Many industrial materials derive directly from biological sources. These include building materials, fibers, dyes, rubber and oil. Biodiversity is also important to the security of resources such as water, timber, paper, fiber and food. As a result, biodiversity loss is a significant risk factor in business development and a threat to long term economic sustainability. Biodiversity enriches leisure activities such as hiking, birdwatching or natural history study. Biodiversity inspires musicians, painters, sculptors, writers and other artists. Many cultures view themselves as an integral part of the natural world which requires them to respect other living organisms. Popular activities such as gardening, fishkeeping and specimen collecting strongly depend on biodiversity. The number of species involved in such pursuits is in the tens of thousands, though the majority do not enter commerce. The relationships between the original natural areas of these often exotic animals and plants and commercial collectors, suppliers, breeders, propagators and those who promote their understanding and enjoyment are complex and poorly understood. The general public responds well to exposure to rare and unusual organisms, reflecting their inherent value. Philosophically it could be argued that biodiversity has intrinsic aesthetic and spiritual value to mankind in and of itself. This idea can be used as a counterweight to the notion that tropical forests and other ecological realms are only worthy of conservation because of the services they provide. Biodiversity supports many ecosystem services: "There is now unequivocal evidence that biodiversity loss reduces the efficiency by which ecological communities capture biologically essential resources, produce biomass, decompose and recycle biologically essential nutrients... There is mounting evidence that biodiversity increases the stability of ecosystem functions through time... Diverse communities are more productive because they contain key species that have a large influence on productivity and differences in functional traits among organisms increase total resource capture... The impacts of diversity loss on ecological processes might be sufficiently large to rival the impacts of many other global drivers of environmental change... Maintaining multiple ecosystem processes at multiple places and times requires higher levels of biodiversity than does a single process at a single place and time. '' It plays a part in regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere and water supply. Biodiversity is directly involved in water purification, recycling nutrients and providing fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have shown that humans can not easily build ecosystems to support human needs; for example insect pollination can not be mimicked, though there have been attempts to create artificial pollinators using unmanned aerial vehicles. The economic activity of pollination alone represented between $2.1 - 14.6 billions in 2003. According to Mora and colleagues, the total number of terrestrial species is estimated to be around 8.7 million while the number of oceanic species is much lower, estimated at 2.2 million. The authors note that these estimates are strongest for eukaryotic organisms and likely represent the lower bound of prokaryote diversity. Other estimates include: Since the rate of extinction has increased, many extant species may become extinct before they are described. Not surprisingly, in the animalia the most studied groups are birds and mammals, whereas fishes and arthropods are the least studied animals groups. No longer do we have to justify the existence of humid tropical forests on the feeble grounds that they might carry plants with drugs that cure human disease. Gaia theory forces us to see that they offer much more than this. Through their capacity to evapotranspirate vast volumes of water vapor, they serve to keep the planet cool by wearing a sunshade of white reflecting cloud. Their replacement by cropland could precipitate a disaster that is global in scale. During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, German Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30 % of all species will be extinct by 2050. Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with extinction. Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on Species - area theory). This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because few species emerge each year. Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates. As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25 % of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years. In absolute terms, the planet has lost 52 % of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund. The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago ''. Of that number, 39 % accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39 % for the marine wildlife gone and 76 % for the freshwater wildlife gone. Biodiversity took the biggest hit in Latin America, plummeting 83 percent. High - income countries showed a 10 % increase in biodiversity, which was canceled out by a loss in low - income countries. This is despite the fact that high - income countries use five times the ecological resources of low - income countries, which was explained as a result of process whereby wealthy nations are outsourcing resource depletion to poorer nations, which are suffering the greatest ecosystem losses. A 2017 study published in PLOS One found that the biomass of insect life in Germany had declined by three - quarters in the last 25 years. Dave Goulson of Sussex University stated that their study suggested that humans "appear to be making vast tracts of land inhospitable to most forms of life, and are currently on course for ecological Armageddon. If we lose the insects then everything is going to collapse. '' In 2006 many species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which have not been formally recognized. About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed as threatened with extinction -- a total of 16,119. Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet '' of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species and secondary extinctions. Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population and Over-harvesting. The most authoritative classification in use today is IUCN 's Classification of Direct Threats which has been adopted by major international conservation organizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International and BirdLife International. Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overconsumption, overpopulation, land use change, deforestation, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change. Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial '' standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law / regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community). A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependent -- that diversity among species requires diversity within a species and vice versa. "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down and the community becomes dominated by a single species. '' At present, the most threatened ecosystems are found in fresh water, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, which was confirmed by the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment '', organised by the biodiversity platform and the French Institut de recherche pour le développement (MNHNP). Co-extinctions are a form of habitat destruction. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or decline in one accompanies the other, such as in plants and beetles. Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation. The term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species. The number of species invasions has been on the rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s. Species are increasingly being moved by humans (on purpose and accidentally). In some cases the invaders are causing drastic changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer in the Great Lakes region and the lion fish along the North American Atlantic coast). Some evidence suggests that invasive species are competitive in their new habitats because they are subject to less pathogen disturbance. Others report confounding evidence that occasionally suggest that species - rich communities harbor many native and exotic species simultaneously while some say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals. An important question is, "do invasive species cause extinctions? '' Many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives, but not extinctions. Invasive species seem to increase local (i.e.: alpha diversity) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity (i.e.: beta diversity). Overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes, but even some of the most insidious invaders (e.g.: Dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in North America) have not caused their host species to become extinct. Extirpation, population decline and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. Human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers, by introducing them for food and other purposes. Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range. Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences. Finally, an introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces. In Belgium, Prunus spinosa from Eastern Europe leafs much sooner than its West European counterparts, disrupting the feeding habits of the Thecla betulae butterfly (which feeds on the leaves). Introducing new species often leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive. The exotic organisms may be predators, parasites, or may simply outcompete indigenous species for nutrients, water and light. At present, several countries have already imported so many exotic species, particularly agricultural and ornamental plants, that their own indigenous fauna / flora may be outnumbered. For example, the introduction of kudzu from Southeast Asia to Canada and the United States has threatened biodiversity in certain areas. Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and / or fitness advantage of an introduced species. Hybridization and introgression are side - effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always apparent from morphological (outward appearance) observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal adaptation and not all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species ' existence. Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade. About 25 % of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield. The overkill hypothesis, a pattern of large animal extinctions connected with human migration patterns, can be used explain why megafaunal extinctions can occur within a relatively short time period. In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole. Genetically modified organisms contain genetic material that is altered through genetic engineering. Genetically modified crops have become a common source for genetic pollution in not only wild varieties, but also in domesticated varieties derived from classical hybridization. Genetic erosion and genetic pollution have the potential to destroy unique genotypes, threatening future access to food security. A decrease in genetic diversity weakens the ability of crops and livestock to be hybridized to resist disease and survive changes in climate. Global warming is also considered to be a major potential threat to global biodiversity in the future. For example, coral reefs - which are biodiversity hotspots - will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current trend. Climate change has seen many claims about potential to affect biodiversity but evidence supporting the statement is tenuous. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant morphology and is acidifying oceans, and temperature affects species ranges, phenology, and weather, but the major impacts that have been predicted are still just potential impacts. We have not documented major extinctions yet, even as climate change drastically alters the biology of many species. In 2004, an international collaborative study on four continents estimated that 10 percent of species would become extinct by 2050 because of global warming. "We need to limit climate change or we wind up with a lot of species in trouble, possibly extinct, '' said Dr. Lee Hannah, a co-author of the paper and chief climate change biologist at the Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation International. A recent study predicts that up to 35 % of the world terrestrial carnivores and ungulates will be at higher risk of extinction by 2050 because of the joint effects of predicted climate and land - use change under business - as - usual human development scenarios. From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to reach a plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century. Some recent forecasts place the possible number of people on the planet at 11 billion or 15 billion by 2100. Sir David King, former chief scientific adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self - evident that the massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor. '' At least until the middle of the 21st century, worldwide losses of pristine biodiverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide human birth rate. Biologists such as Paul R. Ehrlich and Stuart Pimm have noted that human population growth and overconsumption are the main drivers of species extinction. According to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund, the global human population already exceeds planet 's biocapacity - it would take the equivalent of 1.5 Earths of biocapacity to meet our current demands. The report further points that if everyone on the planet had the Footprint of the average resident of Qatar, we would need 4.8 Earths and if we lived the lifestyle of a typical resident of the USA, we would need 3.9 Earths. Rates of decline in biodiversity in this sixth mass extinction match or exceed rates of loss in the five previous mass extinction events in the fossil record. Loss of biodiversity results in the loss of natural capital that supplies ecosystem goods and services. From the perspective of the method known as Natural Economy the economic value of 17 ecosystem services for Earth 's biosphere (calculated in 1997) has an estimated value of US $33 trillion (3.3 x10) per year. Conservation biology matured in the mid-20th century as ecologists, naturalists and other scientists began to research and address issues pertaining to global biodiversity declines. The conservation ethic advocates management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in species, ecosystems, the evolutionary process and human culture and society. Conservation biology is reforming around strategic plans to protect biodiversity. Preserving global biodiversity is a priority in strategic conservation plans that are designed to engage public policy and concerns affecting local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems and cultures. Action plans identify ways of sustaining human well - being, employing natural capital, market capital and ecosystem services. In the EU Directive 1999 / 22 / EC zoos are described as having a role in the preservation of the biodiversity of wildlife animals by conducting research or participation in breeding programs. Removal of exotic species will allow the species that they have negatively impacted to recover their ecological niches. Exotic species that have become pests can be identified taxonomically (e.g., with Digital Automated Identification SYstem (DAISY), using the barcode of life). Removal is practical only given large groups of individuals due to the economic cost. As sustainable populations of the remaining native species in an area become assured, "missing '' species that are candidates for reintroduction can be identified using databases such as the Encyclopedia of Life and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Protected areas is meant for affording protection to wild animals and their habitat which also includes forest reserves and biosphere reserves. Protected areas have been set up all over the world with the specific aim of protecting and conserving plants and animals. National park and nature reserve is the area selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against damage or degradation with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation. National parks are usually owned and managed by national or state governments. A limit is placed on the number of visitors permitted to enter certain fragile areas. Designated trails or roads are created. The visitors are allowed to enter only for study, cultural and recreation purposes. Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals are regulated. Exploitation of habitat or wildlife is banned. Wildlife sanctuaries aim only at conservation of species and have the following features: The forests play a vital role in harbouring more than 45,000 floral and 81,000 faunal species of which 5150 floral and 1837 faunal species are endemic. Plant and animal species confined to a specific geographical area are called endemic species. In reserved forests, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products. The unclassed forests covers 6.4 percent of the total forest area and they are marked by the following characteristics: In zoological parks or zoos, live animals are kept for public recreation, education and conservation purposes. Modern zoos offer veterinary facilities, provide opportunities for threatened species to breed in captivity and usually build environments that simulate the native habitats of the animals in their care. Zoos play a major role in creating awareness about the need to conserve nature. In botanical gardens, plants are grown and displayed primarily for scientific and educational purposes. They consist of a collection of living plants, grown outdoors or under glass in greenhouses and conservatories. In addition, a botanical garden may include a collection of dried plants or herbarium and such facilities as lecture rooms, laboratories, libraries, museums and experimental or research plantings. Focusing on limited areas of higher potential biodiversity promises greater immediate return on investment than spreading resources evenly or focusing on areas of little diversity but greater interest in biodiversity. A second strategy focuses on areas that retain most of their original diversity, which typically require little or no restoration. These are typically non-urbanized, non-agricultural areas. Tropical areas often fit both criteria, given their natively high diversity and relative lack of development. Global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, give "sovereign national rights over biological resources '' (not property). The agreements commit countries to "conserve biodiversity '', "develop resources for sustainability '' and "share the benefits '' resulting from their use. Biodiverse countries that allow bioprospecting or collection of natural products, expect a share of the benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution that discovers / exploits the resource to capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when such principles are not respected. Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity implies informed consent between the source country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what and to settle on a fair agreement on benefit sharing. Biodiversity is taken into account in some political and judicial decisions: Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however. Bosselman argues that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, claiming that the remaining areas of scientific uncertainty cause unacceptable administrative waste and increase litigation without promoting preservation goals. India passed the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 for the conservation of biological diversity in India. The Act also provides mechanisms for equitable sharing of benefits from the use of traditional biological resources and knowledge. Less than 1 % of all species that have been described have been studied beyond simply noting their existence. The vast majority of Earth 's species are microbial. Contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on the visible (macroscopic) world ''. For example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life (see e.g., extremophile). "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small - subunit ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder -- to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects ''. Insect extinction rates are high -- supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis. The number of morphological attributes that can be scored for diversity study is generally limited and prone to environmental influences; thereby reducing the fine resolution required to ascertain the phylogenetic relationships. DNA based markers - microsatellites otherwise known as simple sequence repeats (SSR) were therefore used for the diversity studies of certain species and their wild relatives. In the case of cowpea, a study conducted to assess the level of genetic diversity in cowpea germplasm and related wide species, where the relatedness among various taxa were compared, primers useful for classification of taxa identified, and the origin and phylogeny of cultivated cowpea classified show that SSR markers are useful in validating with species classification and revealing the center of diversity.

how does expansion tank work on central heating

Expansion tank - wikipedia An expansion tank or expansion vessel is a small tank used to protect closed (not open to atmospheric pressure) water heating systems and domestic hot water systems from excessive pressure. The tank is partially filled with air, whose compressibility cushions shock caused by water hammer and absorbs excess water pressure caused by thermal expansion. The modern vessel is a small container or tank divided in two by a rubber diaphragm. One side is connected to the pipe work of the heating system and therefore contains water. The other, the dry side, contains air under pressure, and normally a Schrader valve (car - tire type valve stem) for checking pressures and adding air. When the heating system is empty or at the low end of the normal range of working pressure, the diaphragm is pushed against the water inlet; as the water pressure increases, the diaphragm moves, compressing the air on its other side. An older style of expansion tank was larger, oriented horizontally, and had no rubber diaphragm separating the water from the air pocket. This now obsolete style would gradually transfer air from the tank to the highest point in the system, due to air dissolving in the water, and then coming out of solution elsewhere in the system. This in turn required periodic draining of the expansion tank, as well as periodic bleeding of the system, to maintain its effectiveness. The rubber diaphragm in modern expansion tanks prevents this undesired transfer of air, and helps maintain low levels of oxygen within the pipes, reducing corrosion in the system. When expansion tanks are used in domestic hot water (DHW) systems, the tank and the diaphragm must conform to drinking water regulations and must be capable of accommodating the required volume of water. In the past, domestic plumbing systems often contained more air than they do currently, and the trapped air acted as a crude expansion tank. In new and upgraded systems, expansion tanks are used more frequently than in the past. In the UK, prior to the use of sealed expansion tanks, "open '' tanks were installed in the roof space to accommodate the water 's expansion; these had the disadvantage of being exposed to the cold air in the roof space. This, without effective loft insulation, could fall below freezing, and could cause the pipework supplying the tank to freeze. However, with good pipe and tank insulation, this was in practice quite rare. Although such systems were remarkably trouble free, there are concerns about the potability of water from roof tanks due to the possibility of contamination. The other major disadvantage is that the water pressure from a roof tank is considerably lower than mains water pressure, making the use of mixer taps sometimes unpredictable. Domestic hydronic heating and cooling systems generally include an expansion tank to buffer pressure changes due to expansion and contraction of the water they use for heat transfer. A minimum pressure of 4 - 5 psig at the top of a closed hydronic system is suggested. In Europe the design and the construction of expansion tanks are ruled by EN 13831 according to Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) 97 / 23 / EC. An expansion tank is also used in the cooling system of most internal combustion engines, to allow the coolant, the antifreeze, and the air in the system to expand with rising temperature and pressure. The tank is also called a "coolant recovery tank '', since it prevents venting and permanent loss of coolant, by allowing it to be sucked back into the cooling system as the engine cools. Similar devices are used in large - scale pumping stations, where they may be called expansion chambers or hydrophores, to maintain an even pressure and to reduce the effects of water hammer.

when were warning labels first put on cigarettes

Tobacco packaging warning messages - wikipedia Tobacco package warning messages are warning messages that appear on the packaging of cigarettes and other tobacco products concerning their health effects. They have been implemented in an effort to enhance the public 's awareness of the harmful effects of smoking. In general, warnings used in different countries try to emphasize the same messages. Warnings for some countries are listed below. Such warnings have been required in tobacco advertising for many years. The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, adopted in 2003, requires such package warning messages to promote awareness against smoking. A 2009 review summarises that "There is clear evidence that tobacco package health warnings increase consumers ' knowledge about the health consequences of tobacco use. '' The warning messages "contribute to changing consumers ' attitudes towards tobacco use as well as changing consumers ' behaviour. '' At the same time, such warning labels have been subject to criticism. 2007 meta - analyses indicated that communications emphasizing the severity of a threat are less effective than communications focusing on susceptibility, and that warning labels may have no effect among smokers who are not confident that they can quit, which lead the authors to recommend exploring different, potentially more effective methods of behavior change. Text - based warnings on cigarette packets are used in Albania. General warning: As of January 30, 2013, all cigarette packages must include graphical warning labels that show the detrimental effects on the health of long - term smokers. Translation of words in box: "Smoking is very bad for health. It can cause heart disease, gangrene, lung cancer, reduced lung function, chronic bronchitis, stroke, throat and mouth cancer, and emphysema. If you smoke despite all this, do n't say that we did not warn you. '' On 1 December 2012, Australia introduced groundbreaking legislation and the world 's toughest tobacco packaging warning messages to date. All marketing and brand devices were removed from the package and replaced with warnings, only the name of the product remain in generic standard sized text. All tobacco products sold, offered for sale or otherwise supplied in Australia were plain packaged and labelled with new and expanded health warnings. In Azerbaijan, cigarette packages carry a small notice: "Ministry of Health warns: Smoking is dangerous for your health '', but this is usually printed in light and small fonts, and the first part of the message is not always visible. Front of packaging (covers 30 % of surface): Back of packaging (covers 50 % of surface): Before 2011, a small warning with the text Pušenje je štetno za zdravlje (Smoking is harmful to health) was printed on the back of cigarette packets. Brazil was the second country in the world and the first country in Latin America to adopt mandatory warning images in cigarette packages. Warnings and graphic images illustrating the risks of smoking occupy 100 % of the back of cigarettes boxes since 2001. In 2008, the government elected a third batch of images, aimed at younger smokers. Since 2003, the sentence Este produto contém mais de 4, 7 mil substâncias tóxicas, e nicotina que causa dependência física ou psíquica. Não existem níveis seguros para consumo dessas substâncias. (This product contains over 4700 toxic substances and nicotine, which causes physical or psychological addiction. There are no safe levels for the intake of these substances.) is displayed in all packs. Canada has had 3 phases of tobacco warning labels. The first set of warnings was introduced in 1989 under the Tobacco Products Control Act, and required warnings to be printed on all tobacco products sold legally in Canada. The set consisted of 4 messages printed in black - and - white on the front and back of the package, and was expanded in 1994 to include 8 messages covering 25 % of the front top of the package. In 2000, the Tobacco Products Information Regulations (TPIR) were passed under the Tobacco Act. The regulations introduced a new set of 16 warnings. Each warning was printed on the front and back of the package, covering 50 % of the surface, with a short explanation and a picture illustrating that particular warning, for example: WARNING CIGARETTES CAUSE LUNG CANCER 85 % of lung cancers are caused by smoking. 80 % of lung cancer victims die within three years. accompanied by a picture of a human lung detailing cancerous growths. Additionally, on the inside of the packaging or, for some packets, on a pull - out card, "health information messages '' provide answers and explanations regarding common questions and concerns about quitting smoking and smoking - related illnesses. The side of the package also featured information on toxic emissions and constituent levels. In 2011, the TPIR were replaced for cigarettes and little cigars with the Tobacco Products Labelling Regulations (Cigarettes and Little Cigars). These regulations introduced the third and current set of 16 warnings in Canada. Currently, cigarette and little cigar packages in Canada must bear new graphic warning messages that cover 75 % of the front and back of the package. The interior of each package contains 1 of 8 updated health warning messages, all including the number for a national quitline. The side of the package now bears 1 of 4 simplified toxic emission statements. These labels were fully implemented on cigarette and little cigar packages by June 2012 (though the 2000 labels still appear on other tobacco products). Canada also prohibits terms such as "light '' and "mild '' from appearing on tobacco packaging. The current labels were based on extensive research and a long consultation process that sought to evaluate and improve upon the warnings introduced in 2000. In accordance with Canadian law regarding products sold legally in Canada, the warnings are provided in both English and French. Imported cigarettes to be sold in Canada which do not have the warnings are affixed with sticker versions when they are sold legally in Canada. Health Canada is also considering laws mandating plain packaging, in which legal tobacco product packaging would still include warning labels, but brand names, fonts, and colours would be replaced with simple unadorned text, thereby reducing the impact of tobacco industry marketing techniques. There have been complaints from some Canadians due to the graphic nature of the labels, but they generally enjoy wide public support. Starting in November 2006, all cigarette packages sold in Chile are required to have one of two health warnings, a graphic pictorial warning or a text - only warning. These warnings are replaced with a new set of two warnings each year. Under laws of the People 's Republic of China, "Law on Tobacco Monopoly '' (中华 人民 共和国 烟草 专卖 法) Chapter 4 Article 18 and "Regulations for the Implementation of the Law on Tobacco Monopoly '' (中华 人民 共和国 烟草 专卖 法 实施 条例) Chapter 5 Article 29, cigarettes and cigars sold within the territory of China should indicate the grade of tar content and "Smoking is hazardous to your health '' (吸烟 有害 健康) in the Chinese language on the packs and cartons. The warnings were revised in 2009. The following warnings shows what is printed at the current time. Cigarette packets and other tobacco packaging must include warnings in the same size and format and using the same approved texts (in the appropriate local languages) in all member states of the European Union. These warnings are displayed in black Helvetica bold on a white background with a thick black border. Ireland once prefaced its warnings with "Irish Government Warning '', Latvia with "Veselības ministrija brīdina '' (Health Ministry Warning) and Spain with "Las Autoridades Sanitarias Advierten (The Health Board Warns). In member states with more than one official language, the warnings are displayed in all official languages, with the sizes adjusted accordingly (for example in Belgium the messages are written in Dutch, French and German, in Luxembourg in French and German and in Ireland, in Irish and English). All cigarette packets sold in the European Union must display the content of nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide in the same manner on the side of the packet. In 2003, it was reported that sales of cigarette cases had surged, attributable to the introduction of more prominent warning labels on cigarette packs by an EU directive in January 2003. Alternatively, people choose to hide the warnings using various arguably "funny '' stickers, such as "You could be hit by a bus tomorrow. '' Front of packaging (covers 30 % of surface): or Back of packaging (covers 40 % of surface): The last warning contains a mistranslation from Directive 2001 / 37 / EC -- "hydrogen '' was translated as ugljik (carbon) instead of vodik. It was nevertheless signed into law and started appearing on cigarette packages in March 2009. 2004 -- 2009 These warnings are also simple text warnings. Front of packaging: Back of packaging: Side of packaging: 1997 -- 2004 Between 1997 and 2004, a simple text label warning Pušenje je štetno za zdravlje (Smoking is harmful to health) was used. or Warning texts in tobacco products, health warnings, which are reproduced on the packaging of cigarettes and other tobacco products. It is implemented in an effort to strengthen public knowledge about the dangers of smoking. The order was introduced in Denmark on 31 December 1991. The Order was last revised on 2 October 2003, which also imposed ban on the words "light '' and "mild '' on Danish cigarette packages, as did European Union countries. The marking shall appear on one third of the most visible part of the package. For smokeless tobacco use above markings does not, whereas the label "Denne tobaksvare kan være sundhedsskadelig og er afhængighedsskabende '' (This tobacco product can damage your health and is addictive) is always used for such products. In Finland, warning signs are written in both Finnish and Swedish languages. or Ireland currently follows EU standards (see above), but previously ran its own scheme, where one of 8 messages was placed on the pack, as defined in SI 326 / 1991. After a High Court settlement in January 2008, it was accepted that the warnings on tobacco products must appear in all official languages of the state. As a result, the European Communities (Manufacture, Presentation and Sale of Tobacco Products) (Amendment) Regulations 2008 were enacted. This states that tobacco products going to market after 30 September 2008 must carry warnings in Irish and English. A year - long transition period applied to products which were on the market prior to 1 October 2008, which may have been sold until 1 October 2009. Each packet of tobacco products must carry: Other text is sometimes placed in the packets, for example some packets contain leaflets which have all the above warnings written on them, with more detailed explanations and reasons to give up, and advice from Philip Morris. Front of packaging (covers 30 % of surface): or There are also warnings on the back of every packet: General warning (on the front of cigarette packages, covering at least 40 % of the area): Additional warnings (on the back of cigarette packages, covering at least 50 % of the area): or In Spain, cigarette packages are preceded by warnings on both sides of the package marked "Las Autoridades Sanitarias advierten '' (Health authorities warn), written in black and white above the black part of the standard warning. or General warnings on all Swedish cigarette packagings have been in force since 1977. In 1971, tobacco companies printed on the left side of cigarette packets "WARNING by H.M. Government, SMOKING CAN DAMAGE YOUR HEALTH ''. In 1991, the E.U. tightened laws on tobacco warnings. "TOBACCO SERIOUSLY DAMAGES HEALTH '' was printed on the front of all tobacco packs. An additional warning was also printed on the reverse of cigarette packs. In 2003, new E.U. regulations required one of the following general warnings must be displayed, covering at least 30 % of the surface of the pack: Additionally, one of the following additional warnings must be displayed, covering at least 40 % of the surface of the pack: From October 2008, all cigarette products manufactured must carry picture warnings to the reverse. Every pack must have one of these warnings by October 2009. Plain packaging is compulsory for all cigarettes manufactured after May 2016 and sold after May 2017. Under Hong Kong Law, Chap 371B Smoking (Public Health) (Notices) Order, packaging must indicate the amount of nicotine and tar that is present in cigarette boxes in addition to graphics depicting different health problems caused by smoking in the size and ratio as prescribed by law. The warnings are to be published in both official languages, Traditional Chinese and English. Warning begins with the phrase ' 香港 特區 政府 忠告 市民 HONG KONG SAR GOVERNMENT WARNING ' and then one of the following in all caps. In addition, any print advertisement must give minimum 20 % coverage of the following warnings: HKSAR GOVERNMENT HEALTH WARNING All cigarette packets and other tobacco packaging in Iceland must include warnings in the same size and format as in the European Union and using the same approved texts in Icelandic. Cigarette packets sold in India are required to carry graphical and textual health warnings. The warning must cover at least 85 % of the surface of the pack, of which 60 % must be pictorial and the remaining 25 % contains textual warnings in English, Hindi or any other Indian language. Until 2008, cigarette packets sold in India were required to carry a written warning on the front of the packet with the text CIGARETTE SMOKING IS INJURIOUS TO HEALTH in English. Paan, gutkha and tobacco packets carried the warning TOBACCO IS INJURIOUS TO HEALTH in Hindi and English. The law later changed. According to the new law, cigarette packets were required to carry pictorial warnings of a skull or scorpion along with the text SMOKING KILLS and TOBACCO CAUSES MOUTH CANCER in both Hindi and English. The Cigarette and Other Tobacco Products (Packaging and Labelling) Rules 2008 requiring graphic health warnings came into force on 31 May 2008. Under the law, all tobacco products were required to display graphic pictures, such as pictures of diseased lungs, and the text SMOKING KILLS or TOBACCO KILLS in English, covering at least 40 % of the front of the pack, and retailers must display the cigarette packs in such a way that the pictures on pack are clearly visible. In January 2012 controversy arose when it was discovered an image of English footballer John Terry was used on a warning label. On 15 October 2014, Union Health Minister Harsh Vardhan announced that only 15 % of the surface of a pack of cigarettes could contain branding, and that the rest must be used for graphic and text health warnings. The Union Ministry of Health amended the Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products (Packaging and Labelling) Rules, 2008 to enforce the changes effective from 1 April 2015. However, the government decision to increase pictorial warnings on tobacco packets from April 1, was put on hold indefinitely, following the recommendations of a Parliamentary committee, which reportedly did not speak to health experts, but only spoke to tobacco lobby representatives. On April 5, 2016, the health ministry ordered government agencies to enforce this new rule. Following the intervention by the Parliamentary committee, NGO Health of Millions represented by Prashant Bhushan filed a petition in Supreme Court of India, which asks the government to stop selling of loose cigarettes and publish bigger health warnings on tobacco packs. General warning: Before 1999 1999 -- 2001 2002 -- end of 2013 Since 2014 With the enforcement of 2012 Indonesian Government Regulation (Peraturan Pemerintah) No. 109, all of tobacco products / cigarette packaging and advertisement should include warning images and age restriction (18 +). Graphic warning messages must consist 40 % of cigarette packages. After the introduction of graphic images in Indonesian cigarette packaging, the branding of cigarettes as "light '', "mild '', "filter '', etc. is forbidden. Other alternatives: This warning below is appear on the side of the cigarette packaging: Japan is the first country in Asia to enforce general warning on cigarette packaging, in force since 1972. Prior to 2005, there was only one warning on all Japanese cigarette packages. Since 2005, more than one general warning is printed on cigarette packaging. On the front of cigarette packages: On the back of cigarette packages: In Malaysia, general warning as a mandatory on all Malaysian cigarette packaging are in force since June 1976. Starting 1 June 2009, The Malaysian government has decided to place graphic images on the cigarette packs to show the adverse long - term effects of excessive smoking replacing the general warning with text describing the graphic images printed in Malay (front) and English (back) explaining: Graphic warning messages must consist 40 % of the front of cigarette packages and 60 % in the back. After the introduction of graphic images in Malaysian cigarette packaging, the branding of cigarettes as "light '', "mild '', etc. is forbidden. In Mexico cigarette packs contain health warnings and graphic images since 2010. By law, 30 % of the pack 's front, 100 % of the pack 's rear, and 100 % of one lateral must consist on images and warnings. The Secretariat of Health issues new warnings and images every six months. Images have included a dead rat, a partial mastectomy, a laryngectomy, a dead human fetus surrounded by cigarette butts, a woman being fed after suffering a stroke, and damaged lungs amongst others. Warnings include smoking - related diseases and statistics, toxins found in cigarettes and others such as: General warning (on the front of cigarette packages, covering at least 30 % of the area, Helvetica font): Additional warnings (on the back of cigarette packages, covering at least 40 % of the area, Helvetica font): Regulated by "LEGE cu privire la tutun şi la articolele din tutun "(Law on tobacco and tobacco articles) nr. 278 - XVI from 14.12. 2007 enabled at 07.03. 2008 Cigarette packets in Transnistria have variable warning labels, depending from where they come from (English, Russian, etc.) The first health warnings appeared on cigarette packets in New Zealand in 1974. Warning images accompanying text have been required to appear on each packet since 28 February 2008. By law, 30 % of the pack 's front and 90 % of the pack 's rear must consist of graphic warning messages. Images include gangrenous toes (pictured), rotting teeth and gums, diseased lungs and smoking - damaged hearts. Cigarette packets also carry the Quitline logo and phone number and other information about quitting smoking. In total, there are 14 different warnings. A full list with pictures is available at the New Zealand Ministry of Health 's website. Warning messages are rotated annually with 7 being printed in equal quantities one year, and the other 7 messages the next. Following is a list of the warnings in English, however each message also shows a small Māori language translation. Norway have had general warnings on cigarette packets since 1975. Norway 's warnings of today were introduced in 2003 and are in line with EU 's legislation, as Norway is an EEA member: On the front of cigarette and cigar packages, covering about 30 % of the area: On the back of cigarette and cigar packages, covering about 45 % of the area: Tobacco products like snus and chewing tobacco have the following warning printed on them: All cigarettes are required by a Statutory Order 1219 (I) / 2008 dated 25 September 2008, published in the Gazette of Pakistan dated 24 November 2008, to carry rotational health warnings from 1 July 2009. Under the previous law, health warnings were not required to be rotated. Each health warning will be printed for a period of 6 months. The health warnings are to be in Urdu and in English. Here are the English versions: 1. WARNING: Protect children. Do not let them breathe your smoke. Ministry of Health. 2. WARNING: Smoking causes mouth and throat cancer. Ministry of Health. 3. WARNING: Quit smoking; live longer life. Ministry of Health. 4. WARNING: Smoking severely harms you and the people around you. Ministry of Health. The warnings shall cover at least 30 % on both sides of the packet, and located at the top portions of the face (in Urdu) and back (in English) of the packet. All cigarette packaging sold in Philippines are required to display a government warning label. The warnings include: In July 2014, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed the Republic Act 10643, or "An Act to Effectively Instill Health Consciousness through Graphic Health Warnings on Tobacco Products '', more known as the "Graphic Health Warning Act. '' This law requires tobacco product packaging to display pictures of the ill effects of smoking, occupying the bottom half of the display area in both front and the back side of the packaging. On March 3, 2016, Department of Health (DOH) secretary Janette Garin started the implementation of Republic Act 10643, requiring tobacco manufacturers to include graphic health warnings on newer cigarette packaging. With the Graphic Health Warning Act implemented, graphic health warnings are used on all newer cigarette packaging, and older packages using text - only warnings are required to be replaced by newer packaging incorporating graphic warnings. The 12 new warnings, showing photos of negative effects of smoking, like mouth cancer, impotence, and gangrene, are rotated every month, and on November 3, 2016, all cigarette packaging without graphic health warning messages are banned from sale. Labeling of cigarettes with "light '' or "mild '' is also forbidden by the Graphic Health Warning Act. Warning messages on Russian cigarette packets revised in 2013, falling in line with European Union standards. Note: 12 different variants. The warning messages on Serbian cigarette packets are visually similar to those in European Union countries, but the texts used in Serbia are not translated directly from EU - approved texts. Text warnings were first added on cigarette packets. They used blunt, straight - to - the - point messages such as ' Smoking causes lung cancer '. They were later replaced by graphic warnings in August 2004. They featured gory pictures and were printed with the messages: In 2006, the images and warnings were revised, with images focusing on damaged organs. The following warnings shows what is printed nowadays. From 1 January 2009, people possessing cigarettes without the SDPC (Singapore Duty Paid Cigarettes) label will be committing an offence under the Customs and GST Acts. The law was passed to distinguish non-duty paid, contraband cigarettes from duty - paid ones. Switzerland has four official languages, but only has warning messages in three languages. The fourth language, Romansh, is only spoken by 0.5 % of the population, and those persons typically also speak either German or Italian. The three warning messages below are posted on cigarette packets, cartons and advertisements such as outdoor billboard posters: A small warning, in Somali and English, appears on British American Tobacco brands, Royals and Pall Mall. In South Korea, general warning on cigarette packaging are in force since 1976. The warning messages are: The warnings in Taiwan are led by the phrase "行政 院 衛生 署 警告 '' (Warning from the Department of Health, Executive Yuan:), and followed by one of the following warnings: Due to the Department of Health was reorganized into Ministry of Health and Welfare, the images and warnings were revised in 2014. The following warnings shows what is printed (the new warnings will use on June 1, 2014). Whether the warning is the old version or the new version, it will be marked with "戒煙 專線 0800 - 636363 '' (Smoking Quitting Hotline: 0800 - 636363). In Thailand, a variety of warnings with graphic, disturbing images of tobacco - related harms (including a tracheotomy and rotting teeth) are placed prominently on cigarette packages. A recent study showed that the warnings made Thai smokers think more often about the health risks of smoking and about quitting smoking. or The warning messages on Ukrainian cigarette packets are also visually similar to those in European Union countries: In 1966, the United States became the first nation in the world to require a health warning on cigarette packages. In 1973, the Assistant Director of Research at R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company wrote an internal memorandum regarding new brands of cigarettes for the youth market. He observed that, "psychologically, at eighteen, one is immortal '' and theorized that "the desire to be daring is part of the motivation to start smoking. '' He stated, "in this sense the label on the package is a plus. '' In 1999, Philip Morris U.S.A. purchased three brands of cigarettes from Liggett Group Inc. The brands were: Chesterfield, L&M, and Lark. At the time Philip Morris purchased the brands from Liggett, the packaging for those cigarettes included the statement "Smoking is Addictive ''. After Philip Morris acquired the three Liggett brands, it removed the statement from the packages. Though the United States started the trend of labeling cigarette packages with warnings, today the country has one of the least restrictive labelling requirements on their packages. Warnings are usually in small typeface placed along one of the sides of the cigarette packs with colors and fonts that closely resemble the rest of the package, so the warnings essentially are integrated and do not stand out with the rest of the cigarette package. However, this is subject to change as the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009 requires color graphics with supplemental text that depicts the negative consequences of smoking to cover 50 percent of the front and rear of each pack. The nine new graphic warning labels were announced by the FDA in June 2011 and were required to appear on packaging by September 2012, though this was delayed by legal challenges. In August 2011, five tobacco companies filed a lawsuit against the FDA in an effort to reverse the new warning mandate. Tobacco companies claimed that being required to promote government anti-smoking campaigns by placing the new warnings on packaging violates the companies ' free speech rights. Additionally, R.J. Reynolds, Lorillard, Commonwealth Brands Inc., Liggett Group LLC and Santa Fe Natural Tobacco Company Inc. claimed that the graphic labels are an unconstitutional way of forcing tobacco companies to engage in anti-smoking advocacy on the government 's behalf. A First Amendment lawyer, Floyd Abrams, represented the tobacco companies in the case, contending that requiring graphic warning labels on a lawful product can not withstand constitutional scrutiny. The Association of National Advertisers and the American Advertising Federation also filed a brief in the suit, arguing that the labels infringe on commercial free speech and could lead to further government intrusion if left unchallenged. On 29 February 2012, U.S. District Judge Richard Leon ruled that the labels violate the right to free speech in the First Amendment. However, the following month the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit upheld the majority of the Tobacco Control Act of 2009, including the part requiring graphic warning labels. In April 2013 the Supreme Court declined to hear the appeal to this ruling, allowing the new labels to stand. As the original ruling against the FDA images was not actually reversed, the FDA will again need to go through the process of developing the new warning labels, and the timetable and final product remain unknown. Stronger warning labels started to appear in May 2010. Effective June 2010, the following labels began to appear on smokeless tobacco products (also known as chewing tobacco) and their advertisements. The new warnings are required to comprise 30 percent of two principal display panels on the packaging; on advertisements, the health warnings must constitute 20 percent of the total area. For many years in Venezuela, the only warning in cigarette packs was printed in a very small typeface along one of the sides: "Se ha determinado que el fumar cigarrillos es nocivo para la salud, Ley de impuesto sobre cigarrillos '' (It has been determined that cigarette smoking is harmful to your health, Cigarette Tax Law) Since 14 September 1978 On 24 March 2005, another warning was introduced in every cigarette pack: "Este producto contiene alquitrán, nicotina y monóxido de carbono, los cuales son cancerígenos y tóxicos. No existen niveles seguros para el consumo de estas sustancias '' (This product contains tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide, which are carcinogenic and toxic. There are no safe levels for consumption of these substances ". 1978 's warning, was not removed, now every cigarette pack contains both warnings (one on each lateral). In addition, since 24 March 2005, one of the following warnings is randomly printed very prominently, along with a graphical image, occupying the 100 % of the back of the pack (40 % for the text warning and 60 % for the image): Also, in Venezuela, tobacco advertising is strictly forbidden, so much so that the words tobacco, cigarette, cigar, etc. are not permitted in media such as radio and television and no one can smoke on television. In the campaign called: "Venezuela 100 % libre de humo '' (Venezuela, 100 % smoke - free), curiously, these warnings only appear on cigarette packs and not on other tobacco products (which only conserve the 1978 warning). In Vietnam, a variety of warnings with graphic, disturbing images of tobacco - related harms (including a tracheotomy and rotting teeth) are placed prominently on cigarette packages.

when did ill be missing you come out

Someone Like You (Adele song) - wikipedia "Someone like You '' is a song by British singer Adele. It was written by Adele and Dan Wilson for her second studio album, 21. It is the second single and final track on the album. The song was inspired by a broken relationship, and lyrically speaks of Adele 's coming to terms with it. XL Recordings released the song as the second single from the album on 24 January 2011 in the United Kingdom and on 9 August 2011 in the United States. Accompanied only by a piano in the song (played by co-writer Wilson), Adele sings about the end of the relationship with her ex-boyfriend. The song received wide acclaim from music critics, who chose the song as a highlight of 21 and praised the lyrics, its simple sound and Adele 's vocal performance. Following a well - received performance of the song at the 2011 Brit Awards, "Someone like You '' became Adele 's first number - one single in the UK and it stayed on the top of the chart for five weeks. The song also topped the charts in Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, Brazil, Italy, France and Switzerland, and has become Adele 's second number one in the US. With that achievement Adele became the first female British solo singer in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 to have two number ones from the same album. In July 2011, it became the first single of the decade to sell a million units in the UK and it was certified 3 × Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), as well as being certified 5 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in the US. An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Jake Nava and filmed in Paris, France. The video showed Adele walking alone through the streets with a sad look on her face. Critics praised the video for being simple and perfect for the sound of the song. Adele performed the song on several award and television shows including the 2011 Brit Awards, 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and the song was played on the ABC hit show Grey 's Anatomy. She added the song to the set list of her second tour Adele Live. The live performances of the song were heavily praised by music critics and fans. The song has been covered by Katy Perry, Taio Cruz, the cast of the series Glee, and several other artists. In a list voted for by the public in conjunction with the Official Charts Company 's 60th anniversary, "Someone like You '' was voted the third-most favourite number - one single of the last 60 years in the UK, with Michael Jackson 's "Billie Jean '' voted number two and Queen 's "Bohemian Rhapsody '' as number one. "Someone like You '' is the 36th - best - selling single in the history of the UK Singles Chart. As a critically successful song, "Someone like You '' appeared on many year - end lists about the best songs of 2011. "Someone like You '' was the first recipient of the Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance, at the 54th Grammy Awards, held on 12 February 2012. As of 2015, it is the third most downloaded single of all - time in the UK and the fourth best - selling single of the 21st century. "Someone like You '' is about a boyfriend who broke up with Adele. She wrote it with American songwriter and producer Dan Wilson. It was one of the last written for 21. The track, which epitomizes the lyrical content of 21, summarizes the now defunct relationship that the record is all about. Adele has openly discussed the genesis of it saying, "Well, I wrote that song because I was exhausted from being such a bitch, with ' Rolling in the Deep ' or ' Rumour Has It '... I was really emotionally drained from the way I was portraying him, because even though I 'm very bitter and regret some parts of it, he 's still the most important person that 's ever been in my life, and ' Someone like You, ' I had to write it to feel OK with myself and OK with the two years I spent with him. And when I did it, I felt so freed. '' Adele revealed that she was struggling emotionally when she composed it: "When I was writing it I was feeling pretty miserable and pretty lonely, which I guess kind of contradicts ' Rolling in the Deep '. Whereas that was about me saying, ' I 'm going to be fine without you ', this is me on my knees really. '' She discussed further the inspiration of the song: "I can imagine being about 40 and looking for him again, only to turn up and find that he 's settled with a beautiful wife and beautiful kids and he 's completely happy... and I 'm still on my own. The song 's about that and I 'm scared at the thought of that. '' Adele had said that she began writing it on her acoustic guitar in the wake of the break - up of her 18 - month relationship with the 30 - year - old man she thought she would marry. A few months after their split, he was engaged to someone else. "We were so intense I thought we would get married. But that was something he never wanted... So when I found out he does want that with someone else, it was just the horrible - est feeling ever. But after I wrote it, I felt more at peace. It set me free... I did n't think it would resonate... with the world! I 'm never gon na write a song like that again. I think that 's the song I 'll be known for. '' She also said that "I wrote that song on the end of my bed. I had a cold. I was waiting for my bath to run. I 'd found out that he 'd got engaged to someone else. '' Adele later collaborated with famed musician and producer Dan Wilson to write "Someone like You '' which was one of the final songs composed for the album. Prior to meeting with Wilson, Adele said she wrote some of the lyrics using her acoustic guitar. The two sat around the piano for two days and brainstormed various melodies and lyrics, and ultimately decided to keep the musical production sparse: "We just wrote it on the piano and then we recorded it when it was written. It was n't sort of like recording it and listening to it thinking ' where can we go next? ' It was really old school. '' During an interview with Billboard, Wilson stated that while writing the song, they wanted to make it as personal as possible. He added "We did n't try to make it open - ended so it could apply to ' anybody. ' We tried to make it as personal as possible. She may not have had a melodic hook or a specific lyrical idea, but she always knew what she wanted to say. She definitely had a master plan. '' The song was recorded at Harmony Studios in West Hollywood, California with Wilson playing piano. Philip Allen engineered in the studio. The mixing was done by Tom Elmhirst and Dan Parry while the mastering was finished by Tom Coyne. According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony Music Publishing, "Someone like You '' is a slow tempo of 68 beats per minute. Written in common time, the song is in the key of A major. Adele 's vocal range spans from F ♯ to E during the song. A slow, plaintive ballad pairing Adele 's voice with a looping piano line, "Someone like You '' is the lyrical opposite of "Rolling in the Deep '' on which the singer narrates coming to terms with the end of the relationship: "Nevermind, I 'll find someone like you / I wish nothing but the best for you, too / Do n't forget me, I beg / I 'll remember you said / Sometimes it lasts in love, but sometimes it hurts instead. '' According to Sean Fennessey of The Village Voice, the singer 's "nuanced '' voice goes up a full octave and "into a near - shrieked whisper '' as she sings parts of the chorus. However, she "rebounds and gathers herself '', and her voice descends into its fuller and more melancholy state. Critics praised its introspective lyrics and maturity. "Someone like You '' has been compared to the song "Hometown Glory '' (2008) from the album 19. John Murphy of MusicOMH said that the song "casts Adele as the spurned lover, turning up outside her ex 's house, now moved on and settled down, begging for a second chance. '' According to Aamir Yaqub of Soul Culture, "Talking of a lost love, this an extremely touching track with a vocal performance that makes the narrative almost tangible... It really captures the experience of the story and puts it across in both a credible and incredible fashion. '' Cameron Adams of Herald Sun called the song a "spine - tingling sparse piano ballad. '' Lyrically, the song talks about the end of Adele 's first "real relationship '' with her long - time friend and lover and it shows her confronting his marriage. At the beginning of the song, she sings the lines "I heard that you 're settled down / That you found a girl and you 're married now. I heard that your dreams came true / Guess she gave you things I could n't give to you '' with a softly voice and accompanied just by a simple piano melody. The lyrics of "Someone like You '' are talking about what once was and what could have been as stated by a writer of Daily Herald. Finding the strength to bounce back from hardship and heartache, Adele sings the lines, "Never mind, I 'll find someone like you. I wish nothing but the best for you, too / Do n't forget me, I beg, I remember you said / Sometimes it lasts in love but sometimes it hurts instead. '' Talking about the meaning and the composition of the song, Jer Fairall of PopMatters said: "The song 's subject -- Adele mentally addressing an old lover who has since found happiness elsewhere -- is familiar, but the detail she colors it with are vibrantly tactile and resonant, from the sense - memory setting of ' we were born and raised in a summer haze ' to her recollection of his cruel kiss - off line ' I remember you said, ' sometimes it lasts in love and sometimes it hurts instead ' ' and how she comes to take solace in the statement as an empowering mantra. '' Upon release, the song received acclaim from a wide variety of publications and has been viewed as a highlight of 21. In a track - by - track review for 21, Joanne Dorken of MTV UK noted the track 's placement at the end of the album saying, "It maybe a cliché, but Adele has saved the best until last with this heartfelt and enchanting piano ballad... It 's sad but beautiful and displays Adele at her best -- marking the perfect end to what has been in our eyes, a faultless album. '' Will Dean of The Guardian claimed the song was the album 's "highlight '', characterizing it as "gorgeous ''. That was somehow echoed by Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole who also called the song "gorgeous ''. NME 's Parkin Chris also marked the song as a highlight, describing it as "surprisingly weighty '' and comparing it favorably to the work of American Country blues singer Karen Dalton. Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media selected "Someone like You '' as a song of the day, claiming it served as a reaffirmation of popular music: "Sometimes, pop music can still break your heart. '' Writing for BBC Online, Ian Wade noted that the "final track Someone Like You, just voice and piano, is an actual thing of beauty, placing the listener in one of those moments where you feel you 're in the presence of a future standard. '' Bill Lamb of About.com wrote that "the piano melody is gorgeous and combined with Adele 's heartfelt reading of her words, the effect is highly emotional. You can imagine it being both honked through by talent show contestants and transcended by veterans alike. '' Lamb went to write that the song is one of the "top songs of 2011 '' and that "romantic pain has rarely been so utterly beautiful. '' Jer Fairall of PopMatters called the song an "absolute magic '' and praised Adele 's performance by saying, "Though it is unquestionably her finest vocal showcase to date, it is less remarkable for its more powerful moments than for the small ones where her voice dips, with rueful melancholy on the line ' I heard that your dreams came true ' or cracks on the ' I beg ' in the chorus, like she 's startled at the revelation of her own vulnerability. '' He further called her vocal performance of the song "stunning '' and "finally worthy of her talents ''. Writing for the website No Ripcord, Gary McGinley said that the song "has an aching beauty and the hallmarks of a modern standard. '' He further added that it "sounds poised to soundtrack atmospheric TV trailers over the coming months. '' A writer of URB magazine called "Someone like You '' "a heart - wrencher made all the more real by reeling phrasing and bare - voiced pleading, ' I wish nothing but the best for you, too. ' '' John Murphy of MusicOMH categorized "Someone like You '' and "Turning Tables '' as "the two best songs on the album. '' He concluded that the song was "desperately sad and utterly, utterly gorgeous. '' Bary Walters of Spin wrote that on "the piano - led finale, she vows, ' I 'll find someone like you, ' as if that 's progress. It 's a statement that 's utterly WTF and yet true to the cyclical nature of psychological damage. '' Sputnikmusic 's Joseph Viney called the song "an ode to stalking with a perverse attitude that lies underneath the fragile composition, looks set to become the soundtrack to a million messy break - ups. '' Allison Stewart of The Washington Post put the song on her list "Recommended tracks ''. At the 2011 Q Awards, "Someone like You '' was nominated in the category for Best Track. The song was also nominated in the category for Best Song at the 2011 Music of Black Origin Awards. "Someone like You '' won the first Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance, at the 54th Grammy Awards, which were held on 12 February 2012. The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll ranked "Someone like You '' at number nine to find the best music of 2011; Adele 's previous single "Rolling in the Deep '' topped the same critics ' poll. "Someone like You '' achieved international commercial success, topping the record charts in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, as well as reaching the top ten in many other countries. The song debuted at number 36 on the UK Singles Chart in late - January 2011 due to strong digital downloads from 21. Following a live performance of the song at the 2011 BRIT Awards, it climbed 46 places from the previous week to number one, beating Lady Gaga 's single "Born This Way '' (2011), although it was at number 18 on the mid-week chart update. While "Someone like You '' was at number one on the chart, Adele 's previous single, "Rolling in the Deep '' was placed at number four. With that achievement, Adele has become the first living artist since The Beatles in 1964 who simultaneously had two top five hits in both the charts (21 and 19 were also in the top five on the UK Albums Chart). It stayed atop the chart for four consecutive weeks before slipping to number two on 26 March. Following a performance on Comic Relief, It has been certified 2 × Platinum by the BPI, denoting shipments of 1,200,000 copies. On 5 July 2011, it was announced that the song had sold 1 million copies in the UK, becoming the first single of the decade to reach the threshold and the sixteenth song released in the 21st century to do so. It became the biggest selling single of 2011 in the United Kingdom, selling over 1,240,000 copies. By June 2015, UK sales stood at 1,570,000 copies, making "Someone like You '' the second best - selling single of the 2010s and the third - best - seller of the 21st century. As of November 2015, the song has sold 1,584,000 copies in the UK. In Finland, "Someone like You '' debuted at number 14 in October 2011 and rose to number one in its 12th week in early 2012 -- the week when Adele had three simultaneous top - ten songs ("Rolling in the Deep '' at number two and "Set Fire to the Rain '' at number seven). In France, despite not having been certified, "Someone like You '' has sold 350,800 copies and became one of the best - selling singles in the country. The song debuted at number 47 on the Australian Singles Chart. "Someone like You '' remained at the top position of the chart for seven consecutive weeks and it was certified 4 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). It has also peaked at number one in New Zealand for five weeks, ending an 11 - week run at number one for "Party Rock Anthem ''. The single sold 51,000 copies its first week in the US, debuting at number 65. The single re-entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 97 on the week ending 30 July 2011. Upon its radio release in the United States, and a surge in popularity following her performance at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, "Someone like You '' climbed 18 positions to number one from number 19, and became her second consecutive number - one single on the Hot 100 and making Adele the first ever British female singer to spawn two consecutive number - one singles from the same album. After the performance, "Someone like You '' moved from number 11 to number one on the Digital Songs chart with 275,000 downloads sold (191 % increase), according to Nielsen SoundScan. On Radio Songs, the track moved from number 42 to number 19 with 46 million all - format audience impressions (59 % increase), according to Nielsen BDS. The song made Hot 100 history by achieving the biggest jump to number 1 in the chart 's 53 - year history that was not spurred by the release of a single. "Someone like You '' became the first strictly voice - and - piano ballad to top the Billboard Hot 100. The song also became the first "unquestionably slow song '' to top the Hot 100 chart since Rihanna 's song, "Take a Bow '' (2008). It topped the chart for 1 week and then slipped from number 1 to number 2 being replaced by Maroon 5 and Christina Aguilera 's "Moves Like Jagger ''. A few days after the release of its video, on 6 October 2011, the song returned to number one and spent more 4 weeks at the top, where it was later replaced by "We Found Love '' by Rihanna featuring Calvin Harris. With "Rolling in the Deep '' spending 7 weeks at number one on the Hot 100 and "Someone like You '' spending 5 weeks, Adele is the first female solo artist to log 12 weeks at # 1 in a calendar year with two strictly solo recordings. Beyoncé, Monica and Mariah Carey also did it (in 2003, 1998 and 1995, respectively), if collaborations are included. As of October 2015, it has sold 6,000,000 downloads in the United States alone. The music video for the song was filmed in Paris, France, by English director Jake Nava who said: The location evokes style and romance. And shooting early in the morning allows you to focus on Adele in this lonely and emotional space. The video begins with a shot of a road in Paris and Adele is seen walking on it alone. She continues to walk and starts singing the song with a sad look as the camera makes circles and shots more locations in Paris including the Eiffel Tower. During the second chorus, Adele stops singing and pauses on the Pont Alexandre III to look over the Seine. She continues walking through the deserted streets during the bridge before finally entering a building in which she sees her ex-lover. After seeing her, he starts to walk away and several shots of Adele looking at him follow. The video premiered on MTV and Vevo on 29 September 2011, and as of December 2017, the video has received over 990 million views on YouTube. "Someone like You '' received glowing reviews from music critics. James Montgomery of MTV News called the video "a somber, black - and - white affair, featuring Adele wandering the early morning streets and pining for her long - lost love. It 's a perfect match for the song 's jaw - dropping emotional range -- raw and unfiltered and incredibly sad but also, in a lot of ways, beautiful and resolute. '' In another review of the video he praised its black - and - white shots saying that "director Jake Nava made the smart decision to shoot it in arty, smudgy black - and - white, which only adds to the clip 's desolate, haunted feel. '' He added that "there are no special effects, no camera tricks or elaborate choreography, because those are quick fixes '' and called Adele the "Queen of Pain. '' A writer of the website HitFix concluded that the video is "in keeping with the singer 's subdued style '' and added that its vibe fits with the "melancholy tune. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky called the video "quiet '' and said that "it 's just what you 'd want to see for this break - up heart - wrencher. '' Krista Wick of Entertainment Tonight praised the video for being "more than enough to accompany Adele 's soulful vocals. '' Amanda Dobbins of New York magazine concluded that "the secretly devastating video '' for "Someone like You '' will remind Adele 's ex-lover what he has done by leaving her. A writer of The Huffington Post praised the simplicity and the sadness in the video. Sarah Dean of the same publication called it an "uncomplicated, moving film '' and wrote, "the video is nothing more than Adele wandering around the deserted city of love alone, under its grey skies, singing her sorrowful notes, but because it 's her, we do n't need any more. '' That was somehow echoed by Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine who said that the video was "simply constructed as the song 's vocal - and - piano arrangement. '' Marc Hogan of Spin said that the scene in which Adele looks in the camera, "speak (s) for itself '' about the sadness in the video. Andrew Matson of The Seattle Times said, "the song of the year now has a simple, perfect video: Adele in Paris, singing and strolling, apparently processing the breakup detailed in the song 's lyrics. The look on her face during the ' I wish nothing but the best for you ' line is the best, just gutting, a real achievement how she plays it cold but not sarcastic. I think in times of emotional devastation, everyone wants stand on a bridge over the Seine on a cold day, squinting into the wind, sorting it out. '' A writer of Rolling Stone wrote: "this clip for the ballad ' Someone Like You ' sticks to the singer 's simple but emotionally direct approach with black - and - white footage that lingers on her subtly expressive face as she lip - synchs to the tune while walking along sad, grey city streets. '' Andrea Devaro of Long Island Press concluded, "its simplicity beautifully portrays the complexity of emotions invoked in the song. '' Leah Collins of Dose called Adele "' 60s bombshell glam '' and said that the video 's "simplicity is its strength. '' She added: "There 's something about streetlamps, cafes and the River Seine that lend an air of melancholic elegance to what would otherwise be just another walk of shame by a girl with two - day - old hair. Not everyone gets to indulge in moments as tragic but beautiful as a weepy solitary walk through Paris landmarks. But then, we do n't all have voices as tragic and beautiful as Adele 's either. '' A more mixed review was given by AOL 's Ashley Percival who called the video predictable and added "It 's all very pleasant, but after all this time, what 's the point? ''. Nicole Eggenberger of OK! wrote that Adele "created the perfect music video to go along with her hauntingly beautiful ballad '' and further described it as "simple yet stunning. '' Adele performed "Someone like You '' for the first time in November 2010 on the BBC music show. Later, with Jools Holland before the release of the album. As the performance finished, there was a notable stunned silence from the audience, before bursting into applause. Adele has since described this performance as a career defining moment. Later, she performed the song at the 2011 BRIT Awards held at The O2 Arena in London on 15 February 2011. She appeared on stage backed just by her pianist while "special effects were limited to a shower of glitter and Adele 's own tears, as she almost broke down delivering her lovelorn plea to an ex-boyfriend '' as stated by Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph. Speaking on the ITV2 after show, Adele explained why she had cried at the end of the performance saying, "I was really emotional by the end because I 'm quite overwhelmed by everything anyway, and then I had a vision of my ex, of him watching me at home and he 's going to be laughing at me because he knows I 'm crying because of him, with him thinking, ' Yep, she 's still wrapped around my finger '. Then everyone stood up, so I was overwhelmed. '' A writer of Daily Mirror said that "Adele stole the show (...) with her universally - praised performance of Someone Like You. '' Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph chose the song as a highlight on the show saying that Adele knocked "everyone for six with no bells and whistles, just a piano, her gorgeous voice and a monster song, Someone Like You. '' Later, the song was performed during a VH1 special called "Unplugged ''. Adele also performed the song at Jimmy Kimmel Live! on 24 February 2011. The same day she performed "Someone like You '' on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The singer also performed the song at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles on 28 August 2011. After being introduced by American singer Katy Perry, Adele appeared in a black scalloped lace dress by Barbara Tfank, and standing alone on the stage, only with her pianist behind her. Her hair was pulled back and a signature ponytail draped over one shoulder she sang the song and "did vocal aerobics and dripped her soulful, sultry sound over the dark ballad, while a transfixed audience watched her '' as stated by Kelley L. Carter of MTV. After the performance she received a standing ovation from fans and critics. According to USA Today 's Cindy Clark she "captivated the audience with her powerful performance ''. Wesley Case of The Baltimore Sun concluded, "Adele 's ' Someone Like You ' could make a tough guy weep. Her tone was gorgeous. '' Rating the performance with A, Claire Suddath of Time magazine said "it 's heartening to hear a truly talented woman sing a mournful torch song for someone who has left her for someone better. And if her stellar performance, accompanied by only a piano, is n't enough to melt your heart, then her nervous wave to the audience at the end definitely will. '' A writer of Los Angeles Times called her vocals "strong and direct, and tackles grief by moving with the melody rather than trying to pummel it '' and added that it was "less - is - more performance, a tactic award - show producers rarely indulge in, but Adele needs few adornments to impress. '' A writer of Rolling Stone said that Adele brought a "big dollop of elegance to the VMAs with a spare, moving rendition of ' Someone Like You ' '' and added that "amid all the pop art glitz, it was a refreshing palate cleanser. '' Gina Sepre of E! Online praised the performance saying, "When Adele took the stage to perform her understatedly stripped - down and hugely impactful performance of ' Someone Like You, ' there were no pyrotechnics, no acrobatics, no lavender hair, and no autotune. And guess what? We did n't miss it. There may be hope yet for MTV to remember just what the ' M ' in their name actually stands for. '' Writing about the performance, Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound concluded that "Someone like You '', "highlighted the power a bare - bones, booming performance can have in netting people 's attention. Simple is not a bad word, pop music. '' Giving the performance an A+, Lindsey Ward of Jam! said: "When I learned British chart - topper Adele would be performing at Sunday 's awards I thought, ' Whew -- at least we 're guaranteed five solid, meaningful minutes of quality music television '. I was right; her frill - free performance of breakup ballad Someone Like You was just that. '' Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly highlighted the performance calling it "one of the best performances of the show. '' Another writer of the same publication gave the performance a grade of A+ and wrote: "It takes a real super power to make the seizure - inducing lasers stop, and that power 's name is Adele. The broadcast temporarily abandoned its frantic mission of nonstop overstimulation, bowing to the 23 - year - old English soulstress 's soaring, nearly a cappella (well done, subtle piano man) rendition of her heart - wrecking ballad "Someone Like You. '' In a modest black dress and with a few spare hand movements, she delivered all the shock and awe of a million - watt showstopper. Who needs special effects, when God gave you your own? Even Britney Spears looked like she had to fix her mascara when it was all over. '' "Someone like You '' was also added to the set list of the second concert tour by Adele, Adele Live, and it was performed during the encore. While reviewing a concert by Adele, Joanne Dorken of MTV UK, said "There was n't a dry eye in the house as Adele powered her way through the ballad, encouraging the audience to help her sing the somewhat beautiful, yet emotional chorus -- giving everyone goosebumps. The sounds of Someone Like You bounced off every wall and tugged at every heart - string, making it a truly special moment and something that every member of the Apollo crowd will never forget. '' Jim Harrington of San Jose Mercury News chose the song as a highlight on the show adding that the song showed "her supreme vocal talent. '' Amber Riley, Naya Rivera and Heather Morris sang a mash - up of "Someone like You '' and Adele 's other song "Rumour Has It '' (2011) during Glee 's episode "Mash Off '' which aired on 15 November. However, the cover was posted online on 10 November. Jenna Mullins of E! Online praised the cover saying that it will "knock your socks right off '' and a writer for OK! described it as "AMAZE - ing ''. Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone noted that the cover was "one of the greatest things the show has done (so far). '' Similarly, Billboard 's Raye Votta commented that the cover was "arguably the best performance ' Glee ' has done since ' Do n't Stop Believin ' '. '' Their version of the song peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 while selling 160,000 digital downloads in its first week and became the fifth highest digital sales week by a Glee Cast single. As of March 2015, it remains the ninth best - selling Glee Cast recording in the show 's history, having sold 413,000 copies in the United States. In Canada, the song made a "Hot Shot Debut '' on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 12, selling 14,000 downloads. The song peaked at # 35 on the UK Singles Chart, the first Glee recording to make the UK top 40 since "I Feel Pretty / Unpretty ''. Country musician David Nail recorded a cover of "Someone like You '', which was posted on his YouTube account on 15 May 2012. The song is featured on Nail 's three - track digital EP, 1979 which was released on 17 July 2012. Nail 's version debuted at number 57 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart in September 2012, reaching as high as number 52. Metalcore band Ice Nine Kills released a cover version in 2012. Credits are taken from 21 liner notes. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone

star and the forces of evil season 1

List of Star vs. the Forces of Evil episodes - wikipedia Star vs. the Forces of Evil is an American animated television series created by Daron Nefcy and produced by Disney Television Animation. The series centers on Star Butterfly, a magical princess from the dimension of Mewni who is sent to Earth by her parents the Queen and King Butterfly, when they decide she should learn to wield magic away from their kingdom. As an exchange student on Earth, she boards the house of Marco Diaz whom she befriends as they both attend high school. Before the series was picked up, Nefcy had worked as an artist for Disney 's Wander Over Yonder and Nickelodeon 's Robot and Monster. The first episode of the series premiered on January 18, 2015, on Disney Channel. Succeeding episodes have premiered on Disney XD starting March 30, 2015. The series had been renewed for a second season a month before its Disney XD premiere. In March 2016 it was renewed for a third season prior to its second - season premiere scheduled for July that year. The episode "Bon Bon the Birthday Clown '' marked the mid-season finale for the second season, according to Nefcy. The second half of the season aired entirely in February 2017 on weekdays, with either a half - episode segment or a full episode premiering each day. In the same month, the series was renewed for a fourth season. A two - hour television film called The Battle for Mewni, which comprises the first four episodes of the third season, premiered on July 15, 2017, and the succeeding third - season episodes began airing on November 6, 2017. Star and Marco are trapped inside a tool shed by Ludo 's army. As Marco tries to fashion something to fight them off, he recounts how he tried to cheer up Star because she left her phone number for her crush, a keytar - playing student named Oskar, but he has not called her back. Star experiences "mewberty '', that is, her skin breaks out in hearts whenever she is near boys. Although Marco thinks it 's much like the Earthling condition, Star 's is more extreme. She sprouts hearts all over her body, and transforms into a butterfly creature that captures boys and steals them away. Marco turns to Glossaryck, a genie inside Star 's book of magic, for advice on how to stop her. After making prank calls on Star 's magic mirror, Marco, Alfonzo, Ferguson, and Star must go to Pixtopia: Land Of The Pixies and pay the bill. When they ca n't pay it, they are forced to work in a mine shaft. The Pixie Empress flirts with Ferguson. Star 's ex-boyfriend Tom invites her to the Blood Moon Ball, an Underworld event that occurs once every 667 years. Tom claims he has turned over a new leaf, having hired an anger management consultant. Marco does not believe Tom has changed but Star decides to go anyway. When Marco disrupts Tom 's plan to take Star for himself under the Blood Moon 's light, Tom reverts to his old self. Following yet another victory over Ludo and his minions, Marco and Star eat at a Chinese restaurant. Marco tricks Star into thinking the sayings in fortune cookies can really predict the future. Meanwhile, Ludo hires a monster named Toffee to shape up his minions. They come up with a plan to take advantage of Star 's fortune cookie obsession. Star freezes time with her wand so that Marco can appear at Echo Creek Academy on time for his morning greeting nod with his crush Jackie Lynn Thomas. But when she is unable to cancel out the effects, she and Marco visit the Plains of Time in order to get Father Time to restart time again. Star gets an unexpected visit from her father who had been kicked out of the house for not picking up after himself. After getting excited over Earth activities such as using a flush toilet and playing miniature golf, he ends up overstaying his welcome. He hosts a party with his inter-dimensional friends, but it is soon crashed by a sun character named Helios. Star and Marco go undercover as new princess students in order to break Flying Princess Pony Head out of St. Olga 's on her birthday. They discover that Pony Head has been brainwashed to be a compliant princess and try to evade the robot guards and the reform school 's headmistress Miss Heinous. Guidance counselor Mr. Candle tells Star that she is fated to be Queen of Mewni. She has to read her mother 's book on how to act like a queen but she gets frustrated and decides to dress up in a more rebellious punk style. Meanwhile, Marco, who is displeased of Candle 's career suggestion of being the head janitor on Garbage Island, discovers that Mr. Candle is actually in cahoots with Tom, who planned to ensure "Starco '' does n't happen. He confronts Mr. Candle but is captured by Tom, and must duel Tom to get his freedom. Star throws her wand by accident and it ends up in the mouth of a growling dog who refuses to let it go. She has to take care of the dog and find its owner. Meanwhile, Marco struggles to get a straw into his juice box and has to take care of the laser puppies. She eventually discovers the dog named Willoughby is actually an extra-dimensional being who did n't like life on her planet, so Star has her adopted by a strange lady named Lydia. After getting a sugar high from seasoning her burrito with sugar, Star sets off some magic that accidentally causes a sign to fall and crush a police cruiser. While trying to evade the police, Star encounters a woman by the river bank named Brigid who likes making things out of discarded hair and taking care of injured animals. She later encounters an underwater sea creature who tells her that hiding out is a good thing, but it is revealed the creature is actually her own conscience trying to convince her that she has n't made a big mistake. Missing her family and friends, she returns to a very worried Marco and turns herself in to the police who have her wash the other squad cars as part of her police - supervised community service. While foraging for donuts that are being tossed at the end of the day, Star encounters Mina Loveberry, a magical girl from Mewni who is Star 's idol. Mina has been living as a homeless person on Earth. Star follows Mina and tries to train in her ways, which annoys Marco. At a park, when Mina announces she plans to take over the world, the people decide to hold a vote on whether Mina should rule, and Star is left to break the tie. Star, Marco, Pony Head, and a bush - themed female named Kelly go to an unidentified desert - themed dimension to purchase a Goblin Dog (a goblin version of a hot dog). They end up having a hard time when they must deal with the various jobs of the goblin vendor Roy and the many lines that lead to the Goblin Dog truck. Tom invites Marco to a movie marathon featuring Mackie Hands, Marco 's favorite kung - fu film star. They start to become friends on the way there after learning they both like Mackie Hands and a band called Love Sentence, but when Marco wants to leave to catch the marathon, Tom refuses to let him go, and gets angry, voiding his chance to earn an anger management graduation badge. Tom apologizes and tries to win back Marco with a Love Sentence song, and then raises Mackie Hands from the dead. Although they can not get into the theatre, Tom and Marco watch Mackie lay a beatdown on the movie 's security guards. After Mr. Diaz fails to scare some kids with his haunted house, Star and Janna summon Hungry Larry, reputed to be a very scary spirit, to haunt the house. Janna goes missing and screams attract the kids back to the house. But the kids get scared and go missing; Star and Marco are attacked. Mr. Diaz arrives to find Hungry Larry has eaten everyone, and rescues them. Spider With a Top Hat has been entertaining Star 's wand monsters at a party. Afterwards, he tries to learn a fighting move where he tries to blast through a wall. Despite getting training from Narwahl and Rock, he is unable to break through the wall. The other monsters are summoned for a fight but they are beaten up. Encouraged by Rock 's words, Spider is finally called to fight a monster '. Star and Marco attend the birthday party for Marco 's sensei. Star becomes suspicious of magician - for - hire Preston Change - O, who, after every magic trick he does, seems to be taking something spiritual from the person, and that his hat is becoming longer and longer. She discovers that Preston has the ability to steal joy from people, so she warns him not to do so or else she 'll blast him, but Preston does it anyway. When Star tells everyone what is happening, the audience is angry with Star for ruining the magic show and leaves. Sensei talks about his feelings and then informs Star and Marco that he put Preston in the trunk, but when they open it, Preston has disappeared. Star 's parents send a fairy godmother named Baby to evaluate Star, who takes the task seriously, as failing the eval would mean she would have to return to Mewni. At first, Star cleans up her room, shoving stuff in closets or dimensional pockets, but when Baby starts asking Star questions, and things start falling out of the pockets, Star 's responses are met with the same neutral phrase "Interesting. '' followed by jotting down of notes. Meanwhile Marco tries to help Star by bringing Baby food. Baby then asks Star to bring her an apple using magic, but Star fails to do the task despite repeated tries. Baby concludes that Star failed, but Star tries one last time and ends up using the apple seeds to grow an apple tree which drops an apple for Baby. Star 's parents learn from Baby that despite not being organized, losing the book of spells, and failing to do simple spells, Star has magic potential way ahead of when her mother was her age, and might even be comparable to Queen Eclipsa. Marco borrows Star 's Dimensional Scissors to find a place to walk the laser puppies, but he soon becomes accustomed to its conveniences, opening a bunch of portals from his bed to access things. Hekapoo, the forger of all of the Dimensional Scissors, pulls Marco into her dimension and confiscates the Scissors as they did not belong to him or Star (Pony Head had stolen them and gave them to Star). Marco must earn the scissors by having to blow out the flame atop Hekapoo 's head. Star goes to Hekapoo 's dimension to recover Marco, who had chased Hekapoo for 16 years before winning the challenge. When they return, Marco reverts to his teenage body as only eight minutes have passed on Earth time. Star is called to solve a problem in Miss Skullnick 's math class, but she refuses to do it. She tries to cast some magic to get out of it but ends up in a time loop. However with each iteration, the scenario is slightly different. Star goes to Father Time 's dimension, but Father Time is too busy to help her, and she gets advice from Omnitraxus Prime, who is in charge of space - time. Star must solve the problem or her world will fall apart. Pony Head tells Star the bad news that the Bounce Lounge, their favorite partying venue, is closing. Star and Pony Head round up their former Bounce Lounge posse. They start partying and raise enough funds to save the place, however the owner Milly tells them that she is still closing the place because she is tired from having partied over 5,000 years. Afterwards, the Bounce Crew members and Marco take a group picture in a photo booth that Ponyhead took from the lounge. Star surprises Marco with tickets to a Love Sentence concert, but also invites Jackie. Star and Jackie start bonding from wearing similar t - shirts and riding skateboards to the concert where they stop and help an animal in the creek. Marco starts to feel bad about the mishaps he caused and wants them to go on without him, but Jackie and Star convince him otherwise. At the concert, everyone is having fun until couples start kissing, and when Jackie and Marco engage in a kiss, Star decides to let the two be. As Star leaves the concert, she fires a blast of tainted magic, destroying a billboard. The songstrel Ruberiot is tasked to write a song about Star for the Mewnian tradition of Song Day, but Star is reluctant to participate because it portrays princesses as being perfect. When Ruberiot visits, Star at first leaves him with Marco and runs away, but after coming back and blows off steam about her hatred of princess songs, Ruberiot is upset. When Ruberiot shares that he wanted to write about the real Star and not do another perfect princess song and decides to plug Star 's name into her mom 's song since she refused to help him do his job, Star finally agrees to share everything about her life. Meanwhile, Queen Butterfly takes a secret trip to visit Ludo 's parents, but discovers something is very wrong about Ludo. On Song Day, Ruberiot starts the song like the old perfect princess style, but then changes to a pop song that makes Mewnians excited. But when he sings lyrics about how Star lost the Book of Spells and Glossaryck, that the queen and king had hidden this fact, and that Star has a crush on Marco, the Mewnian crowd becomes angry at Star 's family for lying to them.

who said a rose by any other name would smell just as sweet

A rose by any other name would smell as sweet - wikipedia "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet '' is a popular reference to William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet, in which Juliet seems to argue that it does not matter that Romeo is from her family 's rival house of Montague, that is, that he is named "Montague ''. The reference is often used to imply that the names of things do not affect what they really are. This formulation is, however, a paraphrase of Shakespeare 's actual language. Juliet compares Romeo to a rose saying that if he were not named Romeo he would still be handsome and be Juliet 's love. This states that if he were not Romeo, then he would not be a Montague and she would be able to get married with no problem at all. In Act II, Scene II of the play, the line is said by Juliet in reference to Romeo 's house, Montague which would imply that his name means nothing and they should be together. Juliet: O Romeo, Romeo! wherefore art thou Romeo? Deny thy father and refuse thy name; Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love, And I 'll no longer be a Capulet Romeo: (Aside) Shall I hear more, or shall I speak at this? Juliet: ' Tis but thy name that is my enemy; Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What 's Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What 's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other word would smell as sweet; So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call 'd, Retain that dear perfection which he owes Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name, And for that name which is no part of thee Take all myself. Romeo: I take thee at thy word: Call me but love, and I 'll be new baptized; Henceforth I never will be Romeo. Although it is one of the most famous quotes from the work of Shakespeare, no printing in Shakespeare 's lifetime presents the text in the form known to modern readers: it is a skillful amalgam assembled by Edmond Malone, an editor in the eighteenth century. Romeo and Juliet was published twice, in two very different versions. The first version of 1597, named "Q1 '', is believed to have been an unauthorised pirate copy or bad quarto provided to the printer by actors off the books: a memorial reconstruction. It may also, separately, represent a version of the play improved and trimmed after rehearsals for more dramatic impact. It runs: ' Tis but thy name that is mine enemy: What 's Montague? It is not hand nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part. What 's in a name? That which we call a rose, By any other name would smell as sweet. Q2, a superior 1599 printing, is believed to be a more official version printed from Shakespeare 's original manuscript although perhaps not with Shakespeare 's personal input. This is believed since there are textual oddities such as "false starts '' for speeches that were presumably not clearly crossed out enough for the printer to spot. It uses the text: ' Tis but thy name that is my enemy: Thou art thyself, though not a Montague, What 's Montague? It is not hand nor foot, Nor arm nor face. O be some other name, belonging to a man! What 's in a name? That which we call a rose, By any other word would smell as sweet. Malone reasoned that the awkward half - line of ' belonging to a man ' could be reconnected into verse through correction with Q1. Modern editors have generally concurred.

meaning of song once twice three times a lady

Three Times a Lady - wikipedia "Three Times a Lady '' is a song by American soul group the Commodores, from their 1978 album Natural High. It was produced by James Anthony Carmichael and the Commodores. It was also the only Motown song to reach the Top 10 on the US Billboard Hot 100 that year. It was the Commodores ' first Billboard Hot 100 number - one hit, topping the chart for two weeks on August 12, 1978 and it also went to number one on the soul chart for two weeks. The song spent three weeks at # 1 on the adult contemporary chart. The song also reached # 1 on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart for four weeks, and was one of only a few Motown singles to reach the top spot in the UK Singles Chart, staying there for five weeks. The song was also successful in Ireland, staying at # 1 in the charts for three consecutive weeks. It was # 1 in Australia for five weeks, and reached # 2 in New Zealand. The original Commodores ' version of the song was included as the final track on Lionel Richie 's greatest hits compilation album Back To Front, released in 1992. In an appearance on The Early Show on June 12, 2009, Lionel Richie said he was inspired to write the song because of a comment his father made about his mother. His father said to his mother "I love you. I want you. I need you. Forever, '' hence the three times a lady.

when do bank statements come in the mail

Bank statement - wikipedia A bank statement or account statement is a summary of financial transactions which have occurred over a given period on a bank account held by a person or business with a financial institution. Bank statements have historically been and continue to be typically printed on one or several pieces of paper and either mailed directly to the account holder, or kept at the financial institution 's local branch for pick - up. In recent years there has been a shift towards paperless, electronic statements, and some financial institutions offer direct download into account holders accounting software. Some ATMs offer the possibility to print, at any time, a condensed version of a bank statement, commonly called a transaction history, or a transaction history may be viewed on the financial institution 's website or available via telephone banking. ⟨ ⟩ = = Paper statements = = Historically, bank statements were paper statements produced monthly, quarterly or even annually. Since the introduction of computers in banks in the 1960s, bank statements have generally been produced monthly. Bank statements for accounts with small transaction volumes, such as investments or savings accounts, are usually produced less frequently. Depending on the financial institution, bank statements may also include certain features such as the cancelled cheques (or their images) that cleared through the account during the statement period. Some financial institutions use the occasion of posting bank statements to include notices such as changes in fees or interest rates or to include promotional material. Today, the monthly mailing of bank statements is the norm in many countries. It is not customary in some countries, such as Japan, where individual account holders are expected to keep track of deposits, withdrawals, and balances using their own passbooks at ATMs. With the wider access to the Internet and online banking, bank statements (also known as electronic statements or e-statements) can be viewed online, and downloaded or printed by the customer. To reduce the cost of postage and the generation of paper bank statements, some financial institutions encourage their customers to receive bank statements electronically, for example by charging a fee for paper statements. This may be as attachments to emails or, as a security measure, as a reminder that a new statement is available on the financial institution 's website. Whether such statements are transmitted as attachments or from the website, they are commonly generated in PDF format, to reduce the ability of the recipient to electronically alter the statement. Due to identity theft concerns, an electronic statement may not be seen as a dangerous alternative against physical theft as it does not contain tangible personal information, and does not require extra safety measures of disposal such as shredding. However, an electronic statement can be easier to obtain than a physical one through computer fraud, data interception and / or theft of storage media.

who produces the most wool in the world

Wool - wikipedia Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool mainly consists of protein together with a few percent lipids. In this regard it is chemically quite distinct from the more dominant textile, cotton, which is mainly cellulose. Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber: kemp, medullated fibers and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. Wool 's scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a high specific heat coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation. Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped and elastic. The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while coarser wool like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb almost one - third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame spread, a lower rate of heat release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip; it forms a char which is insulating and self - extinguishing, and it contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets. Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire. Wool is considered by the medical profession to be allergenic. Sheep shearing is the process by which the woolen fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four main categories: fleece (which makes up the vast bulk), broken, bellies, and locks. The quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified person called a wool classer groups wools of similar gradings together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor. Wool straight off a sheep, known as "greasy wool '' or "wool in the grease '', contains a high level of valuable lanolin, as well as the sheep 's dead skin and sweat residue, and generally also contains pesticides and vegetable matter from the animal 's environment. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali in specialized equipment. In north west England, special potash pits were constructed to produce potash used in the manufacture of a soft soap for scouring locally produced white wool. In commercial wool, vegetable matter is often removed by chemical carbonization. In less - processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand and some of the lanolin left intact through the use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water - resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in cosmetic products such as hand creams. Raw wool has many impurities; vegetable matter, sand, dirt and yolk which is a mixture of suint (sweat), grease, urine stains and dung locks. The sheeps body yields many types of wool, with differing strengths, thicknesses, length of staple and impurities. The raw wool (greasy) is processed into ' top '. ' Worsted top ' requires strong straight and parallel fibres. The quality of wool is determined by its fiber diameter, crimp, yield, color, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price. Merino wool is typically 3 -- 5 inches in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns). The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically more coarse, and has fibers 1.5 to 6 in (38 to 152 mm) in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break. Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool 's diameter in microns and also its style. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example: Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling. The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP, which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British wool as applied by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP. In the United States, three classifications of wool are named in the Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939. "Wool '' is "the fiber from the fleece of the sheep or lamb or hair of the Angora or Cashmere goat (and may include the so - called specialty fibers from the hair of the camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuna) which has never been reclaimed from any woven or felted wool product ''. "Virgin wool '' and "new wool '' are also used to refer to such never used wool. There are two categories of recycled wool (also called reclaimed or shoddy wool). "Reprocessed wool '' identifies "wool which has been woven or felted into a wool product and subsequently reduced to a fibrous state without having been used by the ultimate consumer ''. "Reused wool '' refers to such wool that has been used by the ultimate consumer. Wild sheep were more hairy than woolly. Although sheep were domesticated some 9,000 to 11,000 years ago, archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC, with the earliest woven wool garments having only been dated to two to three thousand years later. Woolly - sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, ca. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish bog. Prior to invention of shears -- probably in the Iron Age -- the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather clothed the European population; cotton from India was a curiosity of which only naturalists had heard, and silks, imported along the Silk Road from China, were extravagant luxury goods. Pliny the Elder records in his Natural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with superior fleeces, but which required special care. In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, the Champagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centers such as Provins. The network developed by the annual fairs meant the woolens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca, Spain, and even Constantinople. The wool trade developed into serious business, a generator of capital. In the 13th century, the wool trade became the economic engine of the Low Countries and central Italy. By the end of the 14th century, Italy predominated, though Italian production turned to silk in the 16th century. Both industries, based on the export of English raw wool, were rivaled only by the 15th - century sheepwalks of Castile and were a significant source of income to the English crown, which in 1275 had imposed an export tax on wool called the "Great Custom ''. The importance of wool to the English economy can be seen in the fact that since the 14th century, the presiding officer of the House of Lords has sat on the "Woolsack '', a chair stuffed with wool. Economies of scale were instituted in the Cistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early 13th centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of the Black Death, English textile industries accounted for about 10 % of English wool production. The English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration, fine English woolens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by the Navigation Acts; in 1699, the English crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself. A great deal of the value of woolen textiles was in the dyeing and finishing of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the "putting - out '' system, or "cottage industry '', and the Verlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, once perpetuated in the production of Harris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the 13th - century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275. The system effectively bypassed the guilds ' restrictions. Before the flowering of the Renaissance, the Medici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco Datini, the "merchant of Prato '', established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks of Castile shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the 16th century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market -- based on sheep of Spanish origin -- did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. The Industrial Revolution introduced mass production technology into wool and wool cloth manufacturing. Australia 's colonial economy was based on sheep raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool for Bradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woolens production. Due to decreasing demand with increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40 % drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat. Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble - dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the "scales '' from the fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining its shape. In December 2004, a bale of the then world 's finest wool, averaging 11.8 microns, sold for AU $3,000 per kilogram at auction in Melbourne, Victoria. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5 %, 68 mm long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex strength. The result was A $279,000 for the bale. The finest bale of wool ever auctioned was sold for a seasonal record of AU $2690 per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1 % yield, and had a 43 newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India. In 2007, a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and which dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed using Australian Merino wool, and it enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers, and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at home. In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of wool and other natural fibers. Global wool production is about 2 million tonnes per year, of which 60 % goes into apparel. Wool comprises ca 3 % of the global textile market, but its value is higher owing to dying and other modifications of the material. Australia is a leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep but has been eclipsed by China in terms of total weight. New Zealand (2016) is the third - largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Drysdale, and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets. In the United States, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). Also, a thriving home - flock contingent of small - scale farmers raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand - spinning market. These small - scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece. Global woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2004 / 2005 Organic wool is becoming more and more popular. This wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia. It is becoming easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum - based nylon or polypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde - free glues. Animal rights groups have noted issues with the production of wool, such as mulesing. About 85 % of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cry auction. "Sale by sample '' is a method in which a mechanical claw takes a sample from each bale in a line or lot of wool. These grab samples are bulked, objectively measured, and a sample of not less than 4 kg is displayed in a box for the buyer to examine. The Australian Wool Exchange conducts sales primarily in Sydney, Melbourne, Newcastle, and Fremantle. About 80 brokers and agents work throughout Australia. About 7 % of Australian wool is sold by private treaty on farms or to local wool - handling facilities. This option gives wool growers benefit from reduced transport, warehousing, and selling costs. This method is preferred for small lots or mixed butts to make savings on reclassing and testing. About 5 % of Australian wool is sold over the internet on an electronic offer board. This option gives wool growers the ability to set firm price targets, reoffer passed - in wool, and offer lots to the market quickly and efficiently. This method works well for tested lots, as buyers use these results to make a purchase. About 97 % of wool is sold without sample inspection; however, as of December 2009, 59 % of wool listed had been passed in from auction. Growers through certain brokers can allocate their wool to a sale and at what price their wool will be reserved. Sale by tender can achieve considerable cost savings on wool clips large enough to make it worthwhile for potential buyers to submit tenders. Some marketing firms sell wool on a consignment basis, obtaining a fixed percentage as commission. Forward selling: Some buyers offer a secure price for forward delivery of wool based on estimated measurements or the results of previous clips. Prices are quoted at current market rates and are locked in for the season. Premiums and discounts are added to cover variations in micron, yield, tensile strength, etc., which are confirmed by actual test results when available. Another method of selling wool includes sales direct to wool mills. The British Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers. Less than half of New Zealand 's wool is sold at auction, while around 45 % of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end - users. United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers. Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers. As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, wool noil, or another fiber such as cotton to increase the average fiber length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West Yorkshire and created a microeconomy in this area for many years. Rag is a sturdy wool fiber made into yarn and used in many rugged applications such as gloves. Worsted is a strong, long - staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface. Woolen is a soft, short - staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting. In traditional weaving, woolen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom. In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, insulation and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt. Wool has also been traditionally used to cover cloth diapers. Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment suitable cover for a wet diaper by inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers. Initial studies of woolen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers. Merino wool has been used in baby sleep products such as swaddle baby wrap blankets and infant sleeping bags. As an animal protein, wool can be used as a soil fertilizer, being a slow - release source of nitrogen. Researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology school of fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool and Kevlar, the synthetic fiber widely used in body armor, was lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than Kevlar alone. Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20 % of its effectiveness when wet, so required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction in a vest with 28 -- 30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone. A buyer of Merino wool, Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of "Superfine skirted Merino fleece ''. In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year. In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 microns or finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country. In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name. In 2010, an ultrafine, 10 - micron fleece, from Windradeen, near Pyramul, New South Wales, won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy. Since 2000, Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world 's finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor - made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year 's finest bale. The New England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, in even numbered years around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales, in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more. In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held in Bendigo, Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas, as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, 475 entries came from all states of Australia, with first and second prizes going to the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales fleeces.

how did japan and china influence the vietnamese nationalists

Kuomintang - wikipedia The Kuomintang of China (/ ˌɡwoʊmɪnˈdɑːŋ / or / - ˈtæŋ /, KMT; often translated as the Nationalist Party of China) is a major political party in the Republic of China (ROC or Taiwan). It is currently the largest opposition party in the Legislative Yuan. The predecessor of the KMT, the Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmenghui), was one of the major advocates of the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. The KMT was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat - sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911. Sun was the provisional president but later he ceded the presidency to Yuan Shikai. Later led by Chiang Kai - shek, the KMT formed the National Revolutionary Army and succeeded in its Northern Expedition to unify much of China in 1928, ended the chaos of Warlord Era. It was the ruling party in mainland China until 1949, when it lost the Chinese Civil War to the Communist Party of China (CPC). Despite retreating to Taiwan and losing most of its territory, the KMT remained an authoritarian government, which held onto China 's UN seat (with considerable international support) until 1971. In Taiwan, the political reforms started in the 1990s, and loosened KMT grip on power. Since 1987, the Republic of China is no longer a single - party state; however, the KMT remains one of the main political parties. The KMT is currently the main opposition party in the Legislative Yuan. The guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, advocated by Sun Yat - sen. Its party headquarters are located in Taipei. The KMT is a member of the International Democrat Union. The previous president, Ma Ying - jeou, elected in 2008 and re-elected in 2012, was the seventh KMT member to hold the office of the presidency. Together with the People First Party and New Party, the KMT forms what is known as the Taiwanese Pan-Blue Coalition, which supports eventual unification with the mainland. However, the KMT has been forced to moderate its stance by advocating the political and legal status quo of modern Taiwan, as political realities make a reunification of China unlikely. The KMT accepts a "One China Principle '' -- it officially considers that there is only one China, but that the Republic of China rather than the People 's Republic of China is its legitimate government under the 1992 Consensus. However, since 2008, in order to ease tensions with the PRC, the KMT endorses the "three noes '' policy as defined by Ma Ying - jeou; no unification, no independence and no use of force. Some pro-unification supporters of the KMT criticize the official position of KMT is de facto supported Taiwan independence and separations from China. The KMT traces its ideological and organizational roots to the work of Sun Yat - sen, a proponent of Chinese nationalism and democracy, who founded Revive China Society in Honolulu in the Republic of Hawaii on 24 November 1894. In 1905, Sun joined forces with other anti-monarchist societies in Tokyo, Empire of Japan to form the Tongmenghui on 20 August 1905, a group committed to the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of a republican government. The group planned and supported the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 and the founding of the Republic of China on 1 January 1912. However, Sun did not have military power and ceded the provisional presidency of the republic to Yuan Shikai, who arranged for the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor, on February 12. On 25 August 1912, the Nationalist Party was established at the Huguang Guild Hall in Peking, where Tongmenghui and five smaller pro-revolution parties merged to contest the first national elections. Sun, the then - President of the ROC, was chosen as the party chairman with Huang Xing as his deputy. The most influential member of the party was the third ranking Song Jiaoren, who mobilized mass support from gentry and merchants for the Nationalists to advocate a constitutional parliamentary democracy. The party opposed constitutional monarchists and sought to check the power of Yuan. The Nationalists won an overwhelming majority of the first National Assembly election in December 1912. But Yuan soon began to ignore the parliament in making presidential decisions. Song Jiaoren was assassinated in Shanghai in 1913. Members of the Nationalists led by Sun Yat - sen suspected that Yuan was behind the plot and thus staged the Second Revolution in July 1913, a poorly planned and ill - supported armed rising to overthrow Yuan, and failed. Yuan, claiming subversiveness and betrayal, expelled adherents of the KMT from the parliament. Yuan dissolved the Nationalists in November (whose members had largely fled into exile in Japan) and dismissed the parliament early in 1914. Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor in December 1915. While exiled in Japan in 1914, Sun established the Chinese Revolutionary Party on 8 July 1914, but many of his old revolutionary comrades, including Huang Xing, Wang Jingwei, Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming, refused to join him or support his efforts in inciting armed uprising against Yuan. In order tonary Party, members must take an oath of personal loyalty to Sun, which many old revolutionaries regarded as undemocratic and contrary to the spirit of the revolution. Thus, many old revolutionaries did not join Sun 's new organisation, and he was largely sidelined within the Republican movement during this period. Sun returned to China in 1917 to establish a military junta at Canton, in order to against the Beiyang government, but was soon forced out of office and exiled to Shanghai. There, with renewed support, he resurrected the KMT on 10 October 1919, under the name Kuomintang of China (中國 國民黨) and established its headquarters in Canton in 1920. In 1923, the KMT and its Canton government accepted aid from the Soviet Union after being denied recognition by the western powers. Soviet advisers - the most prominent of whom was Mikhail Borodin, an agent of the Comintern -- arrived in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, establishing a Leninist party structure that lasted into the 1990s. The Communist Party of China (CPC) was under Comintern instructions to cooperate with the KMT, and its members were encouraged to join while maintaining their separate party identities, forming the First United Front between the two parties. Mao Zedong and early members of the CPC also joined the KMT in 1923. Soviet advisers also helped the KMT to set up a political institute to train propagandists in mass mobilization techniques, and in 1923 Chiang Kai - shek, one of Sun 's lieutenants from the Tongmenghui days, was sent to Moscow for several months ' military and political study. At the first party congress in 1924 in Kwangchow, Kwangtung, (Guanzhou, Guangdong) which included non-KMT delegates such as members of the CPC, they adopted Sun 's political theory, which included the Three Principles of the People - nationalism, democracy and people 's livelihood. When Sun Yat - sen died in 1925, the political leadership of the KMT fell to Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin, respectively the left wing and right wing leaders of the party. The real power, however, was in the hands of Chiang Kai - shek, who, as the superintendent of the Whampoa Military Academy, was in near complete control of the military. With their military superiority, KMT confirmed their rule on Canton, the provincial capital of Kwangtung. The Guangxi warlords pledged loyalty to the KMT. The KMT now became a rival government in opposition to the warlord Beiyang government based in Peking. Chiang assumed leadership of the KMT on 6 July 1926. Unlike Sun Yat - sen, whom he admired greatly, and who forged all his political, economic and revolutionary ideas primarily from what he had learned in Hawaii and indirectly through British Hong Kong and Empire of Japan under Meiji Restoration, Chiang knew relatively little about the West. He also studied in Japan, but he was firmly rooted in his Chinese identity and was steeped in Chinese culture. As his life progressed, he became increasingly attached to Chinese culture and traditions. His few trips to the West confirmed his pro-Chinese outlook and he studied the Chinese classics and Chinese histories assiduously. In 1924, Sun Yat - sen sent Chiang to spend three months in Moscow studying the political and military system of the Soviet Union. Chiang met Leon Trotsky and other Soviet leaders, but quickly came to the conclusion that the Soviet model of government was not suitable for China. This laid the beginning of his lifelong antagonism against communism. Chiang was also particularly committed to Sun 's idea of "political tutelage ''. Sun believed that the only hope for a unified and better China lies in a military conquest, followed by a period of political tutelage that would culminate in the transition to democracy. Using this ideology, Chiang built himself into the dictator of the Republic of China, both in the Chinese mainland and when the national government was relocated to Taiwan. Following the death of Sun Yat - sen, Chiang Kai - shek emerged as the KMT leader and launched the Northern Expedition to defeat the northern warlords and unite China under the party. With its power confirmed in the southeast, the Nationalist Government appointed Chiang Kai - shek commander - in - chief of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), and the Northern Expedition to suppress the warlords began. Chiang had to defeat three separate warlords and two independent armies. Chiang, with Soviet supplies, conquered the southern half of China in nine months. A split, however, erupted between the Chinese Communist Party and the KMT, which threatened the Northern Expedition. Wang Jing Wei, who led the KMT leftist allies took the city of Wuhan in January 1927. With the support of the Soviet agent Mikhail Borodin, Wang declared the National Government as having moved to Wuhan. Having taken Nanking in March, Chiang halted his campaign and prepared a violent break with Wang and his communist allies. Chiang 's expulsion of the CPC and their Soviet advisers, marked by the Shanghai massacre on April 12, led to the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. Wang finally surrendered his power to Chiang. Joseph Stalin ordered CPC to obey the KMT leadership. Once this split had been healed, Chiang resumed his Northern Expedition and managed to take Shanghai. During the Nanking Incident in March 1927, the NRA stormed the consulates of the United States, United Kingdom (UK) and Empire of Japan, looted foreign properties and almost assassinated the Japanese consul. An American, two British, one French, an Italian and a Japanese were killed. These looters also stormed and seized millions of dollars worth of British concessions in Hankou, refusing to hand them back to the UK. Both Nationalists and Communist soldiers within the army participated in the rioting and looting of foreign residents in Nanking. NRA took Peking in 1928. The city was the internationally recognized capital, though previously controlled by warlords. This event allowed the KMT to receive widespread diplomatic recognition in the same year. The capital was moved from Peking to Nanking, the original capital of the Ming Dynasty, and thus a symbolic purge of the final Qing elements. This period of KMT rule in China between 1927 and 1937 was relatively stable and prosperous and is still known as the Nanjing decade. After the Northern Expedition in 1928, the Nationalist government under the KMT declared that China had been exploited for decades under unequal treaties signed between the foreign powers and the Qing Dynasty. The KMT government demanded that the foreign powers renegotiate the treaties on equal terms. Before the Northern Expedition, the KMT began as a heterogeneous group advocating American - inspired federalism and provincial autonomy. However, the KMT under Chiang 's leadership aimed at establishing a centralized one - party state with one ideology. This was even more evident following Sun 's elevation into a cult figure after his death. The control by one single party began the period of "political tutelage, '' whereby the party was to lead the government while instructing the people on how to participate in a democratic system. The topic of reorganizing the army, brought up at a military conference in 1929, sparked the Central Plains War. The cliques, some of them former warlords, demanded to retain their army and political power within their own territories. Although Chiang finally won the war, the conflicts among the cliques would have a devastating effect on the survival of the KMT. Muslim Generals in Kansu waged war against the Guominjun in favor of the KMT during the conflict in Gansu in 1927 - 1930. Although the Second Sino - Japanese War officially broke out in 1937, Japanese aggression started in 1931 when they staged the Mukden Incident and occupied Manchuria. At the same time, the CPC had been secretly recruiting new members within the KMT government and military. Chiang was alarmed by the expansion of the communist influence. He believed that in order to fight against foreign aggression, the KMT must solve its internal conflicts first, so he started his second attempt to exterminate CPC members in 1934. With the advice from German military advisors, the KMT forced the Communists to withdraw from their bases in southern and central China into the mountains in a massive military retreat known as the Long March. Less than 10 % of the communist army survived the long retreat to Shaanxi province, but they re-established their military base quickly with aid from the Soviet Union. The KMT was also known to have used terror tactics against suspected communists, through the utilization of a secret police force, who were employed to maintain surveillance on suspected communists and political opponents. In The Birth of Communist China, C.P. Fitzgerald describes China under the rule of the KMT thus: "the Chinese people groaned under a regime Fascist in every quality except efficiency. '' Zhang Xueliang, who believed that the Japanese invasion was a greater threat, was persuaded by the CPC to take Chiang hostage during the Xi'an Incident in 1937 and forced Chiang to agree to an alliance with them in the total war against the Japanese. However, in many situations the alliance was in name only; after a brief period of cooperation, the armies began to fight the Japanese separately, rather than as coordinated allies. Conflicts between KMT and CPC were still common during the war, and documented claims abound of CPC attacks upon the KMT forces and vice versa. While the KMT army received heavy casualties fighting the Japanese, the CPC expanded its territory by guerrilla tactics within Japanese occupied regions, leading some claims that the CPC often refused to support the KMT troops, choosing to withdraw and let the KMT troops take the brunt of Japanese attacks. After Japan surrendered in 1945, Taiwan was returned to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945. The brief period of celebration was soon shadowed by the possibility of a civil war between the KMT and CPC. The Soviet Union declared war on Japan just before they surrendered and occupied Manchuria, the north eastern part of China. The Soviet Union denied the KMT army to enter the region and assisted CPC to take over the Japanese factories and supplies. Full - scale civil war between CPC and the KMT erupted in 1946. The Communist armies, People 's Liberation Army (PLA), previously a minor faction, grew rapidly in influence and power due to several errors on the KMT 's part. First, the KMT reduced troop levels precipitously after the Japanese surrender, leaving large numbers of able - bodied, trained fighting men who became unemployed and disgruntled with the KMT as prime recruits for PLA. Second, the KMT government proved thoroughly unable to manage the economy, allowing hyperinflation to result. Among the most despised and ineffective efforts it undertook to contain inflation was the conversion to the gold standard for the national treasury and the Gold Standard Scrip in August 1948, outlawing private ownership of gold, silver and foreign exchange, collecting all such precious metals and foreign exchange from the people and issuing the Gold Standard Scrip in exchange. As most farmland in the north were under CPC 's control, the cities governed by the KMT lacked food supply and this added to the hyperinflation. The new scrip became worthless in only ten months and greatly reinforced the nationwide perception of the KMT as a corrupt or at best inept entity. Third, Chiang Kai - shek ordered his forces to defend the urbanized cities. This decision gave CPC a chance to move freely through the countryside. At first, the KMT had the edge with the aid of weapons and ammunition from the United States (US). However, with the country suffering from hyperinflation, widespread corruption and other economic ills, the KMT continued to lose popular support. Some leading officials and military leaders of the KMT hoarded material, armament and military - aid funding provided by the US. This became an issue which proved to be a hindrance of its relationship with US government. US President Harry S. Truman wrote that "the Chiangs, the Kungs and the Soongs (were) all thieves '', having taken $750 million in US aid. At the same time, the suspension of American aid and tens of thousands of deserted or decommissioned soldiers being recruited to PLA cause tipped the balance of power quickly to CPC side, and the overwhelming popular support for the CPC in most of the country made it all but impossible for the KMT forces to carry out successful assaults against the Communists. By the end of 1949, the CPC controlled almost all of mainland China, as the KMT retreated to Taiwan with a significant amount of China 's national treasures and 2 million people, including military forces and refugees. Some party members stayed in the mainland and broke away from the main KMT to found the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang, which still currently exists as one of the eight minor registered parties of the People 's Republic of China. In 1895, Formosa (now called Taiwan), including the Penghu islands, became a Japanese colony via the Treaty of Shimonoseki following the First Sino - Japanese War. After Japan 's defeat at the end of World War II in 1945, General Order No. 1 instructed Japan to surrender its troops in Taiwan to Chiang Kai - shek. On October 25, 1945, KMT general Chen Yi acted on behalf of the Allied Powers to accept Japan 's surrender and proclaimed that day as Taiwan Retrocession Day. Tensions between the local Taiwanese and mainlanders from Mainland China increased in the intervening years, culminating in a flashpoint on February 27, 1947 in Taipei when a dispute between a female cigarette vendor and an anti-smuggling officer in front of Tianma Tea House triggered civil disorder and protests that would last for days. The uprising turned bloody and was shortly put down by the ROC Army in the February 28 Incident. As a result of the February 28 Incident in 1947, Taiwanese people endured what is called the "White Terror '', a KMT - led political repression that resulted in the death or disappearance of over 30,000 Taiwanese intellectuals, activists, and anyone suspected of opposition to the KMT. Following the establishment of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949, the commanders of the People 's Liberation Army (PLA) believed that Kinmen and Matsu had to be taken before a final assault on Taiwan. The KMT fought the Battle of Guningtou on 25 -- 27 October 1949 and stopped the PLA invasion. The KMT headquarter was set up on 10 December 1949 at No. 11 Zhongshan South Road. In 1950, Chiang took office in Taipei under the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion. The provision declared martial law in Taiwan and halted some democratic processes, including presidential and parliamentary elections, until the mainland could be recovered from the CPC. The KMT estimated it would take 3 years to defeat the Communists. The slogan was "prepare in the first year, start fighting in the second, and conquer in the third year. '' Chiang also initiated the Project National Glory to retake back the mainland in 1965, but was eventually dropped in July 1972 after many unsuccessful attempts. However, various factors, including international pressure, are believed to have prevented the KMT from militarily engaging the CPC full - scale. The KMT backed Muslim insurgents formerly belonging to the NRA during the KMT Islamic insurgency in 1950 -- 1958 in Mainland China. A cold war with a couple of minor military conflicts was resulted in the early years. The various government bodies previously in Nanjing, that were re-established in Taipei as the KMT - controlled government, actively claimed sovereignty over all China. The Republic of China in Taiwan retained China 's seat in the United Nations until 1971. Until the 1970s, the KMT successfully pushed ahead with land reforms, developed the economy, implemented a democratic system in a lower level of the government, improved relations between Taiwan and the mainland and created the Taiwan economic miracle. However, the KMT controlled the government under a one - party authoritarian state until reforms in the late 1970s through the 1990s. The ROC in Taiwan was once referred to synonymously with the KMT and known simply as "Nationalist China '' after its ruling party. In the 1970s, the KMT began to allow for "supplemental elections '' in Taiwan to fill the seats of the aging representatives in the National Assembly. Although opposition parties were not permitted, Tangwai (or, "outside the party '') representatives were tolerated. In the 1980s, the KMT focused on transforming the government from a single - party system to a multi-party democratic one and embracing "Taiwanization ''. With the founding of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) on 28 September 1986, the KMT started competing against the DPP in Parliamentary elections. In 1991, martial law ceased when President Lee Teng - hui terminated the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion. All parties started to be allowed to compete at all levels of elections, including the presidential election. Lee Teng - hui, the ROC 's first democratically elected President and the leader of the KMT during the 1990s, announced his advocacy of "special state - to - state relations '' with the PRC. The PRC associated this idea with Taiwan independence. The KMT faced a split in 1993 that led to the formation of the New Party in August 1993, alleged to be a result of Lee 's "corruptive ruling style ''. The New Party has, since the purging of Lee, largely reintegrated into the KMT. A much more serious split in the party occurred as a result of the 2000 Presidential election. Upset at the choice of Lien Chan as the party 's presidential nominee, former party Secretary - General James Soong launched an independent bid, which resulted in the expulsion of Soong and his supporters and the formation of the People First Party (PFP) on 31 March 2000. The KMT candidate placed third behind Soong in the elections. After the election, Lee 's strong relationship with the opponent became apparent. In order to prevent defections to the PFP, Lien moved the party away from Lee 's pro-independence policies and became more favorable toward Chinese reunification. This shift led to Lee 's expulsion from the party and the formation of the Taiwan Solidarity Union (TSU) by Lee supporters on 24 July 2001. Prior to this, the party 's voters had defected to both the PFP and TSU, and the KMT did poorly in the December 2001 legislative elections and lost its position as the largest party in the Legislative Yuan. However, the party did well in the 2002 local government mayoral and council election with Ma Ying - jeou, its candidate for Taipei mayor, winning reelection by a landslide and its candidate for Kaohsiung mayor narrowly losing but doing surprisingly well. Since 2002, the KMT and PFP have coordinated electoral strategies. In 2004, the KMT and PFP ran a joint presidential ticket, with Lien running for president and Soong running for vice-president. The loss of the presidential election of 2004 to DPP President Chen Shui - bian by merely over 30,000 votes was a bitter disappointment to party members, leading to large scale rallies for several weeks protesting alleged electoral fraud and the "odd circumstances '' of the shooting of President Chen. However, the fortunes of the party were greatly improved when the KMT did well in the legislative elections held in December 2004 by maintaining its support in southern Taiwan achieving a majority for the Pan-Blue Coalition. Soon after the election, there appeared to be a falling out with the KMT 's junior partner, the People First Party and talk of a merger seemed to have ended. This split appeared to widen in early 2005, as the leader of the PFP, James Soong appeared to be reconciling with President Chen Shui - Bian and the Democratic Progressive Party. Many PFP members including legislators and municipal leaders have defected to the KMT, and the PFP is seen as a fading party. In 2005, Ma Ying - jeou became KMT chairman defeating speaker Wang Jin - pyng in the first public election for KMT chairmanship. The KMT won a decisive victory in the 3 - in - 1 local elections of December 2005, replacing the DPP as the largest party at the local level. This was seen as a major victory for the party ahead of legislative elections in 2007. There were elections for the two municipalities of the ROC, Taipei and Kaohsiung on December 2006. The KMT won a clear victory in Taipei, but lost to the DPP in the southern city of Kaohsiung by the slim margin of 1,100 votes. On 13 February 2007, Ma was indicted by the Taiwan High Prosecutors Office on charges of allegedly embezzling approximately NT $11 million (US $339,000), regarding the issue of "special expenses '' while he was mayor of Taipei. Shortly after the indictment, he submitted his resignation as KMT chairman at the same press conference at which he formally announced his candidacy for ROC President. Ma argued that it was customary for officials to use the special expense fund for personal expenses undertaken in the course of their official duties. In December 2007, Ma was acquitted of all charges and immediately filed suit against the prosecutors. In 2008, the KMT won a landslide victory in the Republic of China Presidential Election on March 22, 2008. The KMT fielded former Taipei mayor and former KMT chairman Ma Ying - jeou to run against the DPP 's Frank Hsieh. Ma won by a butt of 17 % against Hsieh. Ma took office on May 20, 2008, with Vice-Presidential candidate Vincent Siew, and ended 8 years of the DPP presidency. The KMT also won a landslide victory in the 2008 legislative elections, winning 81 of 113 seats, or 71.7 % of seats in the Legislative Yuan. These two elections gave the KMT firm control of both the executive and legislative yuans. On 25 June 2009, President Ma launched his bid to regain KMT 's leadership and registered as the sole candidate for the election of the KMT chairmanship. On July 26, Ma won 93.87 % of the vote, becoming the new chairman of the KMT, taking office on 17 October 2009. This officially allows Ma to be able to meet with Xi Jinping, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and other PRC delegates, as he is able to represent the KMT as leader of a Chinese political party, rather than as head - of - state of a political entity unrecognized by the PRC. On 29 November 2014, the KMT suffered a heavy loss in the local election to the DPP, winning only 6 municipalities and counties, down from 14 in the previous election in 2009 and 2010. Ma Ying - jeou subsequently resigned from the party chairmanship on 3 December and replaced by acting Chairman Wu Den - yih. Chairmanship election was held on 17 January 2015 and Eric Chu was elected to become the new chairman. He was inaugurated on 19 February. As the ruling party on Taiwan, the KMT amassed a vast business empire of banks, investment companies, petrochemical firms, and television and radio stations, thought to have made it the world 's richest political party, with assets once estimated to be around US $2 -- 10 billion. Although this war chest appeared to help the KMT until the mid-1990s, it later led to accusations of corruption (often referred to as "black gold ''). After 2000, the KMT 's financial holdings appeared to be more of a liability than a benefit, and the KMT started to divest itself of its assets. However, the transactions were not disclosed and the whereabouts of the money earned from selling assets (if it has gone anywhere) is unknown. There were accusations in the 2004 presidential election that the KMT retained assets that were illegally acquired. During the 2000 - 2008 DPP presidency, a law was proposed by the DPP in the Legislative Yuan to recover illegally acquired party assets and return them to the government. However, due to the DPP 's lack of control of the legislative chamber at the time, it never materialised. The KMT also acknowledged that part of its assets were acquired through extra-legal means and thus promised to "retro - endow '' them to the government. However, the quantity of the assets which should be classified as illegal are still under heated debate. DPP, in its capacity as ruling party from 2000 -- 2008, claimed that there is much more that the KMT has yet to acknowledge. Also, the KMT actively sold assets under its title in order to quench its recent financial difficulties, which the DPP argues is illegal. Former KMT Chairman Ma Ying - Jeou 's position is that the KMT will sell some of its properties at below market rates rather than return them to the government and that the details of these transactions will not be publicly disclosed. In 2006, the KMT sold its headquarters at 11 Zhongshan South Road in Taipei to Evergreen Group for NT $ 2.3 billion (US $96 million). The KMT moved into a smaller building on Bade Road in the eastern part of the city. In July 2014, the KMT reported total assets of NT $26.8 billion (US $892.4 million) and interest earnings of NT $981.52 million for the year of 2013, making it one of the richest political parties in the world. In August 2016, the Ill - gotten Party Assets Settlement Committee is set up by the ruling DPP government to investigate KMT party assets acquired during the martial law period and recover those that were determined to be illegally acquired. In December 2003, then - KMT chairman (present chairman emeritus) and presidential candidate Lien Chan initiated what appeared to some to be a major shift in the party 's position on the linked questions of Chinese reunification and Taiwan independence. Speaking to foreign journalists, Lien said that while the KMT was opposed to "immediate independence '', it did not wish to be classed as "pro-reunificationist '' either. At the same time, Wang Jin - pyng, speaker of the Legislative Yuan and the Pan-Blue Coalition 's campaign manager in the 2004 presidential election, said that the party no longer opposed Taiwan 's "eventual independence ''. This statement was later clarified as meaning that the KMT opposes any immediate decision on unification and independence and would like to have this issue resolved by future generations. The KMT 's position on the cross-strait relations was redefined as hoping to remain in the current neither - independent - nor - united situation. However, there had been a warming of relations between the Pan-Blue Coalition and the PRC, with prominent members of both the KMT and PFP in active discussions with officials on the mainland. In February 2004, it appeared that KMT had opened a campaign office for the Lien - Soong ticket in Shanghai targeting Taiwanese businessmen. However, after an adverse reaction in Taiwan, the KMT quickly declared that the office was opened without official knowledge or authorization. In addition, the PRC issued a statement forbidding open campaigning in the mainland and formally stated that it had no preference as to which candidate won and cared only about the positions of the winning candidate. In 2005, then - party chairman Lien Chan announced that he was to leave his office. The two leading contenders for the position included Ma Ying - jeou and Wang Jin - pyng. On 5 April 2005, Taipei Mayor Ma Ying - jeou said he wished to lead the opposition KMT with Wang Jin - pyng. On 16 July 2005, Ma was elected as KMT Chairman in the first contested leadership in KMT 's 93 - year history. Some 54 % of the party 's 1.04 million members cast their ballots. Ma garnered 72.4 % of vote share, or 375,056 votes, against Wang 's 27.6 %, or 143,268 votes. After failing to convince Wang to stay on as a vice chairman, Ma named holdovers Wu Po - hsiung, Chiang Pin - kung and Lin Cheng - chi (林 澄枝), as well as long - time party administrator and strategist John Kuan as vice-chairmen. All appointments were approved by a hand count of party delegates. On March 28, 2005, thirty members of the KMT, led by Vice Chairman Chiang Pin - kung, arrived in mainland China. This marked the first official visit by the KMT to the mainland since it was defeated by communist forces in 1949 (although KMT members including Chiang had made individual visits in the past). The delegates began their itinerary by paying homage to the revolutionary martyrs of the Tenth Uprising at Huanghuagang. They subsequently flew to the former ROC capital of Nanjing to commemorate Sun Yat - sen. During the trip, the KMT signed a 10 - points agreement with the CPC. The opponents regarded this visit as the prelude of the third KMT - CPC cooperation, after the First and Second United Front. Weeks afterwards, in May 2005, Chairman Lien Chan visited the mainland and met with Hu Jintao, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China. This marked the first meeting between leaders of the KMT and CPC after the end of Chinese Civil War in 1949. No agreements were signed because incumbent Chen Shui - bian 's government threatened to prosecute the KMT delegation for treason and violation of ROC laws prohibiting citizens from collaborating with CPC. Support for the KMT in Taiwan encompasses a wide range of groups. KMT support tends to be higher in northern Taiwan and in urban areas, where it draws its backing from big businesses due to its policy of maintaining commercial links with mainland China. The KMT also has strong support in the labor sector because of the many labor benefits and insurance implemented while the KMT was in power. The KMT traditionally has strong cooperation with military officers, teachers, and government workers. Among the ethnic groups in Taiwan, the KMT has solid support among mainlanders and their descendants, for ideological reasons, and among Taiwanese aboriginals. The deep - rooted hostility between Aboriginals and (Taiwanese) Hoklo, and the Aboriginal communities effective KMT networks, contribute to Aboriginal skepticism towards the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) and the Aboriginals ' tendency to vote for the KMT. Aboriginals have criticized politicians for abusing the "indigenization '' movement for political gains, such as aboriginal opposition to the DPP 's "rectification '' by recognizing the Taroko for political reasons, with the majority of mountain townships voting for Ma Ying - jeou. In 2005 the Kuomintang displayed a massive photo of the anti-Japanese Aboriginal leader Mona Rudao at its headquarters in honor of the 60th anniversary of Taiwan 's retrocession from Japan to the Republic of China. Traditional opponents of the KMT included strong supporters of Taiwan independence and rural residents, particularly in southern Taiwan. For social issues, the KMT does not take an official position on same - sex marriage, though opposition to same - sex marriage comes mostly from Christian groups, who wield significant political influence especially within the KMT. KMT was a nationalist revolutionary party, which had been supported by the Soviet Union. It was organized on the Leninist principle of organisation, democratic centralism. KMT had several influences upon its ideology by revolutionary thinking. KMT and Chiang Kai - shek used the words feudal and counterrevolutionary as synonyms for evil and backwardness, and proudly proclaimed themselves to be revolutionary. Chiang called the warlords feudalists, and called for feudalism and counterrevolutionaries to be stamped out by KMT. Chiang showed extreme rage when he was called a warlord, because of its negative, feudal connotations. Ma Bufang was forced to defend himself against the accusations, and stated to the news media that his army was a part of "National army, people 's power ''. Chiang Kai - shek, the head of KMT, warned the Soviet Union and other foreign countries about interfering in Chinese affairs. He was personally angry at the way China was treated by foreigners, mainly by the Soviet Union, Britain, and the United States. He and his New Life Movement called for the crushing of Soviet, Western, American and other foreign influences in China. Chen Lifu, a CC Clique member in the KMT, said "Communism originated from Soviet imperialism, which has encroached on our country. '' It was also noted that "the white bear of the North Pole is known for its viciousness and cruelty. '' The Blue Shirts Society, a fascist paramilitary organization within KMT modeled after Mussolini 's blackshirts, was anti-foreign and anticommunist, and stated that its agenda was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China, crush Communism, and eliminate feudalism. In addition to being anticommunist, some KMT members, like Chiang Kai - shek 's right - hand man Dai Li were anti-American, and wanted to expel American influence. KMT leaders across China adopted nationalist rhetoric. The Chinese Muslim general Ma Bufang of Qinghai presented himself as a Chinese nationalist to the people of China, fighting against British imperialism, to deflect criticism by opponents that his government was feudal and oppressed minorities like Tibetans and Buddhist Mongols. He used his Chinese nationalist credentials to his advantage to keep himself in power. KMT pursued a sinicization policy, it was stated that "the time had come to set about the business of making all natives either turn Chinese or get out '' by foreign observers of KMT policy. It was noted that "Chinese colonization '' of "Mongolia and Manchuria '' led "to a conviction that the day of the barbarian was finally over. '' KMT branch in Guangxi province, led by the New Guangxi Clique of Bai Chongxi and Li Zongren, implemented anti-imperialist, anti-religious, and anti-foreign policies. During the Northern Expedition, in 1926 in Guangxi, Muslim General Bai Chongxi led his troops in destroying most of the Buddhist temples and smashing idols, turning the temples into schools and KMT headquarters. Bai led an anti-foreign wave in Guangxi, attacking American, European, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for non-natives. Westerners fled from the province, and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents. The leaders clashed with Chiang Kai - shek, which led to the Central Plains War where Chiang defeated the clique. KMT had a left wing and a right wing, the left being more radical in its pro Soviet policies, but both wings equally persecuted merchants, accusing them of being counterrevolutionaries and reactionaries. The right wing under Chiang Kaishek prevailed, and continued radical policies against private merchants and industrialists, even as they denounced communism. One of the Three Principles of the People of KMT, Mínshēng, was defined as socialism by Dr. Sun Yatsen. He defined this principle of saying in his last days "it 's socialism and it 's communism. ''. The concept may be understood as social welfare as well. Sun understood it as an industrial economy and equality of land holdings for the Chinese peasant farmers. Here he was influenced by the American thinker Henry George (see Georgism) and German thinker Karl Marx; the land value tax in Taiwan is a legacy thereof. He divided livelihood into four areas: food, clothing, housing, and transportation; and planned out how an ideal (Chinese) government can take care of these for its people. KMT was referred to having a socialist ideology. "Equalization of land rights '' was a clause included by Dr. Sun in the original Tongmenhui. KMT 's revolutionary ideology in the 1920s incorporated unique Chinese Socialism as part of its ideology. The Soviet Union trained KMT revolutionaries in the Moscow Sun Yat - sen University. In the West and in the Soviet Union, Chiang was known as the "Red General ''. Movie theaters in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang, at Moscow Sun Yat - sen University Portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls, and in the Soviet May Day Parades that year, Chiang 's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Karl Marx, Lenin, Stalin, and other socialist leaders. KMT attempted to levy taxes upon merchants in Canton, and the merchants resisted by raising an army, the Merchant 's volunteer corps. Dr. Sun initiated this anti merchant policy, and Chiang Kai - shek enforced it, Chiang led his army of Whampoa Military Academy graduates to defeat the merchant 's army. Chiang was assisted by Soviet advisors, who supplied him with weapons, while the merchants were supplied with weapons from the Western countries. KMT were accused of leading a "Red Revolution '' in Canton. The merchants were conservative and reactionary, and their Volunteer Corp leader Chen Lianbao was a prominent comprador trader. The merchants were supported by the foreign, western Imperialists such as the British, who led an international flotilla to support them against Dr. Sun. Chiang seized the western supplied weapons from the merchants, and battled against them. A KMT General executed several merchants, and KMT formed a Soviet inspired Revolutionary Committee. The British Communist party congratulated Dr. Sun for his war against foreign imperialists and capitalists. In 1948, KMT again attacked the merchants of Shanghai, Chiang Kai - shek sent his son Chiang Ching - kuo to restore economic order. Ching - kuo copied Soviet methods, which he learned during his stay there, to start a social revolution by attacking middle - class merchants. He also enforced low prices on all goods to raise support from the Proletariat. As riots broke out and savings were ruined, bankrupting shopowners, Ching - kuo began to attack the wealthy, seizing assets and placing them under arrest. The son of the gangster Du Yuesheng was arrested by him. Ching - kuo ordered KMT agents to raid the Yangtze Development Corporation 's warehouses, which was privately owned by H.H. Kung and his family. H.H. Kung 's wife was Soong Ai - ling, the sister of Soong Mei - ling who was Ching - kuo 's stepmother. H.H. Kung 's son David was arrested, the Kung 's responded by blackmailing the Chiang 's, threatening to release information about them, eventually he was freed after negotiations, and Ching - kuo resigned, ending the terror on the Shanghainese merchants. KMT also promotes Government - owned corporations. KMT founder Sun Yat - sen, was heavily influenced by the economic ideas of Henry George, who believed that the rents extracted from natural monopolies or the usage of land belonged to the public. Dr. Sun argued for Georgism and emphasized the importance of a mixed economy, which he termed "The Principle of Minsheng '' in his Three Principles of the People. "The railroads, public utilities, canals, and forests should be nationalized, and all income from the land and mines should be in the hands of the State. With this money in hand, the State can therefore finance the social welfare programs. '' KMT Muslim Governor of Ningxia, Ma Hongkui promoted state owned monopoly companies. His government had a company, Fu Ning Company, which had a monopoly over commercial and industry in Ningxia. Corporations such as CSBC Corporation, Taiwan, CPC Corporation, Taiwan and Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation are owned by the state in the Republic of China. Marxists also existed in KMT. They viewed the Chinese revolution in different terms than the CPC, claiming that China already went past its feudal stage and in a stagnation period rather than in another mode of production. These marxists in KMT opposed the CPC ideology. KMT used traditional Chinese religious ceremonies, the souls of Party martyrs who died fighting for KMT and the revolution and the party founder Dr. Sun Yat - sen were sent to heaven according to KMT. Chiang Kai - shek believed that these martyrs witnessed events on earth from heaven. The KMT backed the New Life Movement, which promoted Confucianism, and it was also against westernization. KMT leaders also opposed the May Fourth Movement. Chiang Kai - shek, as a nationalist, and Confucianist, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth Movement. He viewed some western ideas as foreign, as a Chinese nationalist, and that the introduction of western ideas and literature that the May Fourth Movement wanted was not welcome. He and Dr. Sun Yat - sen criticized these May Fourth intellectuals for corrupting morals of youth. KMT also incorporated Confucianism in its jurisprudence. It pardoned Shi Jianqiao for murdering Sun Chuanfang, because she did it in revenge since Sun executed her father Shi Congbin, which was an example of Filial piety to one 's parents in Confucianism. KMT encouraged filial revenge killings and extended pardons to those who performed them. KMT purged China 's education system of western ideas, introducing Confucianism into the curriculum. Education came under the total control of state, which meant, in effect, the KMT, via the Ministry of Education. Military and political classes on KMT 's Three Principles of the People were added. Textbooks, exams, degrees and educational instructors were all controlled by the state, as were all universities. Chiang Ching - kuo, appointed as KMT director of Secret Police in 1950, was educated in the Soviet Union, and initiated Soviet style military organization in the Republic of China Military, reorganizing and Sovietizing the political officer corps, surveillance, and KMT activities were propagated throughout the military. Opposed to this was Sun Li - jen, who was educated at the American Virginia Military Institute. Chiang Ching - kuo then arrested Sun Li - jen, charging him of conspiring with the American CIA of plotting to overthrow Chiang Kai - shek and KMT, Sun was placed under house arrest in 1955. The Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) was initially pro-ROC and mainly consisted of KMT members who joined as an alternative and were also in opposition to the Malayan Communist Party, supporting the KMT in China by funding them with the intention of reclaiming the Chinese mainland from the communists. The Tibet Improvement Party was founded by Pandatsang Rapga, a pro-ROC and pro-KMT Khampa revolutionary, who worked against the 14th Dalai Lama 's Tibetan Government in Lhasa. Rapga borrowed Sun Yat - sen 's Three Principles of the People doctrine and translated his political theories into the Tibetan language, hailing it as the best hope for Asian peoples against imperialism. Rapga stated that "the Sanmin Zhuyi was intended for all peoples under the domination of foreigners, for all those who had been deprived of the rights of man. But it was conceived especially for the Asians. It is for this reason that I translated it. At that time, a lot of new ideas were spreading in Tibet '', during an interview in 1975 by Dr. Heather Stoddard. He wanted to destroy the feudal government in Lhasa, in addition to modernizing and secularizing Tibetan society. The ultimate goal of the party was the overthrow of the Dalai Lama 's regime, and the creation of a Tibetan Republic which would be an autonomous Republic within the ROC. Chiang Kai - shek and the KMT funded the party and their efforts to build an army to battle the Dalai Lama 's government. KMT was extensively involved in the Kham region, recruiting the Khampa people to both oppose the Dalai Lama 's Tibetan government, fight the Communist Red Army, and crush the influence of local Chinese warlords who did not obey the central government. KMT assisted the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang party, which translates literally into Chinese as Yuenan Kuomintang (越南 國民黨), meaning "Vietnamese Nationalist Party ''. When it was established, it was based on the Chinese KMT and was pro Chinese. The Chinese KMT helped the party, known as the VNQDD, set up headquarters in Canton and Yunnan, to aid their anti imperialist struggle against the French occupiers of Indo China and against the Vietnamese Communist Party. It was the first revolutionary nationalist party to be established in Vietnam, before the communist party. The KMT assisted VNQDD with funds and military training. The VNQDD was founded with KMT aid in 1925, they were against Ho Chi Minh 's Viet Nam Revolutionary Youth League. When the VNQDD fled to China after the failed uprising against the French, they settled in Yunnan and Canton, in two different branches. The VNQDD existed as a party in exile in China for 15 years, receiving help, militarily and financially, and organizationally from the Chinese KMT. The two VNQDD parties merged into a single organization, the Canton branch removed the word "revolutionary '' from the party name. Lu Han, a KMT official in Nanjing, who was originally from Yunnan, was contacted by the VNQDD, and the KMT Central Executive Committee and Military made direct contact with VNQDD for the first time, the party was reestablished in Nanjing with KMT help. The Chinese KMT used the VNQDD for its own interests in south China and Indo China. General Zhang Fakui (Chang Fa - kuei), who based himself in Guangxi, established the Viet Nam Cach Menh Dong Minh Hoi meaning "Viet Nam Revolutionary League '' in 1942, which was assisted by the VNQDD to serve the KMT 's aims. The Chinese Yunnan provincial army, under the KMT, occupied northern Vietnam after the Japanese surrender in 1945, the VNQDD tagging alone, opposing Ho Chi Minh 's communist party. The Viet Nam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro Chinese VNQDD. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, created by KMT founder Dr. Sun and opposition to Japanese and French Imperialists. The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyen Hai Than, who was born in China and could not speak Vietnamese. General Zhang shrewdly blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as his main goal was Chinese influence in Indo China. The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces. A KMT left winger, General Chang Fa - kuei worked with Nguyen Hai Than, a VNQDD member, against French Imperialists and Communists in Indo China. General Chang Fa - kuei planned to lead a Chinese army invasion of Tonkin in Indochina to free Vietnam from French control, and to get Chiang Kai - shek 's support. The VNQDD opposed the government of Ngo Dinh Diem during the Vietnam War. On 30 November 1958 the establishment of the Ryukyu Guomindang took place. Tsugumasa Kiyuna headed its predecessor party, the Ryukyuan separatist Ryukyu Revolutionary Party which was backed by the Kuomintang in Taiwan. Ma Fuxiang founded Islamic organizations sponsored by KMT, including the China Islamic Association (中國 回教 公會). KMT Muslim General Bai Chongxi was Chairman of the Chinese Islamic National Salvation Federation. The Muslim Chengda school and Yuehua publication were supported by the Nationalist Government, and they supported KMT. The Chinese Muslim Association was also sponsored by KMT, and it evacuated from the mainland to Taiwan with the party. The Chinese Muslim Association owns the Taipei Grand Mosque which was built with funds from KMT. The Yihewani (Ikhwan al Muslimun a.k.a. Muslim brotherhood) was the predominant Muslim sect backed by KMT. Other Muslim sects, like the Xidaotang were also supported by the KMT. The Chinese Muslim brotherhood became a Chinese nationalist organization and supported KMT rule. Brotherhood Imams like Hu Songshan ordered Muslims to pray for the Nationalist Government, salute KMT flags during prayer, and listen to nationalist sermons. KMT considers all minorities to be members of the Chinese Nation. Former KMT leader Chiang Kai - shek considered all the minority peoples of China, including the Hui, as descendants of Yellow Emperor, the Yellow Emperor and semi mythical founder of the Chinese nation. Chiang considered all the minorities to belong to the Chinese Nation Zhonghua Minzu and he introduced this into KMT ideology, which was propagated into the educational system of the Republic of China, and the Constitution of the ROC considered Chiang 's ideology to be true. In Taiwan, the President performs a ritual honoring the Yellow Emperor, while facing west, in the direction of the Chinese mainland. KMT kept the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission for dealing with Mongolian And Tibetan affairs. A Muslim, Ma Fuxiang, was appointed as its Chairman. KMT was known for sponsoring Muslim students to study abroad at Muslim universities like Al Azhar and it established schools especially for Muslims, Muslim KMT warlords like Ma Fuxiang promoted education for Muslims. KMT Muslim Warlord Ma Bufang built a girls ' school for Muslim girls in Linxia City which taught modern secular education. Tibetans and Mongols refused to allow other ethnic groups like Kazakhs to participate in the Kokonur ceremony in Qinghai, but the KMT Muslim General Ma Bufang allowed them to participate. Chinese Muslims were among the most hardline KMT members. Ma Chengxiang was a Muslim and a KMT member, and refused to surrender to the Communists. KMT incited anti Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang sentiments among Chinese Muslims and Mongols, encouraging for them to topple their rule during the Central Plains War. Masud Sabri, a Uyghur was appointed as Governor of Xinjiang by KMT, as was the Tatar Burhan Shahidi and the Uyghur Yulbars Khan. The Muslim General Ma Bufang also put KMT symbols on his mansion, the Ma Bufang Mansion along with a portrait of party founder Dr. Sun Yatsen arranged with KMT flag and the Republic of China flag. General Ma Bufang and other high ranking Muslim Generals attended the Kokonuur Lake Ceremony where the God of the Lake was worshipped, and during the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung, all participants bowed to a Portrait of KMT founder Dr. Sun Yat - sen, and the God of the Lake was also bowed to, and offerings were given to him by the participants, which included the Muslims. This cult of personality around KMT leader and KMT was standard in all meetings. Sun Yat - sen 's portrait was bowed to three times by KMT party members. Dr. Sun 's portrait was arranged with two flags crossed under, the KMT flag and the flag of the Republic of China. KMT also hosted conferences of important Muslims like Bai Chongxi, Ma Fuxiang, and Ma Liang. Ma Bufang stressed "racial harmony '' as a goal when he was Governor of Qinghai. In 1939 Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent on a mission by KMT to the Middle eastern countries such as Egypt, Turkey and Syria to gain support for the Chinese War against Japan, they also visited Afghanistan in 1940 and contacted Muhammad Amin Bughra, they asked him to come to Chongqing, the capital of the Nationalist Government. Bughra was arrested by the British in 1942 for spying, and KMT arranged for Bughra 's release. He and Isa Yusuf worked as editors of KMT Muslim publications. Ma Tianying (馬天英) (1900 -- 1982) led the 1939 mission which had 5 other people including Isa and Fuliang. KMT is anti-separatist; during its rule on mainland China, it crushed Uyghur and Tibetan separatist uprisings. KMT claims sovereignty over Mongolia and Tuva as well as the territories of the modern People 's Republic and Republic of China. KMT Muslim General Ma Bufang waged war on the invading Tibetans during the Sino - Tibetan War with his Muslim army, and he repeatedly crushed Tibetan revolts during bloody battles in Qinghai provinces. Ma Bufang was fully supported by President Chiang Kai - shek, who ordered him to prepare his Muslim army to invade Tibet several times and threatened aerial bombardment on the Tibetans. With support from KMT, Ma Bufang repeatedly attacked the Tibetan area of Golog seven times during the KMT Pacification of Qinghai, eliminating thousands of Tibetans. General Ma Fuxiang, the chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission stated that Mongolia and Tibet were an integral part of the Republic of China. Our party (KMT) takes the development of the weak and small and resistance to the strong and violent as our sole and most urgent task. This is even more true for those groups which are not of our kind (Ch. fei wo zulei zhe). Now the people of Mongolia and Tibet are closely related to us, and we have great affection for one another: our common existence and common honor already have a history of over a thousand years... Mongolia and Tibet 's life and death are China 's life and death. China absolutely can not cause Mongolia and Tibet to break away from China 's territory, and Mongolia and Tibet can not reject China to become independent. At this time, there is not a single nation on earth except China that will sincerely develop Mongolia and Tibet. Under orders from Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai - shek, the Hui General Ma Bufang, Governor of Qinghai (1937 -- 1949), repaired Yushu airport to prevent Tibetan separatists from seeking independence. Ma Bufang also crushed Mongol separatist movements, abducting the Genghis Khan Shrine and attacking Tibetan Buddhist Temples like Labrang, and keeping a tight control over them through the Kokonur God ceremony. During the Kumul Rebellion, KMT 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) crushed a separatist Uyghur First East Turkestan Republic, delivering it a fatal blow at the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Muslim General Ma Hushan pledged allegiance to KMT and crushed another Uyghur revolt at Charkhlik Revolt. KMT also fought against a Soviet and White Russian invasion during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. During the Ili Rebellion, KMT fought against Uyghur separatists and the Soviet Union, and against Mongolia. Communist Party / People 's Republic of China (Red Army → 8th Route Army, N4A, etc. → People 's Liberation Army)

la grande arche de la defense why is it called that

Grande Arche - wikipedia La Grande Arche de la Défense (pronounced (la ɡʁɑ̃d aʁʃ də la defɑ̃s); also La Grande Arche de la Fraternité) is a monument and building in the business district of La Défense and in the commune of Puteaux, to the west of Paris, France. It is usually known as the Arche de la Défense or simply as La Grande Arche. A 110 meter high cube, La Grande Arche is part of the perspective from the Louvre to Arc de Triomphe. The distance from La Grande Arche to Arc de Triomphe is 4 km. A great national design competition was launched in 1982 as the initiative of French president François Mitterrand. Danish architect Johan Otto von Spreckelsen (1929 -- 1987) and Danish engineer Erik Reitzel (1941 - 2012) designed the winning entry to be a late - 20th - century version of the Arc de Triomphe: a monument to humanity and humanitarian ideals rather than military victories. The construction of the monument began in 1985. Spreckelsen resigned in July 1986 and ratified the transfer of all his architectural responsibilities to his associate, French architect Paul Andreu. Reitzel continued his work until the monument was completed in 1989. The Arche is in the approximate shape of a cube (width: 110m, height: 110m, depth: 110m); it has been suggested that the structure looks like a hypercube (a tesseract) projected onto the three - dimensional world. It has a prestressed concrete frame covered with glass and Carrara marble from Italy and was built by the French civil engineering company Bouygues. La Grande Arche was inaugurated in July 1989, with grand military parades that marked the bicentennial of the French Revolution. It completed the line of monuments that forms the Axe historique running through Paris. The Arche is turned at an angle of 6.33 ° about the vertical axis. The most important reason for this turn was technical: with a métro station, an RER station, and a motorway all situated directly underneath the Arche, the angle was the only way to accommodate the structure 's giant foundations. In addition, from an architectural point of view, the turn emphasizes the depth of the monument and is similar to the turn of the Louvre at the other end of the Axe historique. In addition, the Arche is placed so that it forms a secondary axe (axis) with the two highest buildings in Paris, the Tour Eiffel and the Tour Montparnasse. The two sides of the Arche house government offices. The roof section was an exhibition centre, housing the Musée de l'Informatique (Computing Museum). The roof, when it was open to the public, was also popular for its views of Paris. However, after an accident without injury in the elevators in April 2010, the Department of Ecology, owner of the roof of the Grande Arche, decided to permanently close the computer museum, restaurant, and viewing deck. Access to the roof was still possible via the elevators in the north and south walls, but they were closed to the public. A reopening was planned for May 2017. The rooftop is now open to the public and includes a restaurant and an exhibition area dedicated to photojournalism. View of the Arc de Triomphe from the Grande Arche Christmas decoration at the Grand Arche The Grande Arche seen from the Arc de Triomphe on the Axe historique North façade of the Grande Arche de la Défense Organizations headquartered in the Grande Arche include the Bureau d'Enquêtes sur les Événements de Mer (BEAmer), the French marine accident investigation agency, in the southern (Sud) portion.

the origins of british democracy can be traced back to the

History of democracy - wikipedia A democracy is a political system, or a system of decision - making within an institution or organization or a country, in which all members have an equal share of power. Modern democracies are characterized by two capabilities that differentiate them fundamentally from earlier forms of government: the capacity to intervene in their own societies and the recognition of their sovereignty by an international legalistic framework of similarly sovereign states. Democratic government is commonly juxtaposed with oligarchic and monarchic systems, which are ruled by a minority and a sole monarch respectively. Democracy in its earliest forms is generally associated with the efforts of the ancient Greeks and Romans, who were themselves considered the founders of Western civilization by the 18th century intellectuals who attempted to leverage these early democratic experiments into a new template for post-monarchical political organization. The extent to which these 18th century democratic revivalists succeeded in turning the democratic ideals of the ancient Greeks and Romans into the dominant political institution of the next 300 years is hardly debatable, even if the moral justifications they often employed might be. Nevertheless, the critical historical juncture catalyzed by the resurrection of democratic ideals and institutions fundamentally transformed the ensuing centuries and has dominated the international landscape since the dismantling of the final vestige of empire following the end of the Second World War. Modern representative democracies attempt to bridge the gulf between the Hobbesian ' state of nature ' and the grip of authoritarianism through ' social contracts ' that enshrine the rights of the citizens, curtail the power of the state, and grant agency through the right to vote. Anthropologists have identified forms of proto - democracy that date back to small bands of hunter gatherers that predate the establishment of agrarian, settled, societies and still exist virtually unchanged in isolated indigenous groups today. In these groups of generally 50 - 100 individuals, often tied closely by familial bonds, decisions are reached by consensus or majority and many times without the designation of any specific chief. Given that these dynamics are still alive and well today, it is plausible to assume that democracy in one form or another arises naturally in any well - bonded group or tribe. These types of democracy are commonly identified as tribalism, or primitive democracy. In this sense, a primitive democracy usually takes shape in small communities or villages when there are face - to - face discussions in a village council or with a leader who has the backing of village elders or other cooperative forms of government. This becomes more complex on a larger scale, such as when the village and city are examined more broadly as political communities. All other forms of rule -- including monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, and oligarchy -- have flourished in more urban centers, often those with concentrated populations. The concepts (and name) of democracy and constitution as a form of government originated in ancient Athens circa 508 B.C. In ancient Greece, where there were many city - states with different forms of government, democracy was contrasted with governance by elites (aristocracy), by one person (monarchy), by tyrants (tyranny), etc., In recent decades scholars have explored the possibility that advancements toward democratic government occurred somewhere else (i.e. other than Greece) first, as Greece developed its complex social and political institutions long after the appearance of the earliest civilizations in Egypt and the Near East. Studying pre-Babylonian Mesopotamia, renowned scholar Thorkild Jacobsen used Sumerian epic, myth, and historical records to identify what he has called primitive democracy. By this, Jacobsen means a government in which ultimate power rests with the mass of free male citizens, although "the various functions of government are as yet little specialised (and) the power structure is loose ''. In early Sumer, kings like Gilgamesh did not hold the autocratic power that later Mesopotamian rulers wielded. Rather, major city - states functioned with councils of elders and "young men '' (likely free men bearing arms) that possessed the final political authority, and had to be consulted on all major issues such as war. Although pioneering in nature, the work has invoked little serious discussion and gained little outright acceptance. Scholars criticize the use of the word "democracy '' in this context since the same evidence also can be interpreted convincingly to demonstrate a power struggle between primitive monarchy and noble classes, a struggle in which the common people function more like pawns rather than any kind of sovereign authority. Jacobsen has conceded that the vagueness of the evidence prohibits the separation between the Mesopotamian democracy from a primitive oligarchy. Another claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent "republics '' of India, sanghas and ganas, which existed as early as the 6th century B.C. and persisted in some areas until the 4th century. The evidence for this is scattered, however, and no pure historical source exists for that period. In addition, Diodorus -- a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great 's invasion of India -- mentions, without offering any detail, that independent and democratic states existed in India. Modern scholars note the word democracy at the time of the 3rd century B.C. and later suffered from degradation and could mean any autonomous state, no matter how oligarchic in nature. Key characteristics of the gana seem to include a monarch, usually known by the name raja, and a deliberative assembly. The assembly met regularly. It discussed all major state decisions. At least in some states, attendance was open to all free men. This body also had full financial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other officers, who rarely receive any mention, obeyed the decisions of the assembly. Elected by the gana, the monarch apparently always belonged to a family of the noble class of K'satriya Varna. The monarch coordinated his activities with the assembly; in some states, he did so with a council of other nobles. The Licchavis had a primary governing body of 7,077 rajas, the heads of the most important families. On the other hand, the Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallas, and Licchavis, during the period around Gautama Buddha, had the assembly open to all men, rich and poor. Scholars differ over how best to describe these governments, and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper - class domination of the leadership and possible control of the assembly and see an oligarchy or an aristocracy. Despite the assembly 's obvious power, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation was truly popular. The first main obstacle is the lack of evidence describing the popular power of the assembly. This is reflected in the Artha ' shastra, an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. It contains a chapter on how to deal with the sangas, which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens -- a surprising omission if democratic bodies, not the aristocratic families, actively controlled the republican governments. Another issue is the persistence of the four - tiered Varna class system. The duties and privileges on the members of each particular caste -- rigid enough to prohibit someone sharing a meal with those of another order -- might have affected the roles members were expected to play in the state, regardless of the formality of the institutions. A central tenet of democracy is the notion of shared decision - making power. The absence of any concrete notion of citizen equality across these caste system boundaries leads many scholars to claim that the true nature of ganas and sanghas is not comparable to truly democratic institutions. Ancient Greece, in its early period, was a loose collection of independent city states called poleis. Many of these poleis were oligarchies. The most prominent Greek oligarchy, and the state with which democratic Athens is most often and most fruitfully compared, was Sparta. Yet Sparta, in its rejection of private wealth as a primary social differentiator, was a peculiar kind of oligarchy and some scholars note its resemblance to democracy. In Spartan government, the political power was divided between four bodies: two Spartan Kings (diarchy), gerousia (Council of Gerontes (Elders), including the two kings), the ephors (representatives of the citizens who oversaw the Kings) and the apella (assembly of Spartans). The two kings served as the head of the government. They ruled simultaneously, but they came from two separate lines. The dual kingship diluted the effective power of the executive office. The kings shared their judicial functions with other members of the gerousia. The members of the gerousia had to be over the age of 60 and were elected for life. In theory, any Spartan over that age could stand for election. However, in practice, they were selected from wealthy, aristocratic families. The gerousia possessed the crucial power of legislative initiative. Apella, the most democratic element, was the assembly where Spartans above the age of 30 elected the members of the gerousia and the ephors, and accepted or rejected gerousia 's proposals. Finally, the five ephors were Spartans chosen in apella to oversee the actions of the kings and other public officials and, if necessary, depose them. They served for one year and could not be re-elected for a second term. Over the years, the ephors held great influence on the formation of foreign policy and acted as the main executive body of state. Additionally, they had full responsibility for the Spartan educational system, which was essential for maintaining the high standards of the Spartan army. As Aristotle noted, ephors were the most important key institution of state, but because often they were appointed from the whole social body it resulted in very poor men holding office, with the ensuing possibility that they could easily be bribed. The creator of the Spartan system of rule was the legendary lawgiver Lycurgus. He is associated with the drastic reforms that were instituted in Sparta after the revolt of the helots in the second half of the 7th century BCE. In order to prevent another helot revolt, Lycurgus devised the highly militarized communal system that made Sparta unique among the city - states of Greece. All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness, and austerity. It is also probable that Lycurgus delineated the powers of the two traditional organs of the Spartan government, the gerousia and the apella. The reforms of Lycurgus were written as a list of rules / laws called Great Rhetra, making it the world 's first written constitution. In the following centuries, Sparta became a military superpower, and its system of rule was admired throughout the Greek world for its political stability. In particular, the concept of equality played an important role in Spartan society. The Spartans referred to themselves as όμοιοι (Homoioi, men of equal status). It was also reflected in the Spartan public educational system, agoge, where all citizens irrespective of wealth or status had the same education. This was admired almost universally by contemporaries, from historians such as Herodotus and Xenophon to philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. In addition, the Spartan women, unlike elsewhere, enjoyed "every kind of luxury and intemperance '' including rights such as the right to inheritance, property ownership, and public education. Overall, the Spartans were remarkably free to criticize their kings and they were able to depose and exile them. However, despite these democratic elements in the Spartan constitution, there are two cardinal criticisms, classifying Sparta as an oligarchy. First, individual freedom was restricted, since as Plutarch writes "no man was allowed to live as he wished '', but as in a "military camp '' all were engaged in the public service of their polis. And second, the gerousia effectively maintained the biggest share of power of the various governmental bodies. The political stability of Sparta also meant that no significant changes in the constitution were made. The oligarchic elements of Sparta became even stronger, especially after the influx of gold and silver from the victories in the Persian Wars. In addition, Athens, after the Persian Wars, was becoming the hegemonic power in the Greek world and disagreements between Sparta and Athens over supremacy emerged. These led to a series of armed conflicts known as the Peloponnesian War, with Sparta prevailing in the end. However, the war exhausted both poleis and Sparta was in turn humbled by Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE. It was all brought to an end a few years later, when Philip II of Macedon crushed what remained of the power of the factional city states to his South. Although Athens was not one of the earliest Greek democracies, it is often regarded as the birthplace of democracy and remains an important reference - point for democracy. Athens emerged in the 7th century BCE, like many other poleis, with a dominating powerful aristocracy. However, this domination led to exploitation, creating significant economic, political, and social problems. These problems exacerbated early in the 6th century; and, as "the many were enslaved to few, the people rose against the notables ''. At the same time, a number of popular revolutions disrupted traditional aristocracies. This included Sparta in the second half of the 7th century BCE. The constitutional reforms implemented by Lycurgus in Sparta introduced a hoplite state that showed, in turn, how inherited governments can be changed and lead to military victory. After a period of unrest between the rich and poor, Athenians of all classes turned to Solon to act as a mediator between rival factions, and reached a generally satisfactory solution to their problems. Solon (c. 638 -- c. 558 BC), an Athenian (Greek) of noble descent but moderate means, was a lyric poet and later a lawmaker; Plutarch ranked him as one of the Seven Sages of the ancient world. Solon attempted to satisfy all sides by alleviating the suffering of the poor majority without removing all the privileges of the rich minority. Solon divided the Athenians into four property - classes, with different rights and duties for each. As the Rhetra did in Lycurgian Sparta, Solon formalized the composition and functions of the governmental bodies. All citizens gained the right to attend the Ecclesia (Assembly) and to vote. The Ecclesia became, in principle, the sovereign body, entitled to pass laws and decrees, elect officials, and hear appeals from the most important decisions of the courts. All but those in the poorest group might serve, a year at a time, on a new Boule of 400, which was to prepare the agenda for the Ecclesia. The higher governmental posts, those of the archons (magistrates), were reserved for citizens of the top two income - groups. The retired archons became members of the Areopagus (Council of the Hill of Ares), which like the Gerousia in Sparta, was able to check improper actions of the newly powerful Ecclesia. Solon created a mixed timocratic and democratic system of institutions. Overall, Solon devised the reforms of 594 BC to avert the political, economic, and moral decline in archaic Athens and gave Athens its first comprehensive code of law. The constitutional reforms eliminated enslavement of Athenians by Athenians, established rules for legal redress against over-reaching aristocratic archons, and assigned political privileges on the basis of productive wealth rather than of noble birth. Some of Solon 's reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy. Even though the Solonian reorganization of the constitution improved the economic position of the Athenian lower classes, it did not eliminate the bitter aristocratic contentions for control of the archonship, the chief executive post. Peisistratus became tyrant of Athens three times from 561 BCE and remained in power until his death in 527 BCE. His sons Hippias and Hipparchus succeeded him. After the fall of tyranny (510 BCE) and before the year 508 -- 507 was over, Cleisthenes proposed a complete reform of the system of government, which later was approved by the popular Ecclesia. Cleisthenes reorganized the population into ten tribes, with the aim to change the basis of political organization from the family loyalties to political ones, and improve the army 's organization. He also introduced the principle of equality of rights for all, isonomia, by expanding access to power to more citizens. During this period, Athenians first used the word "democracy '' (Greek: δημοκρατία -- "rule by the people '') to define their new system of government. In the next generation, Athens entered its Golden Age, becoming a great center of literature and art. Greek victories in Persian Wars (499 -- 449 BCE) encouraged the poorest Athenians (who participated in the military campaigns) to demand a greater say in the running of their city. In the late 460s, Ephialtes and Pericles presided over a radicalization of power that shifted the balance decisively to the poorest sections of society, by passing laws which severely limited the powers of the Council of the Areopagus and allowed thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Pericles became distinguished as the Athenians ' greatest democratic leader, even though he has been accused of running a political machine. In the following passage, Thucydides recorded Pericles, in the funeral oration, describing the Athenian system of rule: The Athenian democracy of Cleisthenes and Pericles was based on freedom (through the reforms of Solon) and on equality (isonomia) - introduced by Cleisthenes and later expanded by Ephialtes and Pericles. To preserve these principles, the Athenians used lot for selecting officials. Casting lots aimed to ensure that all citizens were "equally '' qualified for office, and to avoid any corruption allotment machines were used. Moreover, in most positions chosen by lot, Athenian citizens could not be selected more than once; this rotation in office meant that no - one could build up a power base through staying in a particular position. The courts formed another important political institution in Athens; they were composed of a large number of juries with no judges, and they were selected by lot on a daily basis from an annual pool, also chosen by lot. The courts had unlimited power to control the other bodies of the government and its political leaders. Participation by the citizens selected was mandatory, and a modest financial compensation was given to citizens whose livelihood was affected by being "drafted '' to office. The only officials chosen by elections, one from each tribe, were the strategoi (generals), where military knowledge was required, and the treasurers, who had to be wealthy, since any funds revealed to have been embezzled were recovered from a treasurer 's private fortune. Debate was open to all present and decisions in all matters of policy were taken by majority vote in the Ecclesia (compare direct democracy), in which all male citizens could participate (in some cases with a quorum of 6000). The decisions taken in the Ecclesia were executed by the Boule of 500, which had already approved the agenda for the Ecclesia. The Athenian Boule was elected by lot every year and no citizen could serve more than twice. Overall, the Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule, and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. And even though the rights of the individual (probably) were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense, the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government, but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. Within the Athenian democratic environment, many philosophers from all over the Greek world gathered to develop their theories. Socrates (470 - 399 BCE) was the first to raise the question, further expanded by his pupil Plato (died 348 / 347), about the relation / position of an individual within a community. Aristotle (384 -- 322 BCE) continued the work of his teacher, Plato, and laid the foundations of political philosophy. The political philosophy developed in Athens was, in the words of Peter Hall, "in a form so complete that hardly added anyone of moment to it for over a millennium ''. Aristotle systematically analyzed the different systems of rule that the numerous Greek city - states had and divided them into three categories based on how many ruled: the many (democracy / polity), the few (oligarchy / aristocracy), a single person (tyranny, or today: autocracy / monarchy). For Aristotle, the underlying principles of democracy are reflected in his work Politics: The Athenian democracy, in its two centuries of life - time, twice voted against its democratic constitution (both times during the crisis at the end of the Pelopponesian War of 431 to 404 BC), establishing first the Four Hundred (in 411 BCE) and second Sparta 's puppet régime of the Thirty Tyrants (in 404 BCE). Both votes took place under manipulation and pressure, but democracy was recovered in less than a year in both cases. Reforms following the restoration of democracy after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants removed most law - making authority from the Assembly and placed it in randomly selected law - making juries known as "nomothetai ''. Athens restored its democratic constitution again after King Phillip II of Macedon (reigned 359 - 336 BCE) and later Alexander the Great (reigned 336 -- 323 BCE) unified Greece, but it was politically over-shadowed by the Hellenistic empires. Finally after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC, Athens was restricted to matters of local administration. However, democracy in Athens declined not only due to external powers, but due to its citizens, such as Plato and his student Aristotle. Because of their influential works, after the rediscovery of classics during the Renaissance, Sparta 's political stability was praised, while the Periclean democracy was described as a system of rule where either the less well - born, the mob (as a collective tyrant), or the poorer classes held power. Only centuries afterwards, after the publication of A History of Greece by George Grote from 1846 onwards, did modern political thinkers start to view the Athenian democracy of Pericles positively. In the late 20th century scholars re-examined the Athenian system of rule as a model of empowering citizens and as a "post-modern '' example for communities and organizations alike. Even though Rome is classified as a Republic and not a democracy, its history has helped preserve the concept of democracy over the centuries. The Romans invented the concept of classics and many works from Ancient Greece were preserved. Additionally, the Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries, and today 's modern (representative) democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models. Rome was a city - state in Italy next to powerful neighbors; Etruscans had built city - states throughout central Italy since the 13th century BCE and in the south were Greek colonies. Similar to other city - states, Rome was ruled by a king. However, social unrest and the pressure of external threats led in 510 BCE the last king to be deposed by a group of aristocrats led by Lucius Junius Brutus. A new constitution was crafted, but the conflict between the ruling families (patricians) and the rest of the population, the plebeians continued. The plebs were demanding for definite, written, and secular laws. The patrician priests, who were the recorders and interpreters of the statutes, by keeping their records secret used their monopoly against social change. After a long resistance to the new demands, the Senate in 454 BCE sent a commission of three patricians to Greece to study and report on the legislation of Solon and other lawmakers. When they returned, the Assembly in 451 BCE chose ten men -- a decemviri -- to formulate a new code, and gave them supreme governmental power in Rome for two years. This commission, under the supervision of a resolute reactionary, Appius Claudius, transformed the old customary law of Rome into Twelve Tables and submitted them to the Assembly (which passed them with some changes) and they were displayed in the Forum for all who would and could read. The Twelve Tables recognised certain rights and by the 4th century BCE, the plebs were given the right to stand for consulship and other major offices of the state. The political structure as outlined in the Roman constitution resembled a mixed constitution and its constituent parts were comparable to those of the Spartan constitution: two consuls, embodying the monarchic form; the Senate, embodying the aristocratic form; and the people through the assemblies. The consul was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate. Consuls had power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government and they would preside over the Senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army. The Senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum and were official advices to a magistrate. However, in practice it was difficult for a magistrate to ignore the Senate 's advice. The focus of the Roman Senate was directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the Senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. Also it managed Rome 's civil administration. The requirements for becoming a senator included having at least 100,000 denarii worth of land, being born of the patrician (noble aristocrats) class, and having held public office at least once before. New Senators had to be approved by the sitting members. The people of Rome through the assemblies had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of new laws, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances. Despite the obvious power the assemblies had, in practice the assemblies were the least powerful of the other bodies of government. An assembly was legal only if summoned by a magistrate and it was restricted from any legislative initiative or the ability to debate. And even the candidates for public office as Livy writes "levels were designed so that no one appeared to be excluded from an election and yet all of the clout resided with the leading men ''. Moreover, the unequal weight of votes was making a rare practice for asking the lowest classes for their votes. Roman stability, in Polybius ' assessment, was owing to the checks each element put on the superiority of any other: a consul at war, for example, required the cooperation of the Senate and the people if he hoped to secure victory and glory, and could not be indifferent to their wishes. This was not to say that the balance was in every way even: Polybius observes that the superiority of the Roman to the Carthaginian constitution (another mixed constitution) at the time of the Hannibalic War was an effect of the latter 's greater inclination toward democracy than to aristocracy. Moreover, recent attempts to posit for Rome personal freedom in the Greek sense -- eleutheria: living as you like -- have fallen on stony ground, since eleutheria (which was an ideology and way of life in the democratic Athens) was anathema in the Roman eyes. Rome 's core values included order, hierarchy, discipline, and obedience. These values were enforced with laws regulating the private life of an individual. The laws were applied in particular to the upper classes, since the upper classes were the source of Roman moral examples. Rome became the ruler of a great Mediterranean empire. The new provinces brought wealth to Italy, and fortunes were made through mineral concessions and enormous slave run estates. Slaves were imported to Italy and wealthy landowners soon began to buy up and displace the original peasant farmers. By the late 2nd century this led to renewed conflict between the rich and poor and demands from the latter for reform of constitution. The background of social unease and the inability of the traditional republican constitutions to adapt to the needs of the growing empire led to the rise of a series of over-mighty generals, championing the cause of either the rich or the poor, in the last century BCE. Over the next few hundred years, various generals would bypass or overthrow the Senate for various reasons, mostly to address perceived injustices, either against themselves or against poorer citizens or soldiers. One of those generals was Julius Caesar, where he marched on Rome and took supreme power over the republic. Caesar 's career was cut short by his assassination at Rome in 44 BCE by a group of Senators including Marcus Junius Brutus. In the power vacuum that followed Caesar 's assassination, his friend and chief lieutenant, Marcus Antonius, and Caesar 's grandnephew Octavian who also was the adopted son of Caesar, rose to prominence. Their combined strength gave the triumvirs absolute power. However, in 31 BC war between the two broke out. The final confrontation occurred on 2 September 31 BCE, at the naval Battle of Actium where the fleet of Octavian under the command of Agrippa routed Antony 's fleet. Thereafter, there was no one left in the Roman Republic who wanted to, or could stand against Octavian, and the adopted son of Caesar moved to take absolute control. Octavian left the majority of Republican institutions intact, though he influenced everything using personal authority and ultimately controlled the final decisions, having military might to back up his rule if necessary. By 27 BCE the transition, though subtle, disguised, and relying on personal power over the power of offices, was complete. In that year, Octavian offered back all his powers to the Senate, and in a carefully staged way, the Senate refused and titled Octavian Augustus -- "the revered one ''. He was always careful to avoid the title of rex -- "king '', and instead took on the titles of princeps -- "first citizen '' and imperator, a title given by Roman troops to their victorious commanders. The Roman Empire had been born. Once Octavian named Tiberius as his heir, it was clear to everyone that even the hope of a restored Republic was dead. Most likely, by the time Augustus died, no one was old enough to know a time before an Emperor ruled Rome. The Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic régime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war. The Roman Empire was eventually divided between the Western Roman Empire which fell in 476 AD and the Eastern Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire) which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. Most of the procedures used by modern democracies are very old. Almost all cultures have at some time had their new leaders approved, or at least accepted, by the people; and have changed the laws only after consultation with the assembly of the people or their leaders. Such institutions existed since before the times of the Iliad or of the Odyssey, and modern democracies are often derived from or inspired by them, or what remained of them. Nevertheless, the direct result of these institutions was not always a democracy. It was often a narrow oligarchy, as in Venice, or even an absolute monarchy, as in Florence, in the Renaissance period; but during the medieval period guild democracies did evolve. Early institutions included: Historian Jack Weatherford has argued that the ideas leading to the United States Constitution and democracy derived from various indigenous peoples of the Americas including the Iroquois. Weatherford claimed this democracy was founded between the years 1000 -- 1450, and lasted several hundred years, and that the U.S. democratic system was continually changed and improved by the influence of Native Americans throughout North America. Temple University professor of anthropology and an authority on the culture and history of the Northern Iroquois Elizabeth Tooker has reviewed these claims and concluded they are myth rather than fact. The idea that North American Indians had a democratic culture is several decades old, but not usually expressed within historical literature. The relationship between the Iroquois League and the Constitution is based on a portion of a letter written by Benjamin Franklin and a speech by the Iroquois chief Canasatego in 1744. Tooker concluded that the documents only indicate that some groups of Iroquois and white settlers realized the advantages of a confederation, and that ultimately there is little evidence to support the idea that eighteenth century colonists were knowledgeable regarding the Iroquois system of governance. What little evidence there is regarding this system indicates chiefs of different tribes were permitted representation in the Iroquois League council, and this ability to represent the tribe was hereditary. The council itself did not practice representative government, and there were no elections; deceased chiefs ' successors were selected by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage in consultation with other women in the clan. Decision making occurred through lengthy discussion and decisions were unanimous, with topics discussed being introduced by a single tribe. Tooker concludes that "... there is virtually no evidence that the framers borrowed from the Iroquois '' and that the myth that this was the case is the result of exaggerations and misunderstandings of a claim made by Iroquois linguist and ethnographer J.N.B. Hewitt after his death in 1937. The Aztecs also practiced elections, but the elected officials elected a supreme speaker, not a ruler. The notion of a secret ballot, where one is entitled to the privacy of their votes, is taken for granted by most today by virtue of the fact that it is simply considered the norm. However, this practice was highly controversial in the 19th century; it was widely argued that no man would want to keep his vote secret unless he was ashamed of it. The two earliest systems used were the Victorian method and the South Australian method. Both were introduced in 1856 to voters in Victoria and South Australia. The Victorian method involved voters crossing out all the candidates whom he did not approve of. The South Australian method, which is more similar to what most democracies use today, had voters put a mark in the preferred candidate 's corresponding box. The Victorian voting system also was not completely secret, as it was traceable by a special number. The stone inscriptions in a temple say that ballot elections were held in South India by a method called Kudavolai system. Kudavolai means the ballot sheet of leaf that was put secretly in a pot vessel called "kudam ''. The details are found inscribed on the walls of the village assembly hall. Actually, the once village - assembly hall is the present temple. The details show that the village had a secret ballot electoral system and a written Constitution, prescribing the mode of elections. The end of the First World War was a temporary victory for democracy in Europe, as it was preserved in France and temporarily extended to Germany. Already in 1906 full modern democratic rights, universal suffrage for all citizens was implemented constitutionally in Finland as well as a proportional representation, open list system. Likewise, the February Revolution in Russia in 1917 inaugurated a few months of liberal democracy under Alexander Kerensky until Lenin took over in October. The terrible economic impact of the Great Depression hurt democratic forces in many countries. The 1930s became a decade of dictators in Europe and Latin America. The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted full U.S. citizenship to America 's indigenous peoples, called "Indians '' in this Act. (The Fourteenth Amendment guarantees citizenship to persons born in the U.S., but only if "subject to the jurisdiction thereof ''; this latter clause excludes certain indigenous peoples.) The act was signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge on 2 June 1924. The act further enfranchised the rights of peoples resident within the boundaries of the United States. World War II was ultimately a victory for democracy in Western Europe, where representative governments were established that reflected the general will of their citizens. However, many countries of Central and Eastern Europe became undemocratic Soviet satellite states. In Southern Europe, a number of right - wing authoritarian dictatorships (most notably in Spain and Portugal) continued to exist. Japan had moved towards democracy during the Taishō period during the 1920s, but it was under effective military rule in the years before and during World War II. The country adopted a new constitution during the postwar Allied occupation, with initial elections in 1946. World War II also planted seeds of democracy outside Europe and Japan, as it weakened, with the exception of the USSR and the United States, all the old colonial powers while strengthening anticolonial sentiment worldwide. Many restive colonies / possessions were promised subsequent independence in exchange for their support for embattled colonial powers during the war. The aftermath of World War II also resulted in the United Nations ' decision to partition the British Mandate into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. On 14 May 1948 the state of Israel declared independence and thus was born the first full democracy in the Middle East. Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system and universal suffrage. India became a Democratic Republic in 1950 after achieving independence from Great Britain in 1947. After holding its first national elections in 1952, India achieved the status of the world 's largest liberal democracy with universal suffrage which it continues to hold today. Most of the former British and French colonies were independent by 1965 and at least initially democratic; those that were formerly part of the British Empire often adopted the Westminster parliamentary system. The process of decolonisation created much political upheaval in Africa and parts of Asia, with some countries experiencing often rapid changes to and from democratic and other forms of government. In the United States of America, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act enforced the 15th Amendment. The 24th Amendment ended poll taxing by removing all tax placed upon voting, which was a technique commonly used to restrict the African American vote. The Voting Rights Act also granted voting rights to all Native Americans, irrespective of their home state. The minimum voting age was reduced to 18 by the 26th Amendment in 1971. New waves of democracy swept across Southern Europe in the 1970s, as a number of right - wing nationalist dictatorships fell from power. Later, in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, the communist states in the USSR sphere of influence were also replaced with liberal democracies. Much of Eastern Europe, Latin America, East and Southeast Asia, and several Arab, central Asian and African states, and the not - yet - state that is the Palestinian Authority moved towards greater liberal democracy in the 1990s and 2000s. An analysis by the U.S. Government funded Freedom House shows that there was not a single liberal democracy with universal suffrage in the world in 1900, but that in 2000, 120 of the world 's 192 nations, or 62 % were such democracies. They count 25 nations, or 13 % of the world 's nations with "restricted democratic practices '' in 1900 and 16, or 8 % of the world 's nations today. They counted 19 constitutional monarchies in 1900, forming 14 % of the world 's nations, where a constitution limited the powers of the monarch, and with some power devolved to elected legislatures, and none in the present. Other nations had, and have, various forms of non-democratic rule. While the specifics may be open to debate (for example, New Zealand actually enacted universal suffrage in 1893, but is discounted due to a lack of complete sovereignty and certain restrictions on the Māori vote), the numbers are indicative of the expansion of democracy during the twentieth century. In the 21st century, democracy movements have been seen across the world. In the Arab world, an unprecedented series of major protests occurred with citizens of Egypt, Tunisia, Bahrain, Yemen, Jordan, Syria and other countries across the MENA region demanding democratic rights. This revolutionary wave was given the term Tunisia Effect, as well as the Arab Spring. The Palestinian Authority also took action to address democratic rights. In Iran, following a highly disputed presidential vote fraught with corruption, Iranian citizens held a major series of protests calling for change and democratic rights (see: the 2009 -- 2010 Iranian election protests and the 2011 Iranian protests). The 2003 US - led invasion of Iraq led to a toppling of Saddam Hussein and a new constitution with free and open elections. In Asia, the country of Burma (also known as Myanmar) had long been ruled by a military junta; however, in 2011, the government changed to allow certain voting rights and released democracy - leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest. However, Burma still will not allow Suu Kyi to run for election and still has major human rights problems and not full democratic rights. In Bhutan, in December 2005, the 4th King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced that the first general elections would be held in 2008, and that he would abdicate the throne in favor of his eldest son. Bhutan is currently undergoing further changes to allow for a constitutional monarchy. In the Maldives, protests and political pressure led to a government reform which allowed democratic rights and presidential elections in 2008. Not all movement has been pro-democratic however. In Poland and Hungary, so - called ' illiberal democracies ' have taken hold, with the ruling parties in both countries considered by the EU and civil society to be working to undermine democratic governance. Also in Europe, the Spanish government refused to allow a democratic vote on the future of Catalunya, a decision causing months of instability in the region. Meanwhile in Thailand a military junta twice overthrew democratically elected governments and has changed the constitution in order to increase its own power. There are also large parts of the world such as China, Russia, Central and South East Asia, the Middle East and much of Africa which have consolidated authoritarian rule rather seeing it weaken. Under the influence of the theory of deliberative democracy, there have been several experiments since the start of the new millennium with what are called deliberative fora, places (in real life or in cyber space) where citizens and their representatives assemble to exchange reasons. One type of deliberative forum is called a minpublic: a body of randomly chosen or actively selected citizens that represents the whole population. The use of random selection to form a representative deliberative body is known as sortition. Examples of this are citizens ' assemblies and citizens ' juries. Citizens ' assemblies have been used in Canada (2004, 2006) and the Netherlands (2006) to debate electoral reform, and in Iceland (2009 and 2010) for broader constitutional change. ^ i: Literature about the Athenian democracy spans over centuries with the earliest works being The Republic of Plato and Politics of Aristotle, continuing with Discourses of Niccolò Machiavelli. The latest, listed in the References section, include works from scholars such as J. Dunn, J. Ober, T. Buckley, J. Thorley and E.W. Robinson, who examine the origins and the reasons of Athens being the first to developed a sophisticated system of rule that we today call democracy. Despite its flaws (slavery, no women 's rights) it is often considered the closest to the ideal democracy and called as classical democracy. It is often compared with modern (representative) democracies. ^ ii: The ancient Greeks did not have a word to use for "rights ''. ^ iii: The United States of America was and is, a republic, not a direct democracy. A direct democracy can be defined as a form of government in which the people decide matters directly, with prime example the Athenian democracy. A democratic republic, is a form of government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law. The delegates who wrote the Constitution were fearful of direct democracy; in the words of James Madison: "(D) emocracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention: have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property: and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths. '' Nevertheless, the framers recognized that the public is required to impose a check to the government, in Madison words: "dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government ''. By popular usage, however, the word "democracy '' came to mean a form of government in which the government derives its power from the people and is accountable to them for the use of that power. In this sense the United States can be called a democratic republic. Many states allow for policy questions to be decided directly by the people by voting on ballot initiatives or referendums. (Initiatives originate with, or are initiated by, the people while referendums originate with, or are referred to the people by a state 's legislative body.)

what is the real name of jethalal in taarak mehta ka ooltah chashmah

Dilip Joshi - Wikipedia Dilip Joshi is an Indian film and television actor. He has appeared in a number of serials as well as films. He acts mostly in comedy and is currently playing the role of Jethalal Champaklal Gada in Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah. Born into a Gujarati family from Porbandar, Joshi obtained a degree in Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) from N.M. College of Commerce and Economics, Mumbai. While doing B.Com., he was awarded the INT (Indian National Theatre) best actor award twice. Joshi is married to Jaymala Joshi. The couple have 2 children, a son and a daughter. Joshi lives in Mumbai with his family. Joshi was jobless for a year just before he signed for Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah. Joshi has appeared in several Gujarati dramas, one of them being Bapu Tame Kamaal Kari with Sumeet Raghavan and Amit Mistry, the trio known for their television serial Shubh Mangal Savadhan. Joshi starred in the show Yeh Duniya Hai Rangeen and Kya Baat Hai in which he played a South Indian. He also appeared in films such as Maine Pyaar Kiya and Hum Aapke Hain Koun...!. He plays the role of Jethalal Gada in Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah. He is known as one of the best sitcom actors ever. Notable among his tele - serials in Hindi are Kabhi Yeh Kabhi Woh, Hum Sab Ek Hain, Shubh Mangal Savadhan, Kya Baat Hai, Daal Mein Kala and Meri Biwi Wonderful. He appeared in the children 's comedy serial Agadam Bagdam Tigdam as Uncle Tappu, as well as in the 2009 films Dhoondte Reh Jaaoge and Ashutosh Gowarikar 's What 's Your Raashee. Dilip Joshi has been playing the role of Jethalal Champaklal Gada in the very popular comedy series Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah which airs on SAB TV since year 2008. Disha Vakani as Daya Jethalal Gada is paired opposite Dilip Joshi. Their unique comic timing is the main reason for the high ratings of the show. The show has high TRP mainly because of him.

who wrote the music for romeo and juliet

Romeo and Juliet (Tchaikovsky) - wikipedia Romeo and Juliet, TH 42, ČW 39, is an orchestral work composed by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. It is styled an Overture - Fantasy, and is based on Shakespeare 's play of the same name. Like other composers such as Berlioz and Prokofiev, Tchaikovsky was deeply inspired by Shakespeare and wrote works based on The Tempest and Hamlet as well. Unlike Tchaikovsky 's other major compositions, Romeo and Juliet does not have an opus number. It has been given the alternative catalogue designations TH 42 and ČW 39. Although styled an ' Overture - Fantasy ' by the composer, the overall design is a symphonic poem in sonata form with an introduction and an epilogue. The work is based on three main strands of the Shakespeare story. The first strand, written in F - sharp minor, following Mily Balakirev 's suggestion, is the introduction representing the saintly Friar Laurence. Here there is a foreboding of doom from the lower strings. The Friar Laurence theme is heard in F minor, with plucked strings, before ending up in E minor. The introduction is chorale - like. Eventually a single first inversion B minor chord is passed back and forth between strings and woodwinds grows into the second strand in B minor, the agitated theme of the warring Capulets and Montagues, including a reference to the sword fight, depicted by crashing cymbals. There are agitated, quick sixteenth notes. The forceful irregular rhythms of the street music point ahead to Igor Stravinsky and beyond. The action suddenly slows, the key changing from B minor to D - flat (as suggested by Balakirev) and we hear the opening bars of the "love theme '', the third strand, passionate and yearning in character but always with an underlying current of anxiety. The love theme signifies the couple first meeting and the scene at Juliet 's balcony. The English horn represents Romeo, while the flutes represent Juliet. Then the battling strand returns, this time with more intensity and build - up, with the Friar Laurence Theme heard with agitation. The strings enter with a lush, hovering melody over which the flute and oboe eventually soar with the love theme once again, this time loud and in D major, signaling the development section and their consummated marriage, and finally heard in E major, and two large orchestra hits with cymbal crashes signal the suicide of the two lovers. A final battle theme is played, then a soft, slow dirge in B major ensues, with timpani playing a repeated triplet pattern, and tuba holding a B natural for 16 bars. The woodwinds play a sweet homage to the lovers, and a final allusion to the love theme brings in the climax, beginning with a huge crescendo B natural roll of the timpani, and the orchestra plays homophonic shouts of a B major chord before the final bar, with full orchestra belting out a powerful B natural to close the overture. In 1869 Tchaikovsky was a 28 - year - old professor at the Moscow Conservatory. Having written his first symphony and an opera, he next composed a symphonic poem entitled Fatum. Initially pleased with the piece when Nikolai Rubinstein conducted it in Moscow, Tchaikovsky dedicated it to Balakirev and sent it to him to conduct in St. Petersburg. Fatum received only a lukewarm reception. Balakirev wrote a detailed letter to Tchaikovsky explaining the defects, but also giving some encouragement: Your Fatum has been performed (in St. Petersburg) reasonably well... There was n't much applause, probably because of the appalling cacophony at the end of the piece, which I do n't like at all. It is not properly gestated, and seems to have been written in a very slapdash manner. The seams show, as does all your clumsy stitching. Above all, the form itself just does not work. The whole thing is completely uncoordinated... I am writing to you with complete frankness, being fully convinced that you wo n't go back on your intention of dedicating Fatum to me. Your dedication is precious to me as a sign of your sympathy towards me -- and I feel a great weakness for you. M. Balakirev -- who sincerely loves you. Tchaikovsky was too self - critical not to see the truth behind Balakirev 's comments. He accepted Balakirev 's criticism, and the two continued to correspond. (Tchaikovsky later destroyed the score of Fatum. The score was reconstructed posthumously from the orchestral parts.) Balakirev remained suspicious of anyone with a formal conservatory training but clearly recognized Tchaikovsky 's great talents. Tchaikovsky liked and admired Balakirev. However, as he told his brother Anatoly, "I never feel quite at home with him. I particularly do n't like the narrowness of his musical views and the sharpness of his tone. '' Balakirev suggested Tchaikovsky write a piece based on William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet. Tchaikovsky was having difficulties writing an opera entitled Undine, which he would eventually destroy. Though he complained, "I 'm completely burned out, '' Balakirev persisted, as was his manner. Balakirev wrote suggestions about the structure of Romeo and Juliet, giving details of the type of music required in each section, and even opinions on which keys to use. Balakirev had suggested his own overture King Lear as a model for Romeo -- a prudent move, since he had seen Tchaikovsky 's weakness in writing in an unstructured musical form in Fatum. King Lear is not a symphonic poem in the manner of Liszt. It is a tragic overture in sonata form along the line of Beethoven 's overtures, relying more on the dramatic potential of sonata form rather than on a literary program. Thus, Balakirev had transformed King Lear into an instrumental drama and now offered it as a model to Tchaikovsky. While basing Romeo and Juliet on King Lear was Balakirev 's suggestion, reducing the plot of the former to one central conflict and then combining it with the binary structure of sonata form was Tchaikovsky 's idea. However, executing that plot in the music we know today came only after two radical revisions. The first version of Romeo and Juliet contained basically an opening fugato and a confrontation of the two themes -- exactly what an academically trained composer might be expected to produce. While Balakirev responded to the love theme by writing Tchaikovsky, "I play it often, and I want very much to hug you for it '', he also discarded many of the early drafts Tchaikovsky sent him -- the opening, for instance, sounded more like a Haydn quartet than the Liszt chorale he had suggested initially -- and the piece was constantly in the mail between Moscow and St. Petersburg, going to Tchaikovsky or Balakirev. Tchaikovsky accepted some, but not all, of Balakirev 's nagging, and completed the work, dedicating it to Balakirev. The first performance on March 16, 1870 was hindered by a sensational court case surrounding the conductor, Tchaikovsky 's friend Nikolai Rubinstein, and a female student. The court had found against the eminent musician the previous day, and this incited a noisy demonstration in his favour when he appeared on the concert platform, which proved much more interesting to the audience than the new overture. The result was not encouraging as a premiere for Romeo and Juliet. Tchaikovsky said of the premiere: The initial failure of Romeo and Juliet induced Tchaikovsky to fully accept Balakirev 's criticisms and rework the piece. It also forced Tchaikovsky to reach beyond his musical training and rewrite much of the music into the form we know today. This included the unacademic but dramatically brilliant choice of leaving the love theme out of the development section, saving its confrontation with the first theme (the conflict of the Capulets and Montagues) for the second half of the recapitulation. In the exposition, the love theme remains shielded from the violence of the first theme. In the recapitulation the first theme strongly influences the love theme and ultimately destroys it. By following this pattern, Tchaikovsky shifts the true musical conflict from the development section to the recapitulation, where it climaxes in dramatic catastrophe. Meanwhile, Rubinstein had become impressed with Tchaikovsky 's compositional talents in general and with Romeo and Juliet in particular. He arranged for the publishing house Bote and Bock to publish the piece in 1870. This was considered an accomplishment since Tchaikovsky 's music was virtually unknown in Germany at the time. Balakirev thought Tchaikovsky was rushing Romeo and Juliet to press prematurely. "It is a pity that you, or rather Rubinstein, should have rushed the publication of the Overture, '' he wrote to the composer. "Although the new introduction is a decided improvement, there were other changes I had wanted you to make. I had hoped that for the sake of your future compositions, this one would remain in your hands somewhat longer. '' Balakirev closed by hoping that P. Jurgenson would sometime agree to bring out a "revised and improved version of the Overture. '' The second version was premiered in St. Petersburg on February 17, 1872, under Eduard Nápravník. In 1880, ten years after his first reworking of the piece, Tchaikovsky rewrote the ending and gave the piece the sub-title "Overture - Fantasia ''. It was completed by September 10, 1880, but did not receive its premiere until May 1, 1886, in Tbilisi, Georgia (then part of the Russian Empire), under Mikhail Ippolitov - Ivanov. This third and final version is the one that is now in the repertoire. The earlier versions are performed occasionally as historical curiosities. At first Romeo and Juliet was not successful in Russia and Europe. It was received lukewarmly at its world premiere in March 1870. The work was hissed when Hans Richter conducted it in Vienna in November 1876; critic Eduard Hanslick excoriated the piece afterwards. The Paris premiere two weeks later, at the Concerts Populaires under Jules Pasdeloup, went no better. According to Tchaikovsky 's colleague and friend Sergei Taneyev, who attended the Paris performance, Romeo 's lack of success there may have been due to Pasdeloup 's failure to understand the music. Despite this, several Parisian composers and musicians, including Camille Saint - Saëns, appreciated the piece. One group that appreciated Romeo at once was the kuchka ("The Five ''). Balakirev, now having the full score, wrote of their enthusiastic response and ' how delighted everyone is with your D - flat bit (the love theme) -- including Vladimir Stasov, who says: "There were five of you: now there are six! '' The beginning and end are as strongly censured ' -- and, Balakirev added, needed rewriting. Still, such was the enthusiasm of the kuchka for Romeo that Balakirev was asked to play it every time they met. Eventually, he learned to play the piece from memory as a result of fulfilling their requests. The Overture 's love theme has been used in many television series and movies such as Columbo, Kim Possible, The Jazz Singer (1927), Wayne 's World, Animaniacs, Freakazoid, Pinky and the Brain, Road Rovers, Taz - Mania, Tiny Toons, Scrubs, Seeing Double, The Ren and Stimpy Show, South Park, Clueless, A Christmas Story, The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air, Moonraker, SpongeBob SquarePants, Pushing Daisies, Sesame Street, El Chavo, The Three Musketeers, among others. Different variations of the overture 's love theme were also played in the original The Sims video game, when two Sims successfully performed the "Kiss '' interaction. How "powerful '' the theme was depended on how compatible, or how in love, the interacting Sims were with each other. Along with another Tchaikovsky piece, Dance of the Reed Flutes from the ballet The Nutcracker, the Romeo and Juliet love theme was sampled at the same time to the song "Love, so Lovely '' for the direct - to - video Disney film Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers. Excerpts from the score were used in the 2005 ballet Anna Karenina, choreographed by Boris Eifman. The main theme of the overture to Romeo and Juliet was adapted in 1939 by bandleader Larry Clinton as popular song "Our Love '' (lyrics by Buddy Bernier and Bob Emmerich) and recorded by Clinton and by Jimmy Dorsey. Excerpts of the overture for the fireworks at the opening of APEC China 2014 held in Beijing before Vladimir Putin, Joko Widodo, Stephen Harper, Barack Obama, Park Geun - hye and other leaders of the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation. List of compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky

where does the saint lawrence turn to salt water

Saint Lawrence River - wikipedia The Saint Lawrence River (French: Fleuve Saint - Laurent; Tuscarora: Kahnawáʼkye; Mohawk: Kaniatarowanenneh, meaning "big waterway '') is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north - easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the international boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U.S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Saint Lawrence River begins at the outflow of Lake Ontario and flows adjacent to Gananoque, Brockville, Morristown, Ogdensburg, Massena, Cornwall, Montreal, Trois - Rivières, and Quebec City before draining into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the largest estuary in the world. The estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île d'Orléans, just downstream from Quebec City. The river becomes tidal around Quebec City. The Saint Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres (1,900 mi) from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km (743.8 mi) from the outflow of Lake Ontario. These numbers include the estuary; without the estuary the length from Lake Ontario is ca. 500 km (ca. 300 mi). The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, Minnesota. Its drainage area, which includes the Great Lakes, the world 's largest system of freshwater lakes, is 1,344,200 square kilometres (518,998.5 sq mi), of which 839,200 km (324,016.9 sq mi) is in Canada and 505,000 km (194,981.6 sq mi) is in the United States. The basin covers parts of Ontario and Quebec in Canada, parts of Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and nearly the entirety of the state of Michigan in the United States. The average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second (590,000 cu ft / s). At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m / s (427,300 cu ft / s). The average discharge at the river 's source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m / s (262,000 cu ft / s). The Saint Lawrence River includes Lake Saint - Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry - de-Valleyfield and Lac Saint - Pierre east of Montreal. It encompasses four archipelagoes: the Thousand Islands chain near Alexandria Bay, New York and Kingston, Ontario; the Hochelaga Archipelago, including the Island of Montreal and Île Jésus (Laval); the Lake St. Pierre Archipelago (classified biosphere world reserve by the UNESCO in 2000) and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île d'Orléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé. It is the second longest river in Canada. Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saint - Maurice, Saint - François and Saguenay rivers drain into the Saint Lawrence. The Saint Lawrence River is in a seismically active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are rift - related and comprise the Saint Lawrence rift system. According to the United States Geological Survey, the Saint Lawrence Valley is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain and Northern physiographic section. However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is instead considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division, and not part of the Appalachian division at all. The Norse explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the 11th century and were followed by fifteenth and early sixteenth century European mariners, such as John Cabot, and the brothers Gaspar and Miguel Corte - Real. The first European explorer known to have sailed up the Saint Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier. At that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians; at the time of Cartier 's second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on Saint Lawrence 's feast day, he named it the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The Saint Lawrence River is partly within the U.S. and as such is that country 's sixth oldest surviving European place - name. The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf and River in pursuit of whales from the early 16th century. The Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencible 's disaster (1588), when the Spanish Basque whaling fleet was confiscated by King Philip II of Spain and largely destroyed. Initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat. Until the early 17th century, the French used the name Rivière du Canada to designate the Saint Lawrence upstream to Montreal and the Ottawa River after Montreal. The Saint Lawrence River served as the main route for European exploration of the North American interior, first pioneered by French explorer Samuel de Champlain. Control of the river was crucial to British strategy to capture New France in the Seven Years ' War. Having captured Louisbourg in 1758, the British sailed up to Quebec the following year thanks to charts drawn up by James Cook. British troops were ferried via the Saint Lawrence to attack the city from the west, which they successfully did at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The river was used again by the British to defeat the French siege of Quebec under the Chevalier de Lévis in 1760. Because of the virtually impassable Lachine Rapids, the Saint Lawrence was once continuously navigable only as far as Montreal. Opened in 1825, the Lachine Canal was the first to allow ships to pass the rapids. An extensive system of canals and locks, known as the Saint Lawrence Seaway, was officially opened on 26 June 1959 by Elizabeth II (representing Canada) and President Dwight D. Eisenhower (representing the United States). The Seaway now permits ocean - going vessels to pass all the way to Lake Superior. During the Second World War, the Battle of the St. Lawrence involved submarine and anti-submarine actions throughout the lower Saint Lawrence River and the entire Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Strait of Belle Isle and Cabot Strait from May to October 1942, September 1943, and again in October and November 1944. During this time, German U-boats sank several merchant marine ships and three Canadian warships. In the late 1970s, the river was the subject of a successful ecological campaign (called "Save the River ''), originally responding to planned development by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The campaign was organized, among others, by Abbie Hoffman. The source of the North River in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota (Seven Beaver Lake) is considered to be the source of the Saint Lawrence River. Because it crosses so many lakes, the water system frequently changes its name. From source to mouth, the names are: The Saint Lawrence River also passes through Lake Saint - Louis and Lake Saint - Pierre in Quebec. The Saint Lawrence River is at the heart of many Quebec novels (Anne Hébert 's Kamouraska, Réjean Ducharme 's L'avalée des avalés), poems (in works of Pierre Morency, Bernard Pozier), and songs (Leonard Cohen 's "Suzanne '', Michel Rivard 's "L'oubli '', Joe Dassin 's "Dans les yeux d'Émilie ''), and André Gagnon 's "Le Saint - Laurent ''). The river was the setting for the Canadian television drama series Seaway. The river has also been portrayed in paintings, notably by the Group of Seven. In addition, the river is the namesake of Saint - Laurent Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority. In 1980 Jacques Cousteau traveled to Canada to make two films on the Saint Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, Cries from the Deep and St. Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea. Musician David Usher released the song "St. Lawrence River '' on his Little Songs album in 1998. The novel and film Black Robe is set primarily on the St. Lawrence River during the 17th century.

who is usually credited for the popularization of tobacco in england

History of tobacco - wikipedia Tobacco has a long history from its usages in the early Americas. It increased in popularity with the arrival of Spain to America, which introduced tobacco to the Europeans by whom it was heavily traded. Following the industrial revolution, cigarettes were becoming popularized in the New World as well as Europe, which fostered yet another unparalleled increase in growth. This remained so until scientific studies in mid 20th century demonstrated the negative health effects of tobacco smoking including lung and throat cancer. Tobacco was first discovered by the native people of Mesoamerica and South America and later introduced to Europe and the rest of the world. Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas by the time European settlers arrived and took the practice to Europe, where it became popular. Eastern North American tribes have historically carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item, as well as smoking it in pipe ceremonies, whether for sacred ceremonies or those to seal a treaty or agreement. Tobacco is considered a gift from the Creator, and tobacco smoke is seen as carrying one 's thoughts and prayers to the spirits. In addition to its use in spiritual ceremonies, tobacco is also used in ethnobotany for medical treatment of physical conditions. As a pain killer it has been used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a poultice. Some indigenous peoples in California have used tobacco as one ingredient in smoking mixtures for treating colds; usually it is mixed with the leaves of the small desert sage, Salvia dorrii, or the root of Indian balsam or cough root, Leptotaenia multifida (the addition of which was thought to be particularly good for asthma and tuberculosis). In addition to its traditional medicinal uses, tobacco was also used as a form of currency between Native Americans and Colonists from the 1620s on. Religious use of tobacco is still common among many indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas. Among the Cree and Ojibwe of Canada and the north - central United States, it is offered to the Creator, with prayers, and is used in sweat lodges, pipe ceremonies, and is presented as a gift. A gift of tobacco is traditional when asking an Ojibwe elder a question of a spiritual nature. Of the four plants of the Americas that spread to the rest of the world in the Columbian Exchange -- potato, maize, tomato, and tobacco -- the last is the only one used in every country. Greek and Roman accounts exist of smoking hemp seeds, and a Spanish poem c. 1276 mentions the energetic effects of lavender smoke, but tobacco was completely unfamiliar to Europeans before the discovery of the New World. Las Casas vividly described how the first scouts sent by Columbus into the interior of Cuba found men with half - burned wood in their hands and certain herbs to take their smokes, which are some dry herbs put in a certain leaf, also dry, like those the boys make on the day of the Passover of the Holy Ghost; and having lighted one part of it, by the other they suck, absorb, or receive that smoke inside with the breath, by which they become benumbed and almost drunk, and so it is said they do not feel fatigue. These, muskets as we will call them, they call tabacos. I knew Spaniards on this island of Española who were accustomed to take it, and being reprimanded for it, by telling them it was a vice, they replied they were unable to cease using it. I do not know what relish or benefit they found in it. Following the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling colonization, and also became a driving factor in the incorporation of African slave labor. The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in about 1528, and by 1533, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his will, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung up. Jean Nicot, French ambassador in Lisbon, sent samples to Paris in 1559. The French, Spanish, and Portuguese initially referred to the plant as the "sacred herb '' because of its valuable medicinal properties. Nicot sent leaves and seeds to Francis I and his mother Catherine of Medici, with instructions to use tobacco as snuff. The king 's recurring headaches (perhaps sinus trouble) were reportedly "marvellously cured '' by snuff. French cultivation of herbe de la Reine (the queen 's herb) began in 1560. By 1570 botanists referred to tobacco as Nicotiana, although André Thevet claimed that he, not Nicot, had introduced tobacco to France; historians believe that this is unlikely to be true, but Thevet was the first Frenchman to write about it. Swiss doctor Conrad Gesner in 1563 reported that chewing or smoking a tobacco leaf "has a wonderful power of producing a kind of peaceful drunkenness ''. In 1571, Spanish doctor Nicolas Monardes wrote a book about the history of medicinal plants of the new world. In this he claimed that tobacco could cure 36 health problems, and reported that the plant was first brought to Spain for its flowers, but "Now we use it to a greater extent for the sake of its virtues than for its beauty ''. John Hawkins was the first to bring tobacco seeds to England. William Harrison 's English Chronology mentions tobacco smoking in the country as of 1573, before Sir Walter Raleigh brought the first "Virginia '' tobacco to Europe from the Roanoke Colony, referring to it as tobah as early as 1578. In 1595 Anthony Chute published Tabaco, which repeated earlier arguments about the benefits of the plant and emphasised the health - giving properties of pipe - smoking. The importation of tobacco into England was not without resistance and controversy. Stuart King James I wrote a famous polemic titled A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604, in which the king denounced tobacco use as "(a) custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the Lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit that is bottomelesse. '' That year, an English statute was enacted that placed a heavy protective tariff on tobacco imports. The duty rose from 2p per pound to 6s 10p, an increase of 4,000 %, but English demand remained strong despite the high price; Barnabee Rych reported that 7,000 stores in London sold tobacco and calculated that at least 319,375 pound sterling were spent on tobacco annually. Because the Virginia and Bermuda colonies ' economies were affected by the high duty, James in 1624 instead created a royal monopoly. No tobacco could be imported except from Virginia, and a royal license that cost 15 pounds per year was required to sell it. To help the colonies Charles II banned tobacco cultivation in England, but allowed herb gardens because doctors said it had medicinal purposes. Tobacco was introduced elsewhere in continental Europe more easily. Iberia exported "ropes '' of dry leaves in baskets to the Netherlands and southern Germany; for a while tobacco was in Spanish called canaster after the word for basket, canastro, and influenced the German Knaster. In Italy, Prospero Santacroce in 1561 and Nicolo Torbabuoni in 1570 introduced it to gardens after seeing the plant on diplomatic missions. Cardinal Crescenzio introduced smoking to the country in about 1610 after learning about it in England. The Roman Catholic Church did not condemn tobacco as James I did, but Pope Urban VIII threatened excommunication to anyone smoking in a church. In Russia, tobacco use was banned in 1634 except for foreigners in Moscow. Peter the Great -- who in England had learned of smoking and the royal monopoly -- became the monarch in 1689, however. Revoking all bans, he licensed an English company to import 1.5 million pounds of tobacco per year, the monarchy receiving 28,000 pound sterling annually. The Japanese were introduced to tobacco by Portuguese sailors from 1542. Tobacco first arrived in the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century, where it attracted the attention of doctors and became a commonly prescribed medicine for many ailments. Although tobacco was initially prescribed as medicine, further study led to claims that smoking caused dizziness, fatigue, dulling of the senses, and a foul taste / odour in the mouth. Sultan Murad IV banned smoking in the Ottoman Empire in 1633. When the ban was lifted by his successor, Ibrahim the Mad, it was instead taxed. In 1682, Damascene jurist Abd al - Ghani al - Nabulsi declared: "Tobacco has now become extremely famous in all the countries of Islam... People of all kinds have used it and devoted themselves to it... I have even seen young children of about five years applying themselves to it. '' In 1750, a Damascene townsmen observed "a number of women greater than the men, sitting along the bank of the Barada River. They were eating and drinking, and drinking coffee and smoking tobacco just as the men were doing. '' Although Nicotiana suaveolens is native to Australia, tobacco smoking first reached that continent shores when it was introduced to northern - dwelling Indigenous communities by visiting Indonesian fishermen in the early 18th century. British patterns of tobacco use were transported to Australia along with the new settlers in 1788; and in the years following colonisation, British smoking behaviour was rapidly adopted by Indigenous people as well. By the early 19th century tobacco was an essential commodity routinely issued to servants, prisoners and ticket - of - leave men (conditionally released convicts) as an inducement to work, or conversely, withheld as a means of punishment. In the Eastern United States, gold and silver are scarce, which made it harder for colonists to trade with Native Americans. The cultivation of tobacco in the Chesapeake area was essential to solving this problem. Without silver and gold to trade to the Chesapeake tribes, colonists traded tobacco for essential natural resources. This started in the 1620s. Tobacco was also used as a currency in the colonies, used for paying fines, taxes, and even marriage licenses. The increasing demand for tobacco in Europe fueled the slave trade. In the colonies land was at a premium because tobacco required lots of land to cultivate. This created a problem for the institutionalized practice of indentured servitude. Indentured servants were promised land of various amounts in their contracts. This land became harder to part with due to tobacco. The uncultivated Virginia soil was reportedly too rich for traditional European crops, especially cereals like barley. Tobacco "broke down the fields and made food crops more productive '' by depleting the soil of nutrients. With the profitability of the land rapidly increasing, it no longer was economically viable to bring in indentured servants because they were promised physical benefits at the end of their tenure. What the plantation owners wanted was workers who could legally not be paid and would be able to work long hours in the hot sun. Their conclusion was to turn to another institutionalized practice: slavery. The demand and profitability of tobacco led to the shift in the colonies to a slave based labor force. Tobacco is a labor - intensive crop, requiring lots of work for its cultivation, harvest, and curing. These tasks were carried out during the colonial period by slaves. The cultivation of Tobacco in America led to many changes. During the 1700s tobacco was a very lucrative crop due to its high demand in Europe. The climate of the Chesapeake area in America lent itself very nicely to the cultivation of tobacco. The high European demand for tobacco led to a rise in the value of tobacco. The rise of value of tobacco accelerated the economic growth in America. The cultivation of tobacco as a cash crop in America marks the shift from a subsistence economy to an agrarian economy. Tobacco 's desirability and value led to it being used as a currency in colonies. Tobacco was also backed by the gold standard which meant that there was an established conversion rate from tobacco to gold. The increasing role of tobacco as a cash crop led to a shift in the labor force that would shape American life and politics up through the Civil war. In order to keep up with demand tobacco plantation owners had to abandon the traditional practice of indentured servitude in the Americas. In order to pursue maximum profits, the plantation owners turned to slavery to supply them with the cheap, fungible labor that they needed to keep up with increasing production. In the first few years of tobacco cultivation in the colonies, the plants were simply covered with hay and left in the field to cure or "sweat. '' This method was abandoned after 1618, when regulations prohibited the use of valuable potential animal food for such purposes. It was also abandoned because a better method of curing tobacco had been developed. In this new method the wilted leaves were hung on lines or sticks, at first outside on fence rails. Tobacco barns for housing the crop were in use by the 1620s. During the curing period, which lasted about four to six weeks, the color of the tobacco changed from a greenish yellow to a light tan. Mold was an immense danger during this time. Once again, a planter relied on his experience to know when the tobacco was ready to be removed from the sticks on which it hung, a process known as "striking. '' At last, when the tobacco was ready, and preferably during a period of damp weather, workers struck the tobacco and laid the leaves on the floor of the tobacco barn to sweat for somewhere between a week or two. Logs could be used to press the tobacco and increase its temperature, but with that there came a danger. The heat might become too intense and mold spoil the crop. After sweating, the next step was sorting. Ideally, all the tobacco should be in a condition described by cropmasters as "in case ''. This meant that the tobacco had absorbed just the right amount of moisture; it could be stretched like leather, and was glossy and moist. If tobacco were too damp, it would rot in transit; if too dry, it would crumble and be unsalable. In the early years at Jamestown the settlers paid little heed to quality control, this attitude soon changed due to both the market and to regulations. Over time, the settlers began to separate the tobacco into sections of equal quality. The leaves were then tied together in Hands, bunches of five to fourteen. The Hands were returned to platforms to sweat. When they were once again "in case '', the inspection of the crop could take place and the final processing for export begin. Early on, the preparation of tobacco for shipping was very simple. The tobacco leaves were twisted and rolled, then spun into rope, which was wound into balls weighing as much as a hundred pounds (45.3 kilograms). These balls were protected in canvas or barrels, which would then be shipped to Britain. Although the export of bulk tobacco was not outlawed until 1730, a large barrel called a "hogshead '' soon became the favored container throughout the colonial period. Even though its capacity varied slightly, governed by the regulations of the day, the average weight of the tobacco stored in a hogshead barrel was about a thousand pounds (453.6 kilograms). These barrels were transported in a variety of ways to the ships on which they would be carried to England. At first, captains of merchant vessels simply traveled from one plantation dock to the next, loading up with barrels of tobacco as they moved along the river. Other ways included employing northern smugglers to ferry tobacco to England. In 1609, English colonist John Rolfe arrived at Jamestown, Virginia, and became the first settler to successfully raise tobacco (commonly referred to at that time as "brown gold '') for commercial use. Tobacco was used as currency by the Virginia settlers for years, and Rolfe was able to make his fortune in farming it for export at Varina Farms Plantation. When he left for England with his wife Pocahontas, a daughter of Chief Powhatan, he had become wealthy. Returning to Jamestown, following Pocahontas ' death in England, Rolfe continued in his efforts to improve the quality of commercial tobacco, and, by 1620, 40,000 pounds (18,000 kg) of tobacco were shipped to England. By the time John Rolfe died in 1622, Jamestown was thriving as a producer of tobacco, and its population had topped 4,000. Tobacco led to the importation of the colony 's first black slaves in 1619. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, tobacco continued to be the cash crop of the Virginia Colony, as well as The Carolinas. Large tobacco warehouses filled the areas near the wharves of new, thriving towns such as Dumfries on the Potomac, Richmond and Manchester at the Fall Line (head of navigation) on the James, and Petersburg on the Appomattox. There were also tobacco plantations in Tennessee, like Wessyngton in Cedar Hill, Tennessee. A historian of the American South in the late 1860s reported on typical usage in the region where it was grown: The chewing of tobacco was well - nigh universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both North and South before the war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offence to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for clean living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to contain these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class (officers in the Confederate army and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty) who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat awaiting his pleasure in the ante - room at the White House, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief seven - tenths of all persons above the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one - piece cotton garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of eight or nine years of age and half - grown girls smoked. Women and girls "dipped '' in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlors of hotels and in the streets. Until 1883, tobacco excise tax accounted for one third of internal revenue collected by the United States government. Internal Revenue Service data for 1879 - 80 show total tobacco tax receipts of $38.9 million, out of total receipts of $116.8 million. Following the American Civil War, the tobacco industry struggled as it attempted to adapt. Not only did the labor force change from slavery to sharecropping, but a change in demand also occurred. As in Europe, there was a desire for not only snuff, pipes and cigars, but cigarettes as well. With a change in demand and a change in labor force, James Bonsack, an avid craftsman, in 1881 created a machine that revolutionized cigarette production. The machine chopped the tobacco, then dropped a certain amount of the tobacco into a long tube of paper, which the machine would then roll and push out the end where it would be sliced by the machine into individual cigarettes. This machine operated at thirteen times the speed of a human cigarette roller. This caused an enormous growth in the tobacco industry that lasted well into the 20th century, until the scientific revelations discovering health consequences of smoking and tobacco companies ' usage of chemical additives was revealed. In the United States, The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (Tobacco Control Act) became law in 2009. It gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to regulate the manufacture, distribution, and marketing of tobacco products to protect public health. Nazi Germany saw the first modern anti-smoking campaign, the National Socialist government condemning tobacco use, funding research against it, levying increasing sin taxes on it, and in 1941 tobacco was banned in various public places as a health hazard. In the UK and the USA, an increase in lung cancer rates was being picked up by the 1930s, but the cause for this increase remained debated and unclear. A true breakthrough came in 1948, when the British physiologist Richard Doll published the first major studies that proved that smoking could cause serious health damage. In 1950, he published research in the British Medical Journal that showed a close link between smoking and lung cancer. Four years later, in 1954 the British Doctors Study, a study of some 40 thousand doctors over 20 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related. The British Doctors Study lasted till 2001, with result published every ten years and final results published in 2004 by Doll and Richard Peto. Much early research was also done by Dr. Ochsner. Reader 's Digest magazine for many years published frequent anti-smoking articles. In 1964 the United States Surgeon General 's Report on Smoking and Health likewise began suggesting the relationship between smoking and cancer, which confirmed its suggestions 20 years later in the 1980s. Partial controls and regulatory measures eventually followed in much of the developed world, including partial advertising bans, minimum age of sale requirements, and basic health warnings on tobacco packaging. However, smoking prevalence and associated ill health continued to rise in the developed world in the first three decades following Richard Doll 's discovery, with governments sometimes reluctant to curtail a habit seen as popular as a result - and increasingly organised disinformation efforts by the tobacco industry and their proxies (covered in more detail below). Realisation dawned gradually that the health effects of smoking and tobacco use were susceptible only to a multi-pronged policy response which combined positive health messages with medical assistance to cease tobacco use and effective marketing restrictions, as initially indicated in a 1962 overview by the British Royal College of Physicians and the 1964 report of the U.S. Surgeon General. In the 1950s tobacco companies engaged in a cigarette advertising war surrounding the tar content in cigarettes that came to be known as the tar derby. The companies repositioned their brands to emphasize low tar content, filter technology and nicotine levels. The period ended in 1959 after the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Chairman and several cigarette company presidents agreed to discontinue usage of tar or nicotine levels in advertisements. In order to reduce the potential burden of disease, the World Health Organization (WHO) successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003. The Convention is designed to push for effective legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco. The tobacco smoke enema was the principal medical method to resuscitate victims of drowning in the 18th century. As a lucrative crop, tobacco has been the subject of a great deal of biological and genetic research. The economic impact of Tobacco Mosaic disease was the impetus that led to the isolation of Tobacco mosaic virus, the first virus to be identified; the fortunate coincidence that it is one of the simplest viruses and can self - assemble from purified nucleic acid and protein led, in turn, to the rapid advancement of the field of virology. The 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared by Wendell Meredith Stanley for his 1935 work crystallizing the virus and showing that it remains active. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

who has been intentionally walked with the bases loaded

Intentional base on balls - wikipedia In baseball, an intentional base on balls, usually referred to as an intentional walk and denoted in baseball scorekeeping by IBB, is a walk issued to a batter by a pitcher with the intent of removing the batter 's opportunity to swing at the pitched ball. A pitch that is intentionally thrown far outside the strike zone for this purpose is referred to as an intentional ball. Beginning with the 2017 season, Major League Baseball has removed the requirement to throw four intentional balls. There, in amateur baseball such as high school and college baseball, and in most levels of Little League Baseball, the manager of the team in the field now simply asks the plate umpire to let the batter go to first base. The purpose of an intentional walk is to bypass the current batter in order to face the following batter, whom the defensive team expects to be easier to put out. The penalty under the rules is that the current batter becomes a baserunner which, on average, makes it more likely that the team at bat will score. Situations that call for the intentional walk include the following: The intentional walk disfavors a team that has one batter who is much better than the others, as it often lets opponents "take the bat out of his hands '' and opt to pitch to the next batter. An intentional base on balls -- whether achieved through intentional balls or through declaration -- has the effect of any other base on balls. The batter is entitled to take first base without being put out. Any runner already on first base is awarded second base, and so on; if the bases are loaded, an intentional base on balls results in the scoring of a run. Statistically, receiving an intentional base on balls does not count as an official at bat for a batter, but does count as a plate appearance and a base on balls. An intentional ball is counted as a ball in the count of the pitcher 's balls and strikes thrown. Even in leagues where a team can walk a batter by declaration, the pitcher may be instructed to "pitch around '' the batter. The manager defers the decision to intentionally walk the pitcher to see whether the batter swings at bad pitches. If the count goes to 3 balls, where the pitcher would have to deliver an attractive pitch to hit, the manager elects the intentional base on balls. A base on balls counts as an intentional base on balls if and only if the final pitch thrown in the plate appearance is an intentional ball. Pitching an intentional ball, like point after touchdown in football and a free throw in basketball, is designed not to be automatic. The pitcher generally aims several feet outside the strike zone, but the catcher must be in the catcher 's box when it is thrown. The catcher usually must shift position to catch an intentional ball. A balk or a wild pitch could occur, enabling runners to advance who would not have advanced from the base award to the batter. The batter can swing at an intentional ball, but can not leave the batter 's box to follow the pitch. Swinging is rarely to the batter 's advantage. In the Major Leagues, there were 12 cases from 1900 through 2011 of a batter making contact with an intentional ball. In 9 of these cases, the batter reached first base safely (six by hits, one by fielder 's choice, and two by errors). The batter 's team won in all nine of those instances. Most recently, on September 10, 2016, the Tampa Bay Rays opted to walk Gary Sanchez of the hosting New York Yankees. He drove an intentional ball to left field for a sacrifice fly. Before the 1920 season, the catcher was allowed to set up anywhere within a roughly 14 by 20 feet right triangle behind home plate, the back line being 10 feet behind the plate. The catcher could stand at a corner of this triangle to receive the four wide pitches, too far away for the batter to have any chance at hitting the ball. As the intentional walk become more frequent following the end of the dead ball era, batters (such as Ruth) complained about the unfairness of it. To give the batter a better chance (and to potentially increase scoring and attendance), major league baseball team owners (at the annual rules meeting in Chicago on February 9, 1920) initially attempted to ban the intentional base on balls by instituting a penalty that an intentional ball be counted as a balk (which would award each runner the next base). Veteran NL umpire Hank O'Day argued successfully against the proposal and the owners succeeded only in mandating that "the catcher must stand with both feet within the lines of the catcher 's box until the ball leaves the pitcher 's hand, '' a rule still in force today. The newly - redrawn catcher 's box reduced the back line from 10 to 8 feet behind the plate, and with sides 3 1 / 2 feet (42 inches) apart. Intentional walks have only been an officially tracked statistic since 1955. Prior to the 2017 season, as part of Major League Baseball 's efforts to improve the pace of play, the rules were amended to allow a manager to order an intentional walk by simply signaling the umpire. Barry Bonds holds most of the records for intentional walks, including four in a nine - inning game (2004), 120 in a season (2004), and 668 in his career (more than the next two players on the all - time list, Albert Pujols (302) and Hank Aaron (293), combined). Bonds, a prolific home run hitter, was a common target for the intentional walk. Nevertheless, many times the decision to walk Bonds was a futile strategy, as the San Francisco Giants still had the National League 's second - best offense in 2004, scoring 820 runs. In the first month of the 2004 baseball season, Bonds drew 43 walks, 22 of them intentional. He broke his previous record of 68 intentional walks, set in 2002, on July 10, 2004 in his last appearance before the All - Star break. There are claims that Mel Ott was also intentionally walked four times in a game against the Phillies in 1929 (see below). Hideki Matsui drew five consecutive intentional walks in a game in Japanese High School Baseball Championship at Koshien Stadium in 1992 and became a nationwide topic of conversation. With the bases loaded, an intentional base on balls forces in a run. This might be advisable if a team with a lead of two to four runs elects to concede one run of its lead so as not to have to pitch to a batter who might hit a home run to tie the game or take the lead. The following table shows each batter who has gotten this treatment in the history of Major League Baseball. Cases before 1955 are researched from newspaper reports, which may be subjective. The Mel Ott case, which is not included in the Baseball Almanac list, was not a result of in - game strategy. On October 5, 1929, in the first game of a Giants - Phillies doubleheader, Chuck Klein took the lead for the season home run title (box score). The Phillies ' manager told the pitcher to pitch around Ott so he would n't challenge Klein for the title. In the top of the ninth inning of the second game, the bases were full and the Giants were already well ahead of the Phillies. "The sign came from the bench to walk Ott. '' When the count got to 3 - 0, Ott swung at two wide ones but then accepted ball four and a run was forced in. A disputed anecdote says that, in 1926, the Cleveland Indians elected to walk Babe Ruth with the bases loaded. This angered Ruth; he swung anyway, and the result of the time at bat was a strikeout. This may refer to the game on July 10, in which Cleveland pitcher Joe Shaute purposely walked Ruth three times. Ruth was also called out once for stepping out of the batter 's box. Contemporary newspaper accounts give no indication that Ruth was walked with the bases full in that game. The intentional base on balls is often referred to as a "four - fingered salute. '' This reference stems from the manager 's holding up four fingers to signal an intentional walk to the pitcher or catcher. It is a "salute '' to the batter that the manager admits to wanting to pitch to someone else instead.

sun and moon ultra adventures episode 10 english dub

List of Pokémon: Sun & Moon: Ultra Adventures episodes - wikipedia The twenty - first season of the long running Pokémon animated series is known as Pocket Monsters: Sun & Moon (ポケットモンスター サン & ムーン, Poketto Monsutā: San & Mūn) in Japan and internationally as Pokémon Sun and Moon: Ultra Adventures (advertised as Pokémon the Series: Sun & Moon: Ultra Adventures). This season follows the continuing adventures of Ash and his classmates at the Pokémon school in the Alola region. The season premiered in Japan on October 5, 2017 on TV Tokyo. The season premiered in the United States on March 24, 2018 on Disney XD. The Japanese opening song is "Alola!! '' (アローラ!!, Arōra!!) by Rica Matsumoto with Ikue Otani. The Japanese ending song is "Pose '' (ポーズ, Pōzu) by Taiiku Okazaki. The Japanese second opening is "Future Connection '' (未来 コネクション, Mirai Konekushon) by Japanese Band, ReaL. The second Japanese ending song is "Twerp, Twerpette '' (ジャリ ボーイ ・ ジャリ ガール, Jari - boy, Jari - girl), again by Taiiku Okazaki. The opening for the English dub is "Under the Alolan Moon '' by Haven Paschall and Ben Dixon.

list of active ships in the german navy

List of active German Navy ships - wikipedia This is a list of active German Navy ships as of December 2016. There are approximately 65 ships in commission including; 10 frigates, 5 corvettes, 3 minesweepers, 10 minehunters, 6 submarines, 11 replenishment ships and 20 miscellaneous auxiliary vessels.

who is considered the inventor of modern aviation

History of aviation - wikipedia The history of aviation extends for more than two thousand years, from the earliest forms of aviation such as kites and attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight by powered, heavier - than - air jets. Kite flying in China dates back to several hundred years BC and slowly spread around the world. It is thought to be the earliest example of man - made flight. Leonardo da Vinci 's 15th - century dream of flight found expression in several rational but unscientific designs, though he did not attempt to construct any of them. The discovery of hydrogen gas in the 18th century led to the invention of the hydrogen balloon, at almost exactly the same time that the Montgolfier brothers rediscovered the hot - air balloon and began manned flights. Various theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period of time, notably fluid dynamics and Newton 's laws of motion, led to the foundation of modern aerodynamics, most notably by Sir George Cayley. Balloons, both free - flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with the French government establishing Balloon Companies during the Revolution. The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin avis "bird '' with suffix - ation meaning action or progress, was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel de La Landelle (1812 -- 1886) in "Aviation ou Navigation aérienne sans ballons ''. Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for heavier - than - air craft, and by the early - 20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered flight possible for the first time. The modern aeroplane with its characteristic tail was established by 1909 and from then on the history of the aeroplane became tied to the development of more and more powerful engines. The first great ships of the air were the rigid dirigible balloons pioneered by Ferdinand von Zeppelin, which soon became synonymous with airships and dominated long - distance flight until the 1930s, when large flying boats became popular. After World War II, the flying boats were in their turn replaced by land planes, and the new and immensely powerful jet engine revolutionised both air travel and military aviation. In the latter part of the 20th century the advent of digital electronics produced great advances in flight instrumentation and "fly - by - wire '' systems. The 21st century saw the large - scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently unstable aircraft such as flying wings became possible. The origin of mankind 's desire to fly is lost in the distant past. From the earliest legends there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks or other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest known; others originated from India, China and the European Middle Age. During this early period the issues of lift, stability and control were not understood, and most attempts ended in serious injury or death. In medieval Europe, the earliest recorded tower jump dates from 852 AD, when Armen Firman, also known as Abbas ibn Firnas (810 -- 887 A.D.), made a jump in Cordoba, Spain, reportedly covering his body with vulture feathers and attaching two wings to his arms. Eilmer of Malmesbury soon followed and many others have continued to do so over the centuries. As late as 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm. The kite may have been the first form of man - made aircraft. It was invented in China possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi (Mo Di) and Lu Ban (Gongshu Ban). Later designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure distances, test the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate and send messages. Kites spread from China around the world. After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite, where an abrasive line is used to cut down other kites. Man - carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China, for both civil and military purposes and sometimes enforced as a punishment. An early recorded flight was that of the prisoner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th Century AD. Stories of man - carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China around the seventh century AD. It is said that at one time there was a Japanese law against man - carrying kites. The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo - copter, an ancient Chinese toy. The similar "moulinet à noix '' (rotor on a nut) appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD. From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the principle to a type of small hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for pleasure and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, such lanterns were known in China from the 3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge Liang (180 -- 234 AD, honorific title Kongming), who is said to have used them to scare the enemy troops. There is evidence that the Chinese also "solved the problem of aerial navigation '' using balloons, hundreds of years before the 18th century. Eventually some investigators began to discover and define some of the basics of rational aircraft design. Most notable of these was Leonardo da Vinci, although his work remained unknown until 1797, and so had no influence on developments over the next three hundred years. While his designs were at least rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Leonardo studied bird flight, analyzing it and anticipating many principles of aerodynamics. He did at least understand that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. '' Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until 1687. From the last years of the 15th century on he wrote about and sketched many designs for flying machines and mechanisms, including ornithopters, fixed - wing gliders, rotorcraft and parachutes. His early designs were man - powered types including ornithopters and rotorcraft, however he came to realise the impracticality of this and later turned to controlled gliding flight, also sketching some designs powered by a spring. In 1670 Francesco Lana de Terzi published a work that suggested lighter than air flight would be possible by using copper foil spheres that, containing a vacuum, would be lighter than the displaced air to lift an airship. While theoretically sound, his design was not feasible: the pressure of the surrounding air would crush the spheres. The idea of using vacuum to produce lift is now known as vacuum airship but remains unfeasible with any current materials. In 1709 Bartolomeu de Gusmão presented a petition to King John V of Portugal, begging for support for his invention of an airship, in which he expressed the greatest confidence. The public test of the machine, which was set for June 24, 1709, did not take place. According to contemporary reports, however, Gusmão appears to have made several less ambitious experiments with this machine, descending from eminences. It is certain that Gusmão was working on this principle at the public exhibition he gave before the Court on August 8, 1709, in the hall of the Casa da Índia in Lisbon, when he propelled a ball to the roof by combustion. 1783 was a watershed year for ballooning and aviation. Between June 4 and December 1, five aviation firsts were achieved in France: Ballooning became a major "rage '' in Europe in the late 18th century, providing the first detailed understanding of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere. Non-steerable balloons were employed during the American Civil War by the Union Army Balloon Corps. The young Ferdinand von Zeppelin first flew as a balloon passenger with the Union Army of the Potomac in 1863. In the early 1900s ballooning was a popular sport in Britain. These privately owned balloons usually used coal gas as the lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of hydrogen so the balloons had to be larger, however coal gas was far more readily available and the local gas works sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for ballooning events. Airships were originally called "dirigible balloons '' and are still sometimes called dirigibles today. Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon continued sporadically throughout the 19th century. The first powered, controlled, sustained lighter - than - air flight is believed to have taken place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine driven craft. Another advance was made in 1884, when the first fully controllable free - flight was made in a French Army electric - powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs. The 170 - foot (52 m) long, 66,000 - cubic - foot (1,900 m) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23 minutes with the aid of an 81⁄2 horsepower electric motor. However, these aircraft were generally short - lived and extremely frail. Routine, controlled flights would not occur until the advent of the internal combustion engine (see below.) The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were non-rigid airships (sometimes called "blimps ''.) The most successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft was the Brazilian Alberto Santos - Dumont who effectively combined a balloon with an internal combustion engine. On October 19, 1901 he flew his airship Number 6 over Paris from the Parc de Saint Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back in under 30 minutes to win the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. Santos - Dumont went on to design and build several aircraft. Subsequent controversy surrounding his and others ' competing claims with regard to aircraft overshadowed his great contribution to the development of airships. At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to have some success, the first successful rigid airships were also being developed. These would be far more capable than fixed - wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo carrying capacity for decades. Rigid airship design and advancement was pioneered by the German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Construction of the first Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in a floating assembly hall on Lake Constance in the Bay of Manzell, Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the starting procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with the wind. The prototype airship LZ 1 (LZ for "Luftschiff Zeppelin '') had a length of 128 m (420 ft) was driven by two 10.6 kW (14.2 hp) Daimler engines and balanced by moving a weight between its two nacelles. Its first flight, on July 2, 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes, as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake after the winding mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon repair, the technology proved its potential in subsequent flights, bettering the 6 m / s speed attained by the French airship La France by 3 m / s, but could not yet convince possible investors. It would be several years before the Count was able to raise enough funds for another try. Although airships were used in both World War I and II, and continue on a limited basis to this day, their development has been largely overshadowed by heavier - than - air craft. Italian inventor Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish King Władysław IV to his court in Warsaw, built a model aircraft with four fixed glider wings in 1647. Described as "four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate ' dragon ' '', it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in 1648 but not Burattini himself. He promised that "only the most minor injuries '' would result from landing the craft. His "Dragon Volant '' is considered "the most elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane to be built before the 19th Century ''. The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the Air '' by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716. This flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He wrote: "It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come some one might know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such flights can take place without danger, although when the first trials are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind an arm or leg. '' Swedenborg would prove prescient in his observation that a method of powering of an aircraft was one of the critical problems to be overcome. Throughout the 19th century, tower jumping was replaced by the equally fatal but equally popular balloon jumping as a way to demonstrate the continued uselessness of man - power and flapping wings. Meanwhile, the scientific study of heavier - than - air flight began in earnest. Sir George Cayley was first called the "father of the aeroplane '' in 1846. During the last years of the previous century he had begun the first rigorous study of the physics of flight and would later design the first modern heavier - than - air craft. Among his many achievements, his most important contributions to aeronautics include: Cayley 's first innovation was to study the basic science of lift by adopting the whirling arm test rig for use in aircraft research and using simple aerodynamic models on the arm, rather than attempting to fly a model of a complete design. In 1799 he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed - wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. In 1804 Cayley constructed a model glider which was the first modern heavier - than - air flying machine, having the layout of a conventional modern aircraft with an inclined wing towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with both tailplane and fin. A movable weight allowed adjustment of the model 's centre of gravity. In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contemporaries (see above), he began the publication of a landmark three - part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation '' (1809 -- 1810). In it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air. '' He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust, lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He also identified and described the importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes. In 1848 he had progressed far enough to construct a glider in the form of a triplane large and safe enough to carry a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not known. He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full - size manned glider or "governable parachute '' to be launched from a balloon and then to construct a version capable of launching from the top of a hill, which carried the first adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853. Minor inventions included the rubber - powered motor, which provided a reliable power source for research models. By 1808 he had even re-invented the wheel, devising the tension - spoked wheel in which all compression loads are carried by the rim, allowing a lightweight undercarriage. Drawing directly from Cayley 's work, Henson 's 1842 design for an aerial steam carriage broke new ground. Although only a design, it was the first in history for a propeller - driven fixed - wing aircraft. 1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and two years later the world 's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace, London, where John Stringfellow was awarded a £ 100 prize for the steam engine with the best power - to - weight ratio. In 1848 Stringfellow achieved the first powered flight using an unmanned 10 ft wingspan steam - powered monoplane built in a disused lace factory in Chard, Somerset. Employing two contra - rotating propellers on the first attempt, made indoors, the machine flew ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt was more successful, the machine leaving a guide wire to fly freely, achieving some thirty yards of straight and level powered flight. Francis Herbert Wenham presented the first paper to the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aeronautical Society), On Aerial Locomotion. He advanced Cayley 's work on cambered wings, making important findings. To test his ideas, from 1858 he had constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are better than bat - like ones because they have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the aspect ratio of a wing. The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study, characterized by the "gentleman scientists '' who represented most research efforts until the 20th century. Among them was the British scientist - philosopher and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, who studied lateral flight control and was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868. In 1871 Wenham and Browning made the first wind tunnel. Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French researchers. In 1857 Félix du Temple proposed a monoplane with a tail plane and retractable undercarriage. Developing his ideas with a model powered first by clockwork and later by steam, he eventually achieved a short hop with a full - size manned craft in 1874. It achieved lift - off under its own power after launching from a ramp, glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it the first successful powered glide in history. In 1865 Louis Pierre Mouillard published an influential book The Empire Of The Air (l'Empire de l'Air). In 1856, Frenchman Jean - Marie Le Bris made the first flight higher than his point of departure, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel '' pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a height of 100 meters, over a distance of 200 meters. Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman, advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics and constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871 he flew the first aerodynamically stable fixed - wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the "Planophore '', a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pénaud 's model incorporated several of Cayley 's discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power. The planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a smaller angle of incidence than the wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of aeronautics. Pénaud 's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never built, incorporated other modern features. A tailless monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin tractor propellers, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit. Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pénaud 's fellow countryman Victor Tatin. In 1879 he flew a model which, like Pénaud 's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a pole, this was the first model to take off under its own power. In 1884 Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial Locomotion), although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly. In 1890 the French engineer Clément Ader completed the first of three steam - driven flying machines, the Éole. On October 9, 1890 Ader made an uncontrolled hop of around 50 m (165 ft); this was the first manned airplane to take off under its own power. His Avion III of 1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed to fly: Ader would later claim success and was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army published its report on his attempt. Sir Hiram Maxim was an American engineer who had moved to England. He built his own whirling arm rig and wind tunnel, and constructed a large machine with a wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three. Twin propellers were powered by two lightweight compound steam engines each delivering 180 hp (130 kW). Overall weight was 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). It was intended as a test rig to investigate aerodynamic lift: lacking flight controls it ran on rails, with a second set of rails above the wheels to restrain it. Completed in 1894, on its third run it broke from the rail, became airborne for about 200 yards at two to three feet of altitude and was badly damaged upon falling back to the ground. It was subsequently repaired, but Maxim abandoned his experiments shortly afterwards. In the last decade or so of the 19th century, a number of key figures were refining and defining the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine, aircraft work focused on stability and control in gliding flight. In 1879 Biot constructed a bird - like glider with the help of Massia and flew in it briefly. It is preserved in the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to be the earliest man - carrying flying machine still in existence. The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions to aerodynamics. He conducted extensive wind tunnel research on aerofoil sections, proving the principles of aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His findings underpin all modern aerofoil design. Otto Lilienthal became known as the "Glider King '' or "Flying Man '' of Germany. He duplicated Wenham 's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in 1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst). He also produced a series of hang gliders, including bat - wing, monoplane and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer Glider and Normal soaring apparatus. Starting in 1891 he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and the first to be photographed flying a heavier - than - air machine, stimulating interest around the world. He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best known of the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over 2,000 glides until his death in 1896 from injuries sustained in a glider crash. Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up aircraft design after an early retirement, and funded the development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896 his team flew several of their designs eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design. Like Lilienthal, he documented and photographed his work. In Britain Percy Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim, built and successfully flew several gliders during the mid to late 1890s. The invention of the box kite during this period by the Australian Lawrence Hargrave would lead to the development of the practical biplane. In 1894 Hargrave linked four of his kites together, added a sling seat, and flew 16 feet (4.9 m). Later pioneers of manned kite flying included Samuel Franklin Cody in England and Captain Génie Saconney in France. After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891 he published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in - flight control. On May 6, 1896, Langley 's Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine - driven heavier - than - air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring - actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25 miles per hour (40 km / h). On both occasions the Aerodrome No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On November 28, 1896, another successful flight was made with the Aerodrome No. 6. This flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by Alexander Graham Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation. With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No. 6, Langley started looking for funding to build a full - scale man - carrying version of his designs. Spurred by the Spanish -- American War, the U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man - carrying flying machine for aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled - up version known as the Aerodrome A, and started with the smaller Quarter - scale Aerodrome, which flew twice on June 18, 1901, and then again with a newer and more powerful engine in 1903. With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He contracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed when it delivered only 8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of 12 hp (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley 's assistant, Charles M. Manly, then reworked the design into a five - cylinder water - cooled radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a design, Langley put the two together with great hopes. To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome immediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was rescued each time. Also, the aircraft 's control system was inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome 's aerial stability was marginal. Langley 's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his second abortive launch on December 8, the Wright brothers successfully flew their Flyer. Glenn Curtiss made 93 modifications to the Aerodrome and flew this very different aircraft in 1914. Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langley 's Aerodrome was the first machine "capable of flight ''. Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915 he designed and built early flying machines and engines. On August 14, 1901, two and a half years before the Wright Brothers ' flight, he claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21 monoplane at Fairfield, Connecticut. The flight was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald local newspaper. About 30 years later, several people questioned by a researcher claimed to have seen that or other Whitehead flights. In March 2013 Jane 's All the World 's Aircraft, an authoritative source for contemporary aviation, published an editorial which accepted Whitehead 's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled flight of a heavier - than - air craft. The Smithsonian Institution (custodians of the original Wright Flyer) and many aviation historians continue to maintain that Whitehead did not fly as suggested. Using a methodological approach and concentrating on the controllability of the aircraft, the brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1900 to 1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had expected based on the experiments and writings of their 19th - century predecessors. Their first glider, launched in 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider, built the following year, performed even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights constructed their own wind tunnel and created a number of sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200 wing designs they tested. As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider with a higher aspect ratio and true three - axis control. They flew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than the previous models. By using a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind - tunnel testing of airfoils and flight testing of full - size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft, the Wright Flyer, but also helped advance the science of aeronautical engineering. The Wrights appear to be the first to make serious studied attempts to simultaneously solve the power and control problems. Both problems proved difficult, but they never lost interest. They solved the control problem by inventing wing warping for roll control, combined with simultaneous yaw control with a steerable rear rudder. Almost as an afterthought, they designed and built a low - powered internal combustion engine. They also designed and carved wooden propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate performance from their low engine power. Although wing - warping as a means of lateral control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the principle of combining lateral control in combination with a rudder was a key advance in aircraft control. While many aviation pioneers appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the Wrights ' design was greatly influenced by the need to teach themselves to fly without unreasonable risk to life and limb, by surviving crashes. This emphasis, as well as low engine power, was the reason for low flying speed and for taking off in a head wind. Performance, rather than safety, was the reason for the rear - heavy design, because the canard could not be highly loaded; anhedral wings were less affected by crosswinds and were consistent with the low yaw stability. According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier - than - air manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903. The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Wilbur Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. The flights were witnessed by three coastal lifesaving crewmen, a local businessman, and a boy from the village, making these the first public flights and the first well - documented ones. Orville described the final flight of the day: "The first few hundred feet were up and down, as before, but by the time three hundred feet had been covered, the machine was under much better control. The course for the next four or five hundred feet had but little undulation. However, when out about eight hundred feet the machine began pitching again, and, in one of its darts downward, struck the ground. The distance over the ground was measured to be 852 feet (260 m); the time of the flight was 59 seconds. The frame supporting the front rudder was badly broken, but the main part of the machine was not injured at all. We estimated that the machine could be put in condition for flight again in about a day or two. '' They flew only about ten feet above the ground as a safety precaution, so they had little room to maneuver, and all four flights in the gusty winds ended in a bumpy and unintended "landing ''. Modern analysis by Professor Fred E.C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so unstable as to be almost unmanageable by anyone but the Wrights, who had trained themselves in the 1902 glider. The Wrights continued flying at Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ohio in 1904 -- 05. In May 1904 they introduced the Flyer II, a heavier and improved version of the original Flyer. On June 23, 1905 they first flew a third machine, the Flyer III. After a severe crash on 14 July 1905, they rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of the elevator and rudder and moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added two fixed vertical vanes (called "blinkers '') between the elevators, and gave the wings a very slight dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing - warping control, and as in all future aircraft, placed it on a separate control handle. When flights resumed the results were immediate. The serious pitch instability that hampered Flyers I and II was significantly reduced, so repeated minor crashes were eliminated. Flights with the redesigned Flyer III started lasting over 10 minutes, then 20, then 30. Flyer III became the first practical aircraft (though without wheels and needing a launching device), flying consistently under full control and bringing its pilot back to the starting point safely and landing without damage. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds. '' According to the April 1907 issue of the Scientific American magazine, the Wright brothers seemed to have the most advanced knowledge of heavier - than - air navigation at the time. However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been made in the United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American Aeronautic Trophy in order to encourage the development of a heavier - than - air flying machine. This period saw the development of practical aeroplanes and airships and their early application, alongside balloons and kites, for private, sport and military use. Although full details of the Wright Brothers ' system of flight control had been published in l'Aerophile in January 1906, the importance of this advance was not recognised, and European experimenters generally concentrated on attempting to produce inherently stable machines. Short powered flights were performed in France by Romanian engineer Traian Vuia on March 18 and August 19, 1906 when he flew 12 and 24 meters, respectively, in a self - designed, fully self - propelled, fixed - wing aircraft, that possessed a fully wheeled undercarriage. He was followed by Jacob Ellehammer who built a monoplane which he tested with a tether in Denmark on September 12, 1906, flying 42 meters. On September 13, 1906, a day after Ellehammer 's tethered flight and three years after the Wright Brothers ' flight, the Brazilian Alberto Santos - Dumont made a public flight in Paris with the 14 - bis, also known as Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey ''). This was of canard configuration with pronounced wing dihedral, and covered a distance of 60 m (200 ft) on the grounds of the Chateau de Bagatelle in Paris ' Bois de Boulogne before a large crowd of witnesses. This well - documented event was the first flight verified by the Aéro - Club de France of a powered heavier - than - air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch - Archdeacon Prize for the first officially observed flight greater than 25 m (82 ft). On November 12, 1906, Santos - Dumont set the first world record recognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 m (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds. Only one more brief flight was made by the 14bis in March 1907, after which it was abandoned. In March 1907 Gabriel Voisin flew the first example of his Voisin biplane. On 13 January 1908 a second example of the type was flown by Henri Farman to win the Deutsch - Archdeacon Grand Prix d'Aviation prize for a flight in which the aircraft flew a distance of more than a kilometer and landed at the point where it had taken off. The flight lasted 1 minute and 28 seconds. In 1914, just before the start of World War I, Romania completed the world 's first metal - built aircraft, Vlaicu III. It was captured by the Germans in 1916 and last seen at a 1942 aviation exhibition in Berlin. Santos - Dumont later added ailerons, between the wings in an effort to gain more lateral stability. His final design, first flown in 1907, was the series of Demoiselle monoplanes (Nos. 19 to 22). The Demoiselle No 19 could be constructed in only 15 days and became the world 's first series production aircraft. The Demoiselle achieved 120 km / h. The fuselage consisted of three specially reinforced bamboo booms: the pilot sat a seat between the main wheels of a conventional landing gear whose pair of wire - spoked mainwheels were located at the lower front of the airframe, with a tailskid half - way back beneath the rear fuselage structure. The Demoiselle was controlled in flight by a cruciform tail unit hinged on a form of universal joint at the aft end of the fuselage structure to function as elevator and rudder, with roll control provided through wing warping (No. 20), with the wings only warping "down ''. In 1908 Wilbur Wright travelled to Europe, and starting in August gave a series of flight demonstrations at Le Mans in France. The first demonstration, made on 8 August, attracted an audience including most of the major French aviation experimenters, who were astonished by the clear superiority of the Wright Brothers ' aircraft, particularly its ability to make tight controlled turns. The importance of using roll control in making turns was recognised by almost all the European experimenters: Henri Farman fitted ailerons to his Voisin biplane and shortly afterwards set up his own aircraft construction business, whose first product was the influential Farman III biplane. The following year saw the widespread recognition of powered flight as something other than the preserve of dreamers and eccentrics. On 25 July Louis Blériot won worldwide fame by winning a £ 1,000 prize offered by the British Daily Mail newspaper for a flight across the English Channel, and in August around half a million people, including the President of France Armand Fallières and David Lloyd George, attended one of the first aviation meetings, the Grande Semaine d'Aviation at Reims. In 1877, Enrico Forlanini developed an unmanned helicopter powered by a steam engine. It rose to a height of 13 meters, where it remained for some 20 seconds, after a vertical take - off from a park in Milan. The first time a manned helicopter is known to have risen off the ground was on a tethered flight in 1907 by the Breguet - Richet Gyroplane. Later the same year the Cornu helicopter, also French, made the first rotary - winged free flight at Lisenux, France. However, these were not practical designs. Almost as soon as they were invented, airplanes were used for military purposes. The first country to use them for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made reconnaissance, bombing and artillery correction flights in Libya during the Italian - Turkish war (September 1911 -- October 1912). The first mission (a reconnaissance) occurred on 23 October 1911. The first bombing mission was flown on 1 November 1911. Then Bulgaria followed this example. Its airplanes attacked and reconnoitered the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War 1912 -- 13. The first war to see major use of airplanes in offensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was World War I. The Allies and Central Powers both used airplanes and airships extensively. While the concept of using the airplane as an offensive weapon was generally discounted before World War I, the idea of using it for photography was one that was not lost on any of the major forces. All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically derived from pre-war sporting designs, attached to their reconnaissance departments. Radiotelephones were also being explored on airplanes, notably the SCR - 68, as communication between pilots and ground commander grew more and more important. It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other, but the lack of any sort of steady point for the gun was a problem. The French solved this problem when, in late 1914, Roland Garros attached a fixed machine gun to the front of his plane, but while Adolphe Pegoud would become known as the first "ace '', getting credit for five victories, before also becoming the first ace to die in action, it was German Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens, who, on July 1, 1915, scored the very first aerial victory by a purpose - built fighter plane, with a synchronized machine gun. Aviators were styled as modern - day knights, doing individual combat with their enemies. Several pilots became famous for their air - to - air combat; the most well known is Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air - to - air combat with several different planes, the most celebrated of which was the Fokker Dr. I. On the Allied side, René Paul Fonck is credited with the most all - time victories at 75, even when later wars are considered. France, Britain, Germany and Italy were the leading manufacturers of fighter planes that saw action during the war, with German aviation technologist Hugo Junkers showing the way to the future through his pioneering use of all - metal aircraft from late 1915. The years between World War I and World War II saw great advancements in aircraft technology. Airplanes evolved from low - powered biplanes made from wood and fabric to sleek, high - powered monoplanes made of aluminum, based primarily on the founding work of Hugo Junkers during the World War I period and its adoption by American designer William Bushnell Stout and Soviet designer Andrei Tupolev. The age of the great rigid airships came and went. The first successful rotorcraft appeared in the form of the autogyro, invented by Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva and first flown in 1919. In this design, the rotor is not powered but is spun like a windmill by its passage through the air. A separate powerplant is used to propel the aircraft forwards. After World War I, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their skills. Many American pilots became barnstormers, flying into small towns across the country and showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. Eventually the barnstormers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority. The air races drove engine and airframe development -- the Schneider Trophy, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker monoplane designs culminating in the Supermarine S. 6B. With pilots competing for cash prizes, there was an incentive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most famous of those on the barnstorming / air show circuit. She was also the first female pilot to achieve records such as crossing of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove development forwards. For example, on June 14, 1919, Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Brown co-piloted a Vickers Vimy non-stop from St. John 's, Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland, winning the £ 13,000 ($65,000) Northcliffe prize. The first flight across the South Atlantic and the first aerial crossing using astronomical navigation, was made by the naval aviators Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with only internal means of navigation, in an aircraft specifically fitted for himself with an artificial horizon for aeronautical use, an invention that revolutionized air navigation at the time (Gago Coutinho invented a type of sextant incorporating two spirit levels to provide an artificial horizon). Five years later Charles Lindbergh took the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for the first solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic. Months after Lindbergh, Paul Redfern was the first to solo the Caribbean Sea and was last seen flying over Venezuela. Australian Sir Charles Kingsford Smith was the first to fly across the larger Pacific Ocean in the Southern Cross. His crew left Oakland, California to make the first trans - Pacific flight to Australia in three stages. The first (from Oakland to Hawaii) was 2,400 miles, took 27 hours 25 minutes and was uneventful. They then flew to Suva, Fiji 3,100 miles away, taking 34 hours 30 minutes. This was the toughest part of the journey as they flew through a massive lightning storm near the equator. They then flew on to Brisbane in 20 hours, where they landed on 9 June 1928 after approximately 7,400 miles total flight. On arrival, Kingsford Smith was met by a huge crowd of 25,000 at Eagle Farm Airport in his hometown of Brisbane. Accompanying him were Australian aviator Charles Ulm as the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and Captain Harry Lyon (who were the radio operator, navigator and engineer). A week after they landed, Kingsford Smith and Ulm recorded a disc for Columbia talking about their trip. With Ulm, Kingsford Smith later continued his journey being the first in 1929 to circumnavigate the world, crossing the equator twice. The first lighter - than - air crossings of the Atlantic were made by airship in July 1919 by His Majesty 's Airship R34 and crew when they flew from East Lothian, Scotland to Long Island, New York and then back to Pulham, England. By 1929, airship technology had advanced to the point that the first round - the - world flight was completed by the Graf Zeppelin in September and in October, the same aircraft inaugurated the first commercial transatlantic service. However, the age of the rigid airship ended following the destruction by fire of the zeppelin LZ 129 Hindenburg just before landing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937, killing 35 of the 97 people aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from the Wingfoot Express disaster (1919) to the loss of the R101 (1930), the Akron (1933) and the Macon (1935) had already cast doubt on airship safety, but with the disasters of the U.S. Navy 's rigids showing the importance of solely using helium as the lifting medium; following the destruction of the Hindenburg, the remaining airship making international flights, the Graf Zeppelin was retired (June 1937). Its replacement, the rigid airship Graf Zeppelin II, made a number of flights, primarily over Germany, from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded when Germany began World War II. Both remaining German zeppelins were scrapped in 1940 to supply metal for the German Luftwaffe; the last American rigid airship, the Los Angeles, which had not flown since 1932, was dismantled in late 1939. Meanwhile, Germany, which was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its development of powered aircraft, developed gliding as a sport, especially at the Wasserkuppe, during the 1920s. In its various forms, in the 21st century sailplane aviation now has over 400,000 participants. In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight. 1929 also saw the first flight of by far the largest plane ever built until then: the Dornier Do X with a wing span of 48 m. On its 70th test flight on October 21 there were 169 people on board, a record that was not broken for 20 years. Less than a decade after the development of the first practical rotorcraft of any type with the autogyro, in the Soviet Union, Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin, two aeronautical engineers working at the Tsentralniy Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut, constructed and flew the TsAGI 1 - EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open tubing framework, a four blade main rotor, and twin sets of 1.8 - meter (5.9 ft) diameter anti-torque rotors; one set of two at the nose and one set of two at the tail. Powered by two M - 2 powerplants, up - rated copies of the Gnome Monosoupape rotary radial engine of World War I, the TsAGI 1 - EA made several successful low altitude flights. By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1 - EA up to an unofficial altitude of 605 meters (1,985 feet) with what is likely to be the first successful single - lift rotor helicopter design ever tested and flown. Only five years after the German Dornier Do - X had flown, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of the 1930s era, the Maksim Gorky in the Soviet Union by 1934, as the largest aircraft ever built using the Junkers methods of metal aircraft construction. In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Germany and in Britain -- both countries would go on to develop jet aircraft by the end of World War II. World War II saw a great increase in the pace of development and production, not only of aircraft but also the associated flight - based weapon delivery systems. Air combat tactics and doctrines took advantage. Large - scale strategic bombing campaigns were launched, fighter escorts introduced and the more flexible aircraft and weapons allowed precise attacks on small targets with dive bombers, fighter - bombers, and ground - attack aircraft. New technologies like radar also allowed more coordinated and controlled deployment of air defense. The first jet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 (Germany), flown by Erich Warsitz in 1939, followed by the world 's first operational jet aircraft, the Me 262, in July 1942 and world 's first jet - powered bomber, the Arado Ar 234, in June 1943. British developments, like the Gloster Meteor, followed afterwards, but saw only brief use in World War II. The first cruise missile (V - 1), the first ballistic missile (V - 2), the first (and to date only) operational rocket - powered combat aircraft Me 163 -- with attained velocities of up to 1,130 km / h (700 mph) in test flights -- and the first vertical take - off manned point - defense interceptor, the Bachem Ba 349 Natter, were also developed by Germany. However, jet and rocket aircraft had only limited impact due to their late introduction, fuel shortages, the lack of experienced pilots and the declining war industry of Germany. Not only airplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid development in the Second World War, with the introduction of the Focke Achgelis Fa 223, the Flettner Fl 282 synchropter in 1941 in Germany and the Sikorsky R - 4 in 1942 in the USA. After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B - 29 and Lancaster that could be converted into commercial aircraft. The DC - 3 also made for easier and longer commercial flights. The first commercial jet airliner to fly was the British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled service. While a technical achievement, the plane suffered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressurization of the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure of the plane 's fuselage. By the time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to the skies. USSR 's Aeroflot became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on September 15, 1956 with the Tupolev Tu - 104. The Boeing 707 and DC - 8 which established new levels of comfort, safety and passenger expectations, ushered in the age of mass commercial air travel, dubbed the Jet Age. In October 1947 Chuck Yeager took the rocket - powered Bell X-1 through the sound barrier. Although anecdotal evidence exists that some fighter pilots may have done so while dive bombing ground targets during the war, this was the first controlled, level flight to exceed the speed of sound. Further barriers of distance fell in 1948 and 1952 with the first jet crossing of the Atlantic and the first nonstop flight to Australia. The 1945 invention of nuclear bombs briefly increased the strategic importance of military aircraft in the Cold War between East and West. Even a moderate fleet of long - range bombers could deliver a deadly blow to the enemy, so great efforts were made to develop countermeasures. At first, the supersonic interceptor aircraft were produced in considerable numbers. By 1955 most development efforts shifted to guided surface - to - air missiles. However, the approach diametrically changed when a new type of nuclear - carrying platform appeared that could not be stopped in any feasible way: intercontinental ballistic missiles. The possibility of these was demonstrated in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. This action started the Space Race between the nations. In 1961, the sky was no longer the limit for manned flight, as Yuri Gagarin orbited once around the planet within 108 minutes, and then used the descent module of Vostok I to safely reenter the atmosphere and reduce speed from Mach 25 using friction and converting the kinetic energy of the velocity into heat. The United States responded by launching Alan Shepard into space on a suborbital flight in a Mercury space capsule. With the launch of the Alouette I in 1963, Canada became the third country to send a satellite into space. The space race between the United States and the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to the landing of men on the moon in 1969. In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an aircraft at 4,534 mph (7,297 km / h) or Mach 6.1. Aside from vehicles designed to fly in outer space, this record was renewed by X-43 in the 21st century. The Harrier Jump Jet, often referred to as just "Harrier '' or "the Jump Jet '', is a British designed military jet aircraft capable of Vertical / Short Takeoff and Landing (V / STOL) via thrust vectoring. It first flew in 1969, the same year that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the moon, and Boeing unveiled the Boeing 747 and the Aérospatiale - BAC Concorde supersonic passenger airliner had its maiden flight. The Boeing 747 was the largest commercial passenger aircraft ever to fly, and still carries millions of passengers each year, though it has been superseded by the Airbus A380, which is capable of carrying up to 853 passengers. In 1975 Aeroflot started regular service on the Tu - 144 -- the first supersonic passenger plane. In 1976 British Airways and Air France began supersonic service across the Atlantic, with Concorde. A few years earlier the SR - 71 Blackbird had set the record for crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours, and Concorde followed in its footsteps. In 1979 the Gossamer Albatross became the first human powered aircraft to cross the English channel. This achievement finally saw the realization of centuries of dreams of human flight. The last quarter of the 20th century saw a change of emphasis. No longer was revolutionary progress made in flight speeds, distances and materials technology. This part of the century instead saw the spreading of the digital revolution both in flight avionics and in aircraft design and manufacturing techniques. In 1986 Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager flew an aircraft, the Rutan Voyager, around the world unrefuelled, and without landing. In 1999 Bertrand Piccard became the first person to circle the earth in a balloon. Digital fly - by - wire systems allow an aircraft to be designed with relaxed static stability. Initially used to increase the manoeuvrability of military aircraft such as the General Dynamics F - 16 Fighting Falcon, this is now being used to reduce drag on commercial airliners. The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established in 1999 to encourage the broadest national and international participation in the celebration of 100 years of powered flight. It publicized and encouraged a number of programs, projects and events intended to educate people about the history of aviation. 21st century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as well as low cost airlines and facilities. Additionally, much of the developing world that did not have good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and facilities, though severe congestion remains a problem in many up and coming nations. Some 20,000 city pairs are served by commercial aviation, up from less than 10,000 as recently as 1996. There appears to be newfound interest in returning to the supersonic era whereby waning demand and bureaucratic hurdles in the turn of the 20th century made flights unprofitable, as well as the final commercial stoppage of the Concorde due to a fatal accident. In the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to begin eliminating the pilot in favor of remotely operated or completely autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In April 2001 the unmanned aircraft Global Hawk flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and unrefuelled. This is the longest point - to - point flight ever undertaken by an unmanned aircraft, and took 23 hours and 23 minutes. In October 2003 the first totally autonomous flight across the Atlantic by a computer - controlled model aircraft occurred. UAVs are now an established feature of modern warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks under the control of a remote operator. Major disruptions to air travel in the 21st century included the closing of U.S. airspace due to the September 11 attacks, and the closing of most of European airspace after the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull. In 2015, André Borschberg flew a record distance of 4481 miles (7212 km) from Nagoya, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii in a solar - powered plane, Solar Impulse 2. The flight took nearly five days; during the nights the aircraft used its batteries and the potential energy gained during the day.

what was the roman name for the goddess hecate

Hecate - wikipedia Hecate or Hekate (/ ˈhɛkətiː /; Greek Ἑκάτη Hekátē) is a goddess in Ancient Greek religion and mythology, most often shown holding a pair of torches or a key and in later periods depicted in triple form. She was variously associated with crossroads, entrance - ways, light, magic, witchcraft, knowledge of herbs and poisonous plants, ghosts, necromancy, and sorcery. She appears in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter and in Hesiod 's Theogony, where she is promoted strongly as a great goddess. The place of origin of her following is uncertain, but it is thought that she had popular followings in Thrace. She was one of the main deities worshiped in Athenian households as a protective goddess and one who bestowed prosperity and daily blessings on the family. In the post-Christian writings of the Chaldean Oracles (2nd -- 3rd century CE) she was regarded with (some) rulership over earth, sea, and sky, as well as a more universal role as Saviour (Soteira), Mother of Angels and the Cosmic World Soul. Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, "she is more at home on the fringes than in the center of Greek polytheism. Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes definition. '' The etymology of the name Hecate (Ἑκάτη, Hekátē) is not known. Suggested derivations include: In Early Modern English, the name was also pronounced disyllabically (as / ˈhɛkɪt /) and sometimes spelled Hecat. It remained common practice in English to pronounce her name in two syllables, even when spelled with final e, well into the 19th century. The spelling Hecat is due to Arthur Golding 's 1567 translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses, and this spelling without the final E later appears in plays of the Elizabethan - Jacobean period. Webster 's Dictionary of 1866 particularly credits the influence of Shakespeare for the then - predominant disyllabic pronunciation of the name. Hecate may have originated among the Carians of Anatolia, where variants of her name are found as names given to children. Hecate was also worshipped in the ancient city of Colchis. William Berg observes, "Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving hekat - refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens. '' In particular, there is some evidence that she might be derived from the local sun goddesses (see also Arinna), based on similar attributes. She also closely parallels the Roman goddess Trivia, with whom she was identified in Rome. Her most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city - state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs. Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian colony of Stratonikeia, where she was the city 's patroness. In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser - Hermes, namely a governess of liminal regions (particularly gates) and the wilderness. As Hecate Phosphorus (Venus) she is said to have lit the sky during the Siege of Philip II in 340, revealing the attack to its inhabitants. The Byzantines dedicated a statue to her as the "lamp carrier. '' The earliest Greek depictions of Hecate were not three - formed. Farnell states: "The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hecate is almost as full as that of to express her manifold and mystic nature. '' The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the 6th century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the main historical value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier form, and her recognition at Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion. The 2nd - century travel writer Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alkamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century BCE which was placed before the temple of the Wingless Nike in Athens. Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art resisted representing her with three faces: a votive sculpture from Attica of the 3rd century BCE (illustration, left), shows three single images against a column; round the column of Hecate dance the Charites. Some classical portrayals show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch, a key, serpents, daggers and numerous other items. Depictions of both a single form Hekate and triple formed, as well as occasional four headed descriptions continued throughout her history. In Egyptian - inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in magical papyri of Late Antiquity she is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar. Hecate 's triplicity is elsewhere expressed in a more Hellenic fashion in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, "This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon. '' (Description of Greece 2.22. 7) In the Argonautica, a 3rd - century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early material, Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a round pit and over it cut the throat of an ewe, sacrificing it and then burning it whole on a pyre next to the pit as a holocaust. He is told to sweeten the offering with a libation of honey, then to retreat from the site without looking back, even if he hears the sound of footsteps or barking dogs. All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity. A 4th - century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race - horse owner. It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. She is commonly attended by a dog or dogs, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Images of her attended by a dog are also found at times when she is shown as in her role as mother goddess with child, and when she is depicted alongside the god Hermes and the goddess Kybele in reliefs. Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess. The first literature mentioning Hecate is the Theogony by Hesiod: And she conceived and bore Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favor according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honor comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favorably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea. According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things: Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loud - crashing Earth - Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother 's only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all - seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these are her honours. Hesiod emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, a star - goddess who was the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon. Hesiod 's inclusion and praise of Hecate in the Theogony has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this may have been the exception. One theory is that Hesiod 's original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers. Another theory is that Hekate was mainly a household god and humble household worship could have been more pervasive and yet not mentioned as much as temple worship. In Athens Hecate, along with Zeus, Hermes, Hestia, and Apollo, were very important in daily life as they were the main gods of the household. However, it is clear that the special position given to Hecate by Zeus is upheld throughout her history by depictions found on coins depicting Hecate on the hand of Zeus as highlighted in more recent research presented by d'Este and Rankine. Hecate possibly originated among the Carians of Anatolia, the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested, and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivalled cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favor the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that "Hecate must have been a Greek goddess. '' The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date. If Hecate 's cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, it is possible it presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the Theogony, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage, or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: sometimes Hecate is related as a Titaness, and a mighty helper and protector of humans. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan who aided Zeus in the battle of gods and Titans, she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians. One surviving group of stories suggests how Hecate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis. Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigeneia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal 's suicide. There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, megabyzi, officiated. Hecate also came to be associated with ghosts, infernal spirits, the dead and sorcery. Shrines to Hecate were placed at doorways to both homes and cities with the belief that it would protect from restless dead and other spirits. Likewise, shrines to Hecate at three way crossroads were created where food offerings were left at the new moon to protect those who did so from spirits and other evils. A medieval commentator has suggested a link connecting the word "jinx '' with Hecate: "The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus (...) speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a iunx (hence "jinx ''), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate. '' Hecate is the primary feminine figure in the Chaldean Oracles (2nd - 3rd century CE), where she is associated in fragment 194 with a strophalos (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) "Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate. '' This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus. Variations in interpretations of Hecate 's role or roles can be traced in 5th - century Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hecate is called the "tender - hearted '', a euphemism perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she assisted Demeter with her search for Persephone following her abduction by Hades, suggesting that Demeter should speak to the god of the sun, Helios. Subsequently she became Persephone 's companion on her yearly journey to and from the realms of Hades; serving as a psychopomp. Because of this association, Hecate was one of the chief goddesses of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alongside Demeter and Persephone. The modern understanding of Hecate has been strongly influenced by syncretic Hellenistic interpretations. Many of the attributes she was assigned in this period appear to have an older basis. For example, in the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the ' she - dog ' or ' bitch ', and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side. However, her association with dogs predates the conquests of Alexander the Great and the emergence of the Hellenistic world. When Philip II laid siege to Byzantium she had already been associated with dogs for some time; the light in the sky and the barking of dogs that warned the citizens of a night time attack, saving the city, were attributed to Hecate Lampadephoros (the tale is preserved in the Suda). In gratitude the Byzantines erected a statue in her honor. As a virgin goddess, she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though some traditions named her as the mother of Scylla. Hecate was generally represented as three - formed, which probably has some connection with the appearance of the full moon, half moon, and new moon. Triple Hecate was the goddess of the moon with three forms: Selene the Moon in heaven, Artemis the Huntress on earth, and Persephone the Destroyer in the underworld. Although associated with other moon goddesses such as Selene, she ruled over three kingdoms: the earth, the sea, and the sky. She had the power to create or hold back storms, which influenced her patronage of shepherds and sailors. Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. "In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog - shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate 's regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament. '' The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens. It has been claimed that her association with dogs is "suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Although in later times Hecate 's dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or demons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog 's connection with birth than the dog 's underworld associations. '' The association with dogs, particularly female dogs, could be explained by a metamorphosis myth. The friendly looking female dog accompanying Hecate was originally the Trojan Queen Hekabe, who leapt into the sea after the fall of Troy and was transformed by Hecate into her familiar. Another metamorphosis myth explains why the polecat is also associated with Hecate. From Antoninus Liberalis: "At Thebes Proitos had a daughter Galinthias. This maiden was playmate and companion of Alkmene, daughter of Elektryon. As the birth throes for Herakles were pressing on Alkmene, the Moirai (Fates) and Eileithyia (Birth - Goddess), as a favour to Hera, kept Alkmene in continuous birth pangs. They remained seated, each keeping their arms crossed. Galinthias, fearing that the pains of her labour would drive Alkmene mad, ran to the Moirai and Eleithyia and announced that by desire of Zeus a boy had been born to Alkmene and that their prerogatives had been abolished. At all this, consternation of course overcame the Moirai and they immediately let go their arms. Alkmene 's pangs ceased at once and Herakles was born. The Moirai were aggrieved at this and took away the womanly parts of Galinthias since, being but a mortal, she had deceived the gods. They turned her into a deceitful weasel (or polecat), making her live in crannies and gave her a grotesque way of mating. She is mounted through the ears and gives birth by bringing forth her young through the throat. Hekate felt sorry for this transformation of her appearance and appointed her a sacred servant of herself. '' Aelian told a different story of a woman transformed into a polecat: "'' I have heard that the polecat was once a human being. It has also reached my hearing that Gale was her name then; that she was a dealer in spells and a sorceress (Pharmakis); that she was extremely incontinent, and that she was afflicted with abnormal sexual desires. Nor has it escaped my notice that the anger of the goddess Hekate transformed it into this evil creature. May the goddess be gracious to me: fables and their telling I leave to others. '' Athenaeus (writing in the 1st or 2nd century BCE, and drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus of Athens) notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, "on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is trimorphos, of a triple form ''. The Greek word for mullet was trigle and later trigla. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse "O mistress Hecate, Trioditis / With three forms and three faces / Propitiated with mullets ''. In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, "The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (trigle), which fits neatly into the pattern. It ' delighted in polluted things, ' and ' would eat the corpse of a fish or a man '. Blood - coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood - eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep. '' At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate Triglathena, to whom the red mullet was offered in sacrifice. After mentioning that this fish was sacred to Hecate, Alan Davidson writes, "Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Martial, Pliny, Seneca and Suetonius have left abundant and interesting testimony to the red mullet fever which began to affect wealthy Romans during the last years of the Republic and really gripped them in the early Empire. The main symptoms were a preoccupation with size, the consequent rise to absurd heights of the prices of large specimens, a habit of keeping red mullet in captivity, and the enjoyment of the highly specialized aesthetic experience induced by watching the color of the dying fish change. '' The frog, which was also the symbol of the similarly - named Egyptian goddess Heqet, has also become sacred to Hecate in modern Pagan literature, possibly due in part to its ability to cross between two elements. In her three - headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent and horse. Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the Argonautica mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, "I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs. '' The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles ' lost play The Root Diggers (or The Root Cutters), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes ' Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak. The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate. "Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate... Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientific name for yew today, taxus, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew, toxos, which is hauntingly similar to toxon, their word for bow and toxicon, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison. '' Hecate was said to favor offerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult. She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities. A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and / or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate. These include aconite (also called hecateis), belladonna, dittany, and mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the 1st century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic. Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being ' between ' and hence is frequently characterized as a "liminal '' goddess. "Hecate mediated between regimes -- Olympian and Titan -- but also between mortal and divine spheres. '' This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: Apotropaia (that turns away / protects); Enodia (on the way); Propulaia / Propylaia (before the gate); Triodia / Trioditis (who frequents crossroads); Klêidouchos (holding the keys), etc. As a goddess expected to avert harmful or destructive spirits from the house or city over which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also refuse to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals. It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate 's identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia 's very name ("In - the - Road '') suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants. This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. "In Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate 's importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions. '' This suggests that Hecate 's close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans. Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at three - way crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates). In this form she came to be known as the goddess Trivia ("the three ways '') in Roman mythology. In what appears to be a 7th - century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his Sermo warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting "devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads '', and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them "No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet... ''. Like Hecate, "(t) he dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it. '' Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her. The Athenian Greeks honored Hekate during the Deipnon. In Greek, deipnon means the evening meal, usually the largest meal of the day. Hekate 's Deipnon is, at its most basic, a meal served to Hekate and the restless dead once a lunar month during the new moon. The Deipnon is always followed the next day by the Noumenia, when the first sliver of moon is visible, and then the Agathos Daimon the day after that. The main purpose of the Deipnon was to honor Hekate and to placate the souls in her wake who "longed for vengeance. '' A secondary purpose was to purify the household and to atone for bad deeds a household member may have committed that offended Hekate, causing her to withhold her favor from them. The Deipnon consists of three main parts: 1) the meal that was set out at a crossroads, usually in a shrine outside the entryway to the home 2) an expiation sacrifice, and 3) purification of the household. The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figure of Isis in Egyptian myth. Lucius Apuleius (c. 123 -- 170 CE) in his work The Golden Ass associates Hecate with Isis: "I am she that is the natural mother of all things, mistress and governess of all the elements, the initial progeny of worlds, chief of powers divine, Queen of heaven, the principal of the Gods celestial, the light of the goddesses: at my will the planets of the air, the wholesome winds of the Seas, and the silences of hell be disposed; my name, my divinity is adored throughout all the world in divers manners, in variable customs and in many names, (...) Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Battles, and still others Hecate. Principally the Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen Isis. (...) '' In the syncretism during Late Antiquity of Hellenistic and late Babylonian ("Chaldean '') elements, Hecate was identified with Ereshkigal, the underworld counterpart of Inanna in the Babylonian cosmography. In the Michigan magical papyrus (inv. 7), dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century CE, Hecate Ereschigal is invoked against fear of punishment in the afterlife. Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with Artemis (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies) Dogs were sacred to Hecate and associated with roads, domestic spaces, purification, and spirits of the dead. They played a similar symbolic role in ancient China, where dogs were conceived as representative of the household sphere, and as protective spirits appropriate when transcending geographic and spatial boundaries. Dogs were also sacrificed to the road. As Roel Sterckx observes, "The use of dog sacrifices at the gates and doors of the living and the dead as well as its use in travel sacrifices suggest that dogs were perceived as daemonic animals operating in the liminal or transitory realm between the domestic and the unknown, danger - stricken outside world ''. This can be compared to Pausanias ' report that in the Ionian city of Colophon in Asia Minor a sacrifice of a black female puppy was made to Hecate as "the wayside goddess '', and Plutarch 's observation that in Boeotia dogs were killed in purificatory rites. Dogs, with puppies often mentioned, were offered to Hecate at crossroads, which were sacred to the goddess. Strmiska notes that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the early medieval period as part of an "emerging legend complex '' associated with gatherings of women, the moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established "in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans. '' This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807 and is reflected in numerous etymological claims by lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, deriving "hag '' and / or "hex '' from Hecate by way of haegtesse (Anglo - Saxon) and hagazussa (Old High German). Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority since being refuted by Grimm, who was skeptical of theories proposing non-Germanic origins for German folklore traditions. Modern etymology reconstructs Proto - Germanic * hagatusjon - from haegtesse and hagazussa; the first element is probably cognate with hedge, which derives from PIE * kagh - "hedge, enclosure '', and the second perhaps from * dhewes - "fly about, be smoke, vanish. '' Hecate is now firmly established as a figure in Neopaganism, which draws heavily on folkloric traditions associating Hecate with ' The Wild Hunt ', witches, hedges and ' hedge - riding ', and other themes that parallel, but are not explicitly attested in, Classical sources. Hecate is worshiped by people who have reconstructed and revived the indigenous polytheist religion of Greece, Hellenismos, such as groups like Hellenion (Hellenion is a 501c3 religious organization based in the USA dedicated to reviving the religions indigenous to Greece) and YSEE. The Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes is an umbrella group based in Greece that is a legally recognized Non Profit Organization (NPO) and was "founded in June of 1997 aiming to the morale and physical protection and restoration of the Polytheistic, Ethnic Hellenic religion, tradition and way of life in the "modern '' Greek Society from which is oppressed due to its institutional intolerance and theocracy ". Shakespeare mentions Hecate both before the turn of the 16th century (A Midsummer Night 's Dream, 1594 - 96), and just after, in Macbeth (1605): specifically, in the title character 's "dagger '' soliloquy: "Witchcraft celebrates pale Hecate 's offerings... '' Hecate also appears as a main character in the British theater company Punchdrunk 's New York - based site - specific theatre work, Sleep No More, an adaptation of Macbeth. The character functions as a villain of the work, silently conducting the three witches who prophesy Macbeth 's rise to power, and leading certain audience members into private interactions and stories in her small grotto. Many of Hecate 's dominions are represented in various ways throughout the show, such as one of her familiars behaving in a dog - like manner around her; her grotto being connected to an herb - filled apothecary space; and watching from the shadows as the witches give their prophecies to Macbeth. Catweazle often calls upon Hecate in the British television series of the same name. Hecate is also one of the "patron '' goddesses of many Wiccans, who in some traditions identify her with the Triple Goddess ' aspect of the "Crone ''. In other circles Wiccan witches associate her with the "Maiden '', or the "Mother '' aspects as well, for Hecate has three faces, or phases. Her role as a tripartite goddess, which many modern - day Wiccans associate with the concept of "the Maiden, the Mother and the Crone '', was made popular in modern times by writers such as Robert Graves in The White Goddess, and many others, such as the 20th century occultist and author, Aleister Crowley. Historical depictions and descriptions show her facing in three different directions, a clear and precise reference to the tripartite nature of this ancient Goddess; the later Greek Magical Papyri sometimes refer to her as also having the heads of animals, and this can be seen as a reference to her aspect of Motherhood; in this portrayal she is known as "Mistress of Animals ''. Modern Hellenic polytheists honor Hecate during the Deipnon. In 1929, Dr. Lewis Brown, an expert on religious cults, connected the 1920s Blackburn Cult (also known as, "The Cult of the Great Eleven, '') with Hecate worship rituals. He noted that the cult regularly practiced dog sacrifice and had secretly buried the body of one of its "queens '' with seven dogs. Researcher Samuel Fort noted additional parallels, to include the cult 's focus on mystic and typically nocturnal rites, its female dominated membership, the sacrifice of other animals (to include horses and mules), a focus on the mystical properties of roads and portals, and an emphasis on death, healing, and resurrection. Hecate is also the namesake of the hundredth numbered asteroid, which was discovered by American astronomer James Craig Watson on July 11, 1868. Its adopted name commemorates it as the hundredth asteroid, especially as ' hekaton ' is Greek for ' hundred. ' The name may also be explained as the derivation of the prefix hecto - commonly used in the metric system, or within the decimal system as three digits (e.g. as 100) therefore reflecting her later mythological trinary form.

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Jessica Jones (season 2) - wikipedia The second season of the American web television series Jessica Jones, which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, follows Jones as she takes on a new case after the events surrounding her encounter with Kilgrave. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise. The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Tall Girls Productions, with Melissa Rosenberg serving as showrunner. Krysten Ritter stars as Jones, with Rachael Taylor, Carrie - Anne Moss, and Eka Darville also returning from the first season, as well as Wil Traval and David Tennant in guest roles. They are joined by J.R. Ramirez, Terry Chen, Leah Gibson, and Janet McTeer. The second season was ordered in January 2016, with filming beginning in April 2017, back - to - back with the miniseries Marvel 's The Defenders. Filming concluded in September 2017. The season was released on March 8, 2018. It received mostly positive reviews from critics, who once again praised Ritter 's performance and the series ' female focus, but felt the season suffered from pacing issues and a lack of a compelling villain after Tennant 's Kilgrave from season one. A third season of Jessica Jones was ordered on April 12, 2018. In January 2015, Netflix COO Ted Sarandos stated that Jessica Jones the series was "eligible to go into multiple seasons for sure '' and Netflix would look at "how well (they) are addressing both the Marvel fanbase but also the broader fanbase '' in terms of determining if additional seasons would be appropriate. In July 2015, Sarandos said some of the Defender series would "selectively have multiple seasons as they come out of the gate, '' with series showrunner Melissa Rosenberg saying she was hopeful Jessica Jones would get an additional season before Marvel 's The Defenders. Rosenberg later expanded on this, saying that Marvel Television and Netflix were working out the placement of a potential second season, though "(i) t might not be possible from a logistical standpoint '' to have a second season of Jessica Jones debut before The Defenders; Sarandos later confirmed this to be the case, stating that the season would air after The Defenders released in 2017. On January 17, 2016, Netflix ordered a second season of 13 episodes. Raelle Tucker joined the season as an executive producer and writer, replacing Liz Friedman from the first season, who departed the series to work on the pilot for the ABC series, Conviction. Rosenberg and the season 's writers were halfway through the writing process by August 2016, with the scripts completed by the end of October 2016. Writing during the 2016 United States presidential election, Rosenberg noted she "was just so angry '' and that she and the writing team tried to tap "into the rage Hillary (Clinton) must have felt every day '' for the characters. With The Defenders releasing before the season, Rosenberg used the miniseries as an opportunity to help "set up '' elements for the season, working with The Defenders executive producers and writers Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez to do so. Rosenberg wanted to "continue with (the Jessica Jones) character '' in the season, saying, "She 's a very damaged character, her damage goes beyond (David Tennant 's) Kilgrave. There 's a lot to mine from in her backstory and in her present day situation ''. Actress Krysten Ritter said that the second season would evolve from the first, and that for Jones, "The first season was in her head and the second season is in her heart, '' adding that Jones "is in a pretty dark headspace '' at the beginning of the season and that the season would be "more of an emotional thriller this time. '' On whether Tennant could return for the second season, Rosenberg said, "Sure, when you have David Tennant, you want him around forever... But the show is called Jessica Jones and the story is about Jessica 's arc and how does that play out in its best form? '' It was noted that Kilgrave would be "hard to top '', though, with Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb saying, "One of the things that 's important about any Marvel show is your hero is often defined by how strong your antagonist is, '' with Rosenberg adding that the objective for the new villain, or villains, for the season would be not to match or do what was done with Kilgrave. As Kilgrave does appear in the season, Rosenberg felt it was important to have him return to "be that mirror again '' for Jones, as he is "such a part of her construction and her dilemma ''. Rosenberg also hoped to "further expand on the ensemble and on Jessica 's world '' by giving more screen time to supporting characters, noting that in the first season, "the trick of a show that 's called Jessica Jones (is if) she 's not in the scene, it 's not a guarantee that scene will end up in the final picture. You have to earn secondary character stories. You have to flesh them out enough so that they can eventually carry stories of their own '' in future seasons. She also wanted to continue to explore the relationship between Jones and Trish Walker, stating "That is the core relationship in the piece. It is about female friendship, it is about how friends evolve -- they 're sisters, really -- and it 's about how they evolve and ping off each other. '' On Jones becoming famous after her heroics in the first season, Ritter said, "She keeps her circle small because she does n't want people in her life, so there 's no textbook on how to deal with new popularity or new eyes on you. '' Speaking on the social issues she hoped to tackle in the season, after covering "issues of choice, interracial relationships, domestic violence, (and) issues of consent '' while also exploring "feminism and being a woman in this world '' in the first, Rosenberg said, "I 'm not quite sure yet what the social issues are that we 're dealing with (in season 2). We 're just trying to find some resonance for (Jessica Jones) and a new place to push her, to give Krysten something new to play and really push the boundaries of the character. '' After much of the first season was taken from the Alias comic book, Rosenberg wanted to continue that trend with the second season, but acknowledged that "the MCU is very different from the comics in terms of its mythology. In the books there were things building towards Civil War and all that, and here that 's not the case. The nature of that is we 're probably not going to be able to continue to do parallel storylines (to Alias) ''. On having Jones continue to struggle with the same issues in the second season, Loeb said, "The end of the (first season) -- and it was one of the things that was very important when we talked about the end of the first (season) -- was that it was n't, ' Ooh, I triumphed and now I can get in my hovercar and join the Avengers. ' That was n't the story we were interested in telling. '' Rosenberg elaborated by comparing the Jessica Jones to her previous series Dexter, saying that she learned "you can advance the character, but you never want to cure the character. With Dexter, the moment he felt guilt or accepted that he was ' bad, ' the show 's over. He 's no longer a sociopath. The equivalent for us would be if Jessica somehow recovered from the damage that had been done to her. People do n't just heal ''. She added that Jones ' killing of Kilgrave at the end of the first season was "a life changing experience '' and something that would affect the character going forward. Rosenberg also stated that the season would be "about digging deeper into this chaos and peeling back those layers (of Jones ' life), just going to the core of her being '' after the first season focused on Jones ' trauma and facing her abuser. After the season was ordered, several main cast members revealed that they would return for the second season, including Ritter as Jessica Jones, Rachael Taylor as Patricia "Trish '' Walker, and Carrie - Anne Moss as Jeri Hogarth. Eka Darville also reprises his role as Malcolm Ducasse. In March 2017, J.R. Ramirez was cast as Oscar Arocho, which was revealed in July after the airing of his character 's death on Power. In April 2017, Janet McTeer was cast in an undisclosed role, described as someone who has "an enormous impact on Jessica 's life. '' She was revealed to be playing Alisa Jones, Jessica 's mother, who was briefly portrayed in flashbacks by Miriam Shor in the first season. By July, Leah Gibson had also joined the cast, in the role of Inez Green. Also joining in the season is Terry Chen as Pryce Cheng. In August 2017, David Tennant was confirmed to be reprising his role as Kilgrave, appearing as a hallucination, with Wil Traval also returning as Will Simpson. Recurring characters in the season include Rebecca De Mornay reprises her role as Dorothy Walker, Kevin Chacon as Vido Arocho and Callum Keith Rennie as Karl Malus. Elden Henson and Rob Morgan reprise their roles as Foggy Nelson and Turk Barrett from previous Marvel Netflix series, respectively. Filming began the week of April 3, 2017 in New York City, once again using the working title Violet. This followed the end of production on The Defenders in March, with Ritter having indicated in May 2016 that the season would film back - to - back with The Defenders. Filming occurred at the Long Island Aquarium and Exhibition Center. Filming for the season wrapped on September 14, 2017. Approaching the second season, Rosenberg wanted to increase the number of female directors working on the series as a further push for representation. This was a goal that "Marvel was completely on board with '', and given the demand of many talented female directors at the time, the series ' producers looked to book only female directors first, and approach male directors later in the pre-production phase if needed. Another member of the production suggested that the series book only female directors for the season, which Rosenberg "had n't contemplated (as a) concept prior to that conversation ''. She quickly made that the goal of the production, and in October 2016, Rosenberg confirmed that all 13 episodes of the season would be directed by women. Oscar 's paintings in the season were created by comic book artist David Mack, who has drawn covers for Jessica Jones comics. A soundtrack album for the season was released by Hollywood Records and Marvel Music digitally on March 16, 2018, featuring selections of the original score for the season composed by Sean Callery, as well as the original song "I Want Your Cray Cray ''. All music composed by Sean Callery. The season makes several references to the events of Captain America: Civil War, including Vido Arocho 's toy Captain America 's shield being broken, as well as mention of the Raft prison. The season also mentions the Rand Corporation from Iron Fist, and makes multiple references to Spider - Man. The second season of Jessica Jones was released on March 8, 2018, to coincide with International Women 's Day, on the streaming service Netflix worldwide, in Ultra HD 4K and high dynamic range. In December 2017, a teaser trailer for the season was released, along with announcing the season release date. A trailer was released on February 7, 2018. Ahead of the season releasing, Netflix revealed the episode titles and creative teams with pulp comic covers for each episode created by women artists. The artists included, in respective order for each episode: Stephanie Hans, Jen Bartel, Elizabeth Torque, Kate Niemczyk, Colleen Doran, Erica Henderson, Audrey Mox, Joyce Chin, Jenny Frison, Amy Reeder, Emanuela Lupacchino, June Brigman, and Annie Wu. The season held its red carpet premiere on March 7, 2018 at the AMC Loews Lincoln Square. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 87 % with an average rating of 7.06 / 10, based on 68 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "While Jessica Jones is a slower burn with less focus than its inaugural season, its enticing new character arc more fully details the most charismatic Defender. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 70 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In her review of the first five episodes of the season, Allison Keene of Collider gave the season 4 out of 5 stars. She felt "(t) he season really starts to kick into gear... once we 're introduced to the central mystery: the truth behind IGH, '' with the season getting "better and better as it goes along. '' However, as with previous Marvel Netflix series, the season suffered from pacing issues, featuring "a minimal or non-existent score, scenes that go on for too long, and a limited number of edits that add up to everything feeling like it 's happening in real time. It 's not as bad as any other Marvel series on Netflix in this regard -- not even close -- but it 's still a problem, and one that has unbelievably still not been addressed in terms of episode count (or shorter runtimes within episodes). '' Keene also felt the season missed a "driving force '' by not having David Tennant back as Kilgrave, but was glad the season largely ignored the events of The Defenders to focus on Jones and her relationships. Awarding the season a "B '', Liz Shannon Miller from IndieWire said the season 's all - female directors kept "the show 's noir bent in place though does n't push too hard into the realm of art -- but the clean approach works, as does Ritter 's always grounded and believable performance. '' She also enjoyed the Hogarth medical storyline, saying it was "one of the most compelling new storylines '', despite it not connecting to the overall larger narrative through the first five episodes. For Miller, Janet McTeer was "the most dynamic element of these early episodes. While she has potential as a foil, there 's not enough of her to keep us hooked, not to mention the lack of the emotional hook that we had with Kilgrave in season 1. '' Miller also felt the plot lacked direction, and agreed with Keene about the pacing issues. Digital Spy 's Jo Berry said in her review, "While the beginning of the new season lacks the focus of the first, and is missing a truly menacing bad guy for Jessica to go up against, the new additions and expanded storylines do n't detract from Ritter 's powerhouse performance... Pacing quibbles aside, this is a darkly enjoyable return for Jessica Jones, thanks to the strong scripts, slick direction and Ritter 's gripping performance. '' In a more mixed review, The Washington Post 's David Betancourt noted the season "lacks shock value ''. While Ritter "still brings her A-game... It 's the lack of Kilgrave that at first seems to be what 's missing from season 2. '' He did praise the supporting cast, feeling Darville "has a standout performance '' as Malcolm, with his connection to the larger storyline "surprising and enjoyable to watch '', and also praising Taylor, adding it "would n't hurt to bring (Taylor) in '' as her comics alter ego Hellcat, to help the season that "lags at the beginning ''. Conversely, Susana Polo from Polygon was left disappointed and bored by the early episodes, also noting the lack of compelling antagonist for the season. She said, "I do n't see Jessica Jones ' second season winning over anyone who was lukewarm about her first -- or anyone who skipped it entirely. I 'm a big fan, and even I left these first five episodes wondering exactly what had happened to the series that gripped me and never let go in 2015. ''

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List of Indian IT companies - Wikipedia This is a list of notable companies in the information technology sector based in India. Top 10 companies are listed in descending order of their market capitalization, and other companies are listed alphabetically, grouped by the cities in which they are headquartered. Certain companies have main offices in more than one city, in which case they are listed under each, but minor offices and resources are not listed. Foreign companies are only listed if they have one of their main offices in India.

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List of American Girl characters - wikipedia American Girl is an American line of 18 - inch (46 cm) dolls released in 1986 by Pleasant Company. The dolls portray eight - to eleven - year - old girls of a variety of ethnicities. They are sold with accompanying books told from the viewpoint of the girls. Originally the stories focused on various periods of American history, but were expanded in 1995 to include contemporary characters and stories, the latest addition being WellieWishers, a line of 14.5 - inch (37 cm) dolls aimed for younger children. Provided below is a list of characters from the Historical series (BeForever), Contemporary characters, the Girl of the Year line, and WellieWishers. The BeForever characters (originally known as "The American Girls Collection '' or, colloquially, "Historical Characters '') were initially the main focus of Pleasant Company. This product line aims to teach aspects of American history through a six book series from the perspective of a nine - year - old girl living in that time period. Although the books are written for the eight - to - thirteen - year - old target market, they endeavor to cover topics such as child labor, child abuse, poverty, racism, slavery, alcoholism, animal abuse, and war in manners appropriate for the understanding and sensibilities of the company 's target market. The first dolls in the American Girl / Historical line (Samantha, Kirsten and Molly) shared the same face mold but had different hair and eye colors. The first dolls were created with white muslin bodies, but these cloth bodies were changed in 1991 from a white muslin to a matching flesh tone. This accommodated the low necklines of Late Colonial / Revolutionary period gowns produced for the Felicity Merriman character (also introduced in 1991). Additional face molds were later developed for other dolls, and the line to date includes ten characters covering the period 1764 to 1974. The "Best Friends '' line was introduced in 2004; supplemental characters from the core book series were created in doll form and marketed as "best friends '' for some of the Historical Characters. These Best Friend dolls share the collections of the main characters, but each has her own book, and additional products were marketed under their names. However, in May 2014, American Girl announced that Ruthie, along with Ivy, Cécile and Marie - Grace, will be retired from their historical roster, citing business reasons as they decided "to move away from the character - friend strategy within the line ''. A reboot of the Historical Characters line dubbed as BeForever was launched in August 2014, complete with redesigned outfits, a two - volume compilation of previously - released books, and a "Journey Book '' for each character, with players taking the role of a present - day girl who found her way to the past and met up with one of the Historical girls. The line also coincided with the relaunch of Samantha Parkington, whose collection was previously discontinued in 2008. Kaya is a young girl from the Nimiipuu or Nez Perce tribe living in the pre-contact Northwest. Themes in her core series focus on leadership, compassion, courage, and attachment. Chronologically, Kaya 's adventures are the earliest of the historical characters. Kaya is depicted as brave and outgoing, but careless and thoughtless, and wants to be a leader of her people. Her role model is a female warrior named Swan Circling. Created in collaboration with a consultation team that included representatives from the Nez Perce tribe, Kaya is the only Native American doll made by American Girl to date. Kaya is the only doll in the series not to show teeth, per tribal custom. Kaya is also the first doll in the series to not follow the book naming customs established by previously - released characters -- the second book in the series is titled Kaya 's Escape instead of Kaya Learns a Lesson. Felicity Merriman is an auburn haired, horse - loving girl living in Williamsburg, Virginia, who is caught between Patriot and Loyalist family and friends at the onset of the American Revolution. Themes in her core books include loyalty and staying true to one 's ideals. Felicity is depicted as spunky, brave, and free - spirited, and is often fed up with the customs that young women are expected to observe at the time, much to her mother 's disappointment. She can be a little brash, impatient and foolish sometimes, and sets her heart on things often. She is also quite outspoken, but will stand up to bullies, as she did with Jiggy Nye. Felicity also is not afraid to tease Annabelle, Elizabeth 's older sister, coming up with the name "Bananabelle ''. She eventually learns to be more ladylike throughout the series; however, she is still quite active. Many items from Felicity 's collection were retired in the early 2000s, but when Felicity 's core books were dramatized for Felicity: An American Girl Adventure on November 29, 2005, new products were introduced in her collection. On August 27, 2010, American Girl announced on its website that the Felicity and Elizabeth collection would be archived. On March 28, 2011, Felicity, Elizabeth and their respective collections were officially archived. In February 2017 Felicity was re-introduced as part of BeForever. Elizabeth Cole is Felicity 's best friend, despite her Loyalist family leanings during the American Revolution. In spite of being quiet and shy, she is known to poke fun at her older sister Annabelle with Felicity -- this stems from being teased at by Annabelle, who gave her younger sister the nickname "Bitsy ''. Elizabeth is also shown to be somewhat wealthier, as evidenced by having a larger home, and a larger garden. The Elizabeth doll was introduced in August 2005 as the second Best Friend doll with a book written by author Valerie Tripp, and the character was prominently featured in Felicity: An American Girl Adventure. In the original Felicity book illustrations, Elizabeth had brown hair and eyes but the character 's appearance was revised to have blue eyes and blonde hair with the release of the Felicity DVD and Elizabeth doll. Later editions of the Felicity books were re-illustrated to reflect these changes and edit Elizabeth 's physical description. On August 27, 2010, American Girl announced that Elizabeth and her collection would be archived with Felicity, which took place in March 2011. Caroline Abbott is a girl from Sackets Harbor, New York. The only daughter of a shipbuilder who owned a shipyard near Lake Ontario, Caroline enjoys outdoor activities, like sailing and ice - skating, and dreams of being a captain of her own ship. One day, when her father is captured, Caroline embarks on a journey to save him and unite her family. Themes include bravery, family, and making wise decisions. Caroline was archived along with her collection in 2015. Her Mini Doll and books are still available for purchase. American Girl has already created her BeForever version books. Josefina Montoya is a young Mexican girl living in New Mexico with her extended family. She and her family (including her oldest sister, Ana who is married to Tomas and has two sons, and her two other sisters, vain and headstrong Francisca and practical and sensible Clara) must adapt following the death of their mother before the books and the introduction of their mother 's sister, Tía Dolores (who later marries Josefina 's widowed father), to the family circle. Josefina dreams of becoming a healer like her grandmother and is taught in this by her aunt, Magdalena, her father 's sister. Josefina has a pet goat named Sombrita. Themes include adjustment to loss, day - to - day life of the Mexican people, and the cultural and societal changes and influences that occurred once Mexico opened trade routes with the US. Josefina 's family speaks Spanish and there are Spanish words and phrases in her books which are defined in the glossary. Marie - Grace Gardner is a girl from New Orleans. Similar to Josefina, her mother died before the events of the series. She makes a friend with Cécile Rey in her first days in New Orleans, although the latter was not interested at first. However, changes are in the air. Soon, Marie - Grace 's singing teacher is found sick with yellow fever. Her father, who is a doctor, saves not only the teacher, but others in his aid. She also rescues a baby and forms a close bond with other children. Themes include the loss of family and caring for others in need. Both Marie - Grace and Cécile were archived in summer 2014. Though Marie - Grace and Cécile are best friends, they shared the same level of importance and a few items in their collection as well as a book, unlike other Best Friend characters. Marie - Grace was archived with Cecile, Ivy, and Ruthie in 2014 to make room for BeForever and the return of Samantha. Cécile Rey is from a rich African American family that originated from New Orleans, Louisiana. She loves listening to her grandfather 's tales about the sea. She meets Marie - Grace during one of her singing lessons. At first, she is not fond of her because she is white, but eventually warms up to her and becomes her best friend. When Yellow Fever strikes her brother, she decides to use her gifts to help him and others. Themes include the loss of family and caring for others in need, and volunteering. Cecile speaks French and her French words are described in the glossary in the back of her book. Though Cécile Rey and Marie - Grace are best friends, they shared the same level of importance and a few items in their collection as well as a book, unlike other Best Friend characters. Cecile was also the second African American character made by American Girl. The first being Addy and the third being Melody. Cecile was archived with Marie - Grace, Ivy, and Ruthie in 2014 to make room for BeForever and the return of Samantha. Kirsten Larson is a Swedish immigrant who settles in the Minnesota Territory with her extended family. She faces the hardships, challenges, and adaptations necessary to adjust to life in America such as learning to speak English. More changes include making a new friend outside of her own "world '' and the arrival of a new baby. Kirsten was one of the first three dolls produced by American Girl in 1986. Unlike many of the dolls, Kirsten 's books have maintained their original illustrations (with the exception of the covers). Kirsten was officially archived on the American Girl website on January 1, 2010. Addy Walker was the fifth doll added to the Historical line. Her character is a fugitive slave who escapes with her mother from a plantation in North Carolina to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during the American Civil War. Addy 's stories explore themes of freedom, familial love, prejudice and racism. The six - book series was written by Connie Porter and originally illustrated by Melodye Rosales and Bradford Brown, but were later redrawn by Dahl Taylor. A stage adaptation of Porter 's Addy book series was commissioned and produced by the Seattle Children 's Theater in 2007. Addy: An American Girl Story was subsequently taken on limited national tour from January through May 2008 through Kids Entertainment, Inc. Addy was the first African American character made by American Girl, the second being Cecile and the third being Melody. Samantha is an only child growing up during the Edwardian period (although American Girl designated her as Victorian). Orphaned at age five and raised by her wealthy Victorian - era grandmother, Mary Edwards, whom she called Grandmary, in fictional Mount Bedford, New York, Samantha befriends a poor servant girl named Nellie O'Malley. Eventually Samantha, Nellie and Nellie 's young sisters are adopted by Samantha 's uncle Gardner Edwards and aunt Cornelia. The themes of Samantha 's books include women 's suffrage, child labor, and classism. Red Om Productions produced Samantha: An American Girl Holiday, in cooperation with American Girl. The show premiered on WB Television Network in November 2004 and was released to DVD soon thereafter. American Girl introduced the concept of "archiving '' in October 2008 when it announced plans to cease production of Samantha and her collection (including Nellie). Samantha was then officially archived on May 31, 2009, but was later re-introduced in August 2014 as part of the BeForever reboot. Nellie O'Malley, Samantha 's best friend, is an Irish immigrant who works for Samantha 's neighbors and is befriended by Samantha. She personifies the working - class immigrant experience of the time and teaches Samantha about the conditions faced by children who are part of the work force. Nellie and her sisters, Bridget and Jenny, are orphaned and later adopted by Samantha 's relatives, Gardner and Cornelia Edwards. In 2004, American Girl introduced a new line of Best Friend dolls with Nellie O'Malley debuting as Samantha 's Best Friend in conjunction with the Samantha DVD release. Nellie was marketed with a small collection of clothing and a book written by Valerie Tripp, Nellie 's Promise, which chronicles the character 's growth and adjustment to her recent adoption. As Nellie was part of Samantha 's collection, she was archived at the same time as Samantha. In 2014 with the return of Samantha, the release of BeForever, and American Girl 's decision to move away from the Best Friends line it is unlikely for Nellie to be re-released. Rebecca Rubin, American Girl 's tenth historical character, debuted on May 31, 2009. She is a nine - year - old Jewish girl of Russian descent whose maternal grandparents and parents immigrated to the Lower East Side of New York City. Rebecca is fascinated by both various new American customs and the then - budding film industry, and aspires to become an actress despite her family 's disapproval, though she still treasures and celebrates her family 's Jewish traditions. Her six book series was written by Jacqueline Dembar Greene and focuses on issues related to assimilation of immigrants while maintaining familial, religious, and cultural traditions. Rebecca is the first Jewish Historical Character, however she is the second Jewish character made by American Girl. Kit Kittredge faces the hard times of the early - to - mid years of the Great Depression in Cincinnati, Ohio, as her family struggles to adjust to the realities of the economy after her father 's job loss. Kit was named after her mother and her Aunt Millie. Unlike her best friend Ruthie, Kit is a tomboy who cares less about dresses, chores and things that she considers as "flouncy '', and is more inclined toward baseball, especially Ernie Lombardi of the Cincinnati Reds, the great outdoors, such as country life, and typing up her own news reports. Kit hates change, and dislikes being dependent on charities, instead preferring to learn how to catch the big fish herself, which spurs her fascination with Amelia Earhart. She dreams of becoming a reporter one day. The books also depict her as being stubborn and somewhat fussy, as she finds chores around the house to be rather boring and tedious, but eventually regrets it after realizing her family 's misfortunes, and learns to be more supportive and helpful. Kit 's core series of books was written by Valerie Tripp and illustrated by Walter Rane. A feature film Kit Kittredge: An American Girl was released to theaters on July 2, 2008, starring Abigail Breslin in the title role. Many new items were added to Kit 's collection as product tie - ins to the movie. Two video games based on her stories were also developed and published, namely Kit Mystery Challenge for the Nintendo DS, and the point - and - click adventure game A Tree House of My Own for Microsoft Windows platforms. Ruthie Smithens is Kit Kittredge 's best friend. The only daughter of a banker, Ruthie (and her family) is not financially affected by the Depression. Although they did at times offer help to the Kittredges, it was mostly in ways that would not hurt their pride. She is depicted to have an affinity for princesses and fairy tales, most especially Andrew Lang 's Fairy Books and Grimms ' Fairy Tales, in contrast to Kit 's more tomboyish personality. Despite their major differences, Ruthie is a loyal and courageous friend who will go to great lengths to help Kit. Ruthie, along with Ivy, Cécile and Marie - Grace, was retired in August 2014 following the company 's decision to discontinue the Best Friends line. Nanea Mitchell is the sixteenth historical character and the 3rd BeForever exclusive. She is from the Hawaiian island of O'ahu growing up in the early 1940 's representing the bombings at Pearl Harbor that ushered the U.S. out of The Great Depression and into World War II. She may be the youngest in her Ohana (family), but she still wants to be useful and help. But before she can prove that she is ready for more responsibility, Japan attacks the military base in Pearl Harbor where her father works. Molly McIntire is a young girl living in a fictional city named Jefferson, Illinois during the later years of World War II. Her father is stationed in England as a doctor caring for wounded soldiers, and her mother works at the Red Cross. She, her 15 - year - old sister, Jill, her 13 - year - old brother, Ricky and her 6 - year - old brother, Brad, are all cared for by their housekeeper, Mrs. Gilford, and she must cope with the many changes that the war has brought. Molly also realizes that she, too, has a part of helping soldiers. Despite those changes, Molly has some leisure activities as well, such as skating, tap - dancing, movies and summer camp. Molly 's series focuses on patriotism and the changes that come with wartime. Molly was one of the original three dolls offered by Pleasant Company and is the only doll to be sold with eyeglasses. In early July 2013, American Girl announced plans to archive Molly and Emily. Both were archived on December 31, 2013, though Molly 's mini doll and books were re-released in February 2018 as part of the BeForever line. Emily Bennett is a British girl who is sent to America by her family to protect her from the intensity of the English battlefront during World War II. Originally a minor character temporarily residing with the McIntires in the book Happy Birthday, Molly!, Emily 's character was expanded in a book by Valerie Tripp called Brave Emily for her debut as the third doll in the Best Friends collection on September 5, 2006. Emily 's debut coincided with the premiere of the Molly made - for - TV movie. Since Emily is a minor character and not Molly 's best friend, she was marketed instead as "Molly 's English friend ''. As Emily is a part of Molly 's collection, she was archived along with Molly. Maryellen Larkin is the fourteenth Historical Character by American Girl, representing the 1950s. She was released on August 27, 2015, and is the first exclusive BeForever character, and was made to replace Caroline Abbott. Hailing from Daytona Beach, Florida, Maryellen is an enthusiastic and imaginative girl, longing to stand out but often feels lost in the shuffle of her big, busy family. Her favorite TV shows include Davy Crockett and The Lone Ranger, and she dreams up episodes where she gets to be the hero. Maryellen has strawberry - blonde hair with bangs up in a ponytail and green eyes. All three of her books, written by Valerie Tripp, were released on August 27, 2015. A short film based on her stories, with newcomer Harlie Galloway playing the title character, was uploaded on the video sharing site YouTube in November 2015 as part of American Girl 's venture into digital content and independent film production. In addition to the short, a direct - to - video special entitled An American Girl Story - Maryellen 1955: Extraordinary Christmas, starring Alyvia Alyn Lind as Maryellen Larkin and was released by Amazon to Prime subscribers on November 25, 2016. Melody Ellison is a nine - year - old girl living with her family in Detroit, Michigan, during the civil rights movement in the early 1960s. Her parents are Will, who works in an auto assembly line, and Frances. Frances ' parents (Melody 's grandparents) are Frank Porter, a florist; and "Big Momma '' Porter, who teaches piano and voice. Melody 's older brother, Dwayne, wants to be a Motown singer; her oldest sister, Yvonne, is a student at Tuskegee University; her sister, Lila, is in middle school and lives at home. In her character 's first book, No Ordinary Sound, Melody 's cousins move to Detroit from Alabama; this is when Melody learns more of racial prejudice. When the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing occurs, Melody becomes fearful of going into her church, because the four little girls were in their church when they died. In time, Melody overcomes her fear. The first book was released in January 2016, although the doll was n't released until summer 2016; a preview of the Melody doll was aired in CBS News in February 2016. The book 's advisory board included: JoAnn Watson, NAACP executive committee member; Gloria House, professor of African American Studies at the University of Michigan, Dearborn; Thomas Sugrue, professor of history at New York University; and the late Julian Bond, former NAACP chairman. A live - action web special based on her stories entitled Melody, 1963: Love Has to Win, an American Girl Story was released by Amazon Studios, starring Marsai Martin as the title character. Melody is the third African American character made by American Girl, the first being Addy and the second being Cecile. Jolie Ledford Julie Albright is a young girl growing up in San Francisco, California in 1974 -- 75. Her six book series, written by Megan McDonald and illustrated by Robert Hunt, focuses on various changes and societal upheavals in American society during that time period: divorce, feminism, gender equality in school sports, environmentalism, and the disability rights movement. The America 's Bicentennial celebration is also emphasized later in the series. Julie was released September 10, 2007 and is the first character portrayed from a divorced family by American Girl. In 2008, Elaine Goldsmith - Thomas reported that she was outlining a movie proposal based on Julie 's story In December 2009, Julie: An American Girl Musical was officially announced as a planned theatrical release; as of 2015, little, if any, development has been made over the musical. In lieu of this, a short independent film was uploaded on American Girl 's YouTube account, starring Jolie Ledford in the title role. Grace Liu Ivy Ling, Julie 's best friend, is a Chinese American girl living in San Francisco. Good Luck, Ivy by Lisa Yee focuses on Ivy 's conflict with her love of gymnastics and family traditions and responsibilities, and its "Looking Back '' section discusses Chinese - American history. The Ivy doll debuted with Julie and was the first Best Friend doll to be released at the same time as the main character. Ivy was and still is the only Asian American Historical character. Ruthie, along with Ivy, Cécile and Marie - Grace, was retired in August 2014 following the company 's decision to discontinue the Best Friends line. Introduced in 2017, the Contemporary Characters line features characters and stories set in the present day, but unlike the limited edition Girl of the Year dolls, they are available for at least a few years before being discontinued. The line also marks the introduction of an 18 - inch boy doll in the American Girl series, although the Bitty Baby and Bitty Twin lines have had boy dolls in their respective collections. Hailing from Nashville, Tennessee, Tenney Grant is an aspiring young songwriter who dreams to express herself through music. The eponymous first book in the series by Kellen Hertz focuses on her efforts at songwriting and the opportunity to perform at the famed Bluebird Cafe. Unlike dolls from the Girl of the Year line, Tenney, along with Logan Everett, are marketed as regular characters to be sold for an extended period of time than as limited edition dolls sold only for a year before being discontinued. Tenney 's sidekick and bandmate, Logan Everett is, in a break from series tradition, the first 18 - inch boy doll from American Girl. Released alongside the main character, he is depicted as a drummer for Tenney 's band, and as with Tenney, the Logan doll also comes with a modified hand to hold musical instruments. Suzanne "Z '' Yang is an aspiring film maker and photographer, specializing in stop - motion pictures. Z is the first Korean American character made by American Girl. Starting in 2001, American Girl began producing a "Girl of the Year '' doll that was exclusive to that year. Lindsey was on sale from 2001 to mid-2002 but a 2002 doll was not produced due to lack of sales. Then Kailey was on sale from 2003 - mid-2004. After that they were exclusively produced and on sale only during the year of their origination. The Girl of the Year is available until December 31, or until supplies last. Lindsey Bergman and Kailey Hopkins were Girl of the Year for two years -- the rest, starting from 2005 by Marisol Luna, were each Girl of the Year for only one year. Starting in 2009, the Girl of the Year dolls were accompanied by films to tie in with their release. Since Kanani in 2011, every character has an additional mobile app. Described as a girl "who is eager to help '', Lindsey 's self - titled book details the difficulties her impulsive attempts at helping with causes. The character is Jewish and the book references her brother 's Bar Mitzvah experience and party plans. A small collection consisting of a scooter set and laptop accompanied her release. She is the first girl of the year released in 2001 and retired in 2002, and replaced by Kailey Hopkins. Lindsey has short hair, dark brown curls and blue eyes. Her face mold is the Classic mold. Kailey Hopkins lives near tide pools in California and is an avid swimmer and surfer. When development threatens to destroy the tide pools she loves and surfs in, she and her best friend engineer a protest to make a difference. Kailey 's collection included various beach outfits and accessories. She was the second girl of the year, released in 2003, retired in 2004, and replaced by Marisol Luna. Kailey has light skin, blonde hair and brown eyes. Her face mold is the Classic face mold. Marisol Luna is a nine year old girl who aspires to be a dancer. She moves from Chicago 's Pilsen neighborhood to a suburb that does not have a dance studio where she can practice her favorite ballet folklórico dances. Introduced on January 1, 2005, Marisol had an extensive collection of dance outfits and accessories. Marisol has medium skin, brown eyes, and medium brown hair. Her face mold is the Josefina Montoya mold. Marisol is the first Mexican American Girl of the year made by American Girl; the second being Luciana. Jess McConnell accompanies her archaeologist parents on a several months - long expedition to Belize, where she learns new lessons about responsibility and preservation of history along learning new things about herself. To illustrate her mixed Japanese - American and Irish - Scottish heritage, the Jess doll debuted with a new face mold. Jess is also the first Girl of the Year by American Girl to be explicitly biracial. Nicki Fleming is an animal lover living on her family 's Colorado ranch who volunteers to train a service dog named Sprocket when her mother can not fulfill this responsibility due to a pregnancy. Nicki also faces friendship difficulties which test her loyalties. Nicki was the first Girl of the Year to have two books: Nicki and Thanks to Nicki, both by Ann Howard Creel. Mia was previewed on the November 21, 2007 episode of Oprah. The doll was subsequently released on January 1, 2008 with an extensive collection and two books: Mia and Bravo Mia, both written by Laurence Yep. Mia 's stories chronicle her passion for competitive figure skating, which is at odds with her hockey - playing family. Mia is featured in a computer game (Mia Goes For Great!). The Mia doll has light skin, hazel eyes and light red hair. She comes in a light grey skirt, a magenta long sleeved sweater with a snowflake printed on the right side, and blue high - top sneakers. Her face mold is the Classic mold. Chrissa Marie Maxwell and her collection were released on January 1, 2009. An accompanying direct - to - DVD film entitled Chrissa Stands Strong based on her story premiered January 5 and became available for purchase the next day. Chrissa 's books and DVD focus on peer bullying issues. Chrissa is portrayed by actress Sammi Hanratty. Both books are written by Mary Casanova. In a break with tradition for this product line, Chrissa 's collection included two additional "best friend '' dolls: Gwen Thompson and Sonali Matthews, neither of which had a separate collection. In the books, Gwen Thompson is disappointed in Chrissa when she believes Chrissa has revealed one of her secrets to school bullies. At first, Sonali is one of the bullies, but then learns to stand up for others. The character of Sonali debuted a new face mold to represent her Indian heritage. The Chrissa doll has light skin, blue eyes and dark brown / near black hair. She comes in a pink wrap - around long sleeved dress with a floral print. Her face mold is the Josefina Montoya mold. Lanie was released in January 2010 along with her collection. Lanie is a ten - year - old girl living in Cambridge, Massachusetts, depicted as having an affinity for science and biology and considers herself a scientist. The Lanie doll has light skin, hazel eyes, and curly blonde hair with side bangs. She comes in a blue and green striped polo dress. Her face mold is the Classic mold. Kanani is the ninth Girl of the Year character; she and her collection were released in 2011. Kanani is the second multiracial character, following Jess McConnell. Her father is of Japanese and Hawaiian descent, and her mother is French and German. Hailing from Kaua'i, she helps her family run a shave ice shop and is passionate about helping people by sharing the aloha spirit and protecting Hawaiian wildlife. The Kanani doll has medium skin, hazel eyes, and long thigh - length light brown hair. She comes with a kukui nut necklace, a pink flower in her hair, and a light - blue floral print dress. Her face mold is the Jess McConnell mold. McKenna and her collection debuted in January 2012, revolving around a gymnastics theme. She is a ten - year - old girl from Seattle, Washington who is a budding gymnast but suffers from problems with school work. McKenna is the oldest of three children, with younger twin sisters named Maisey and Mara Brooks. She is described as strong - willed and determined, and is determined to be an Olympic gold medalist for gymnastics. A television film entitled An American Girl: McKenna Shoots for the Stars was released on July 3, 2012. The film is also the second in the series to feature a Girl of the Year character. McKenna is portrayed by actress Jade Pettyjohn. The McKenna doll has light skin, blue eyes, and long caramel colored hair. She comes in a teal and gray lap - length dress with flutter sleeves and with a ponytail at the top of her head. Her face mold is the Josefina Montoya face mold. Saige Copeland is the eleventh Girl of the Year released by American Girl in 2013, and the fourth Girl of the Year to represent an only child. A resident of Albuquerque, New Mexico, she has a passion for visual arts (most especially painting), and is very skilled in horseback riding. When Saige comes back to school, she learns that there will not be a new art class. Saige gets upset and tries to keep up her spirits and earn a new class for the school. A film based on her stories, Saige Paints the Sky, was released on July 2, 2013 as a made - for - television film. It aired on NBC on July 13, 2013. Saige was portrayed by actress Sidney Fullmer. An iOS app entitled Paint Ponies was also released to coincide with the doll 's debut. The Saige doll has light skin, freckles across the bridge of her nose, blue eyes and loose auburn hair that comes in a braid. She comes in an indigo dress with a knitted / sewn geometric print belt and tan boots with belting. Her face mold is the Classic mold. Isabelle Palmer is the twelfth Girl of the Year released in 2014, making her debut on an episode of Good Morning America. Isabelle is an inspired dancer who lives in Washington, D.C. She is excited to attend Anna Hart School of the Arts where her older sister, Jade, has been studying ballet. Her hobbies include dancing and fashion design. She designs leotards and other clothing. She is the first Girl of the Year to have three books -- Isabelle, Designs by Isabelle, and To the Stars, Isabelle, all written by Laurence Yep. A mobile app for iOS platforms entitled Isabelle 's Dance Studio was also released in line with her debut. A port of the game to Android was also released in July 2014. She also is the fourth Girl of the Year to have a movie about her. Erin Pitt portrays Isabelle in the movie Isabelle Dances Into the Spotlight. The Isabelle doll has light skin, hazel eyes, and long blonde hair with detachable pink - tipped highlights. She comes in a pink shirt with a girl in a ballet position with sequins, grey capri pants, and sparkly gold shoes. Her face mold is the Classic face mold. Grace Thomas is the thirteenth Girl Of The Year, released in 2015. An avid baker from the fictional town of Bentwick, Massachusetts, her story centers around her dreams of being an aspiring entrepreneur, with her trip to Paris as a key plot point. Grace made her debut on Good Morning America on January 1, 2015. The Grace doll has light skin with freckles across the bridge of her nose, light blue eyes, and medium brown hair with side bangs. She comes with a white print T - shirt with "Paris, Je T'aime '' written in cursive script, a pink skirt with a black bow, and dark gray boots with bows. Her face mold is the Josefina mold. Some of her unique features are highlights, side bangs and permanent lip gloss. Tying in with the Grace doll is a television film based on her stories entitled Grace Stirs Up Success, starring Olivia Rodrigo as the title character, and the mobile app Grace 's Sweet Shop for iOS and Android. Lea Clark is the fourteenth Girl Of The Year, released in 2016. Debuting in an episode of Good Morning America, Lea is a budding photographer from St. Louis, Missouri, and is described by American Girl as an animal lover who "discovers a world of possibilities '' upon visiting Brazil, culminating in a visit to her brother in the Amazon rainforest. Coinciding with her release is a film entitled Lea to the Rescue starring Maggie Elizabeth Jones as the title character, along with coordinating items such as books penned by Lisa Yee entitled Lea Dives In, Lea Leads the Way and Lea and Camila, and a mobile game for iOS. American Girl has also launched an advocacy campaign with the World Wildlife Fund called "Wild at Art '', urging young girls to contribute to the fund through their artistic abilities. Gabriela McBride is the fifteenth Girl of the Year, released in 2017. She made her debut on Good Morning America, Gabriela is an aspiring poet from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to express her feelings to help her overcome stuttering. Gabriela loves to dance at the community center after school. She is the first African American Girl of the Year. Gabriela uses the Sonali face mold. Luciana Vega is the sixteenth Girl of The Year. She was released on January 1, 2018, and is a space loving eleven - year - old Chilean girl from Virginia who wants to be the first person to walk on Mars. Luciana is the second Latina American Girl of the Year made by American Girl, the first being Marisol. The WellieWishers are a group of young elementary age girls who meet and play together at Aunt Miranda 's backyard garden. As the name implies, dolls from the line wear Wellington boots, and have a body design distinct from the classic, Götz - derived American Girl dolls. The line was released on June 23, 2016. Coinciding with the characters ' launch is a mobile game for iOS consisting a series of minigames centering on the WellieWishers girls and their adventures, and an animated web series scheduled to be released in Fall 2016. Ashlyn is the group 's party planner, and the most socially - active among the girls. She is described as throwing the best parties and loves to make her friends happy -- and has a "princess '' / very feminine side to her, wearing a predominantly pink outfit with a tiara, blouse, a tulle skirt and pink boots with gold and lace designs. A caring young girl and a good listener, Camille also has an affinity for the ocean and aquatic interests, including pretending she 's a mermaid. She is depicted as a Caucasian girl with shoulder length blonde hair similar to Kit Kittredge, blue eyes, and light skin, and a mole or freckle under her left eye. Her interests are reflected in an outfit consisting of a blue T - shirt with a ruched ribbon, a multi-colored tulle skirt, and fish - themed boots with fins on the sides. Emerson is the theatrically - inclined member of the group, enjoying the stage and performing in front of her friends through her poems and songs to which she writes herself. She is depicted as an East Asian girl with black hair worn in two twisted buns, light skin and dark brown eyes. Her outfit reflects this with a wrap ballet style top, star - spangled tulle skirt, and ballet shoe styled wellies. She also wears two pink tulle - trimmed ponytail holders in her hair. Kendall serves as the group 's artist and designer, having a gift for arts, crafts and recycling old or discarded things. She appears as a black girl with dark skin, textured black hair worn in two high ponytail puffs and brown eyes. She also shows her diplomatic side at times, settling arguments and disputes when the need arises. A tree - climber and nature lover, Willa has an interest in the outdoors, making friends with animals and being fluent in "rabbit language ''.

mere jeevan saathi movie mere jeevan saathi movie

Mere Jeevan Saathi (2006 film) - Wikipedia Mere Jeevan Saathi (English: My life partner) is an Indian Hindi romance film released in 2006 starring Akshay Kumar, Karisma Kapoor and Amisha Patel. It was filmed back in 2001 and was supposed to release in 2004, but due to delays it was pushed back and was finally released on February 2006. Vicky (Akshay Kumar) is an aspiring singer who is devoted to his true love, Anjali (Amisha Patel). He gets a big offer from a music company in America and accepts it. In Canada, he meets the owner of the company, Natasha (Karisma Kapoor). Natasha helps Vicky become a star, however, Vicky is unaware of Natasha 's hidden motives. Natasha knew Vicky in college and harboured a deep infatuation for him. Natasha 's father had warned her that her love for Vicky can never be, as Vicky loved Anjali, but she refused to listen. When Natasha 's father died in a car accident, Natasha, with no one else to love, put all her love and devotion on Vicky aside, and has been alone ever since. Natasha invites Vicky to her home for her birthday. Things heat up and Vicky and Natasha spend a passionate night together. Vicky is horrified by what he has done. He goes back to India, but Natasha accompanies him. An uncomfortable Vicky tells Natasha that their one night together was a mistake and that he only loves Anjali. Natasha then attempts suicide but Vicky rushes her to the hospital in time. Vicky proposes to Anajali and she accepts. Natasha discovers that Vicky and Anjali are engaged. At the engagement party, Natasha, mad with jealousy, starts dancing barefoot on broken glass until she faints. Vicky later tells her to stay away from him. Natasha hires hitmen to plant a bomb in Vicky 's car. Vicky realizes that Natasha 's obsession of him has become dangerous. Overwhelmed with guilt, he confesses the truth to Anjali. Although hurt, she is not angry at him as he has punished himself enough. Anjali then insists on meeting with Natasha. The two women meet and Anjali gently explains that Vicky has always loved her and never Natasha. Natasha threatens Anjali, saying that she will go to any length for Vicky -- even kill. Anjali admits that while she can not kill others, she would kill herself for him. When Anjali returns to Vicky, Natasha calls the couple to her home. The two arrive and see Natasha sitting in a chair. As they are apologizing for hurting her, they suddenly notice a gun in Natasha 's hand and blood on her head. She had killed herself before the two arrived. Vicky finds a note that she had written, saying that by sacrificing her life, she proved that she will always love him. The film ends with Natasha 's funeral, and Anjali in Vicky 's arms.

when did sideshow bob first appear in the simpsons

Sideshow Bob - wikipedia Robert Underdunk Terwilliger Jr., PhD, better known as Sideshow Bob, is a recurring character in the animated television series The Simpsons. He is voiced by Kelsey Grammer and first appeared briefly in the episode "The Telltale Head ''. Bob is a self - proclaimed genius who is a graduate of Yale University, a member of the Republican Party, and a champion of high culture. He began his career as a sidekick on Krusty the Clown 's television show, but after enduring constant abuse, Bob attempted to frame his employer for armed robbery in "Krusty Gets Busted ''. The plan was foiled by Bart Simpson, and Sideshow Bob was sent to prison. Bob made his second major appearance in season three 's "Black Widower ''; the writers echoed the premise of the Coyote chasing the Road Runner by having Bob unexpectedly insert himself into Bart 's life, threatening to disrupt -- and sometimes end -- it. In each appearance thereafter, Bob has assumed the role on The Simpsons of an evil genius. Episodes in which he is a central character typically involve Sideshow Bob being released from prison and executing an elaborate revenge plan, usually foiled by Bart and Lisa. His plans often involve murder and destruction, usually targeted at Bart or, less often, Krusty, though these plans often involve targeting the entire Simpson family. In 2015, however, during the "Treehouse of Horror '' segment, "Wanted: Dead, Then Alive '', Bob finally gets his wish of killing Bart, commenting that he spent 24 years trying to kill a ten - year - old child; however, he becomes bored with Bart dead, so he brings him back to life so that he can repeatedly kill Bart over and over again. Sideshow Bob shares some personality traits of Grammer 's character Frasier Crane from the sitcoms Cheers and Frasier, and has been described as "Frasier pickled in arsenic ''. Several parallels have been explicitly drawn in The Simpsons between Bob and Frasier Crane -- Bob 's brother Cecil and his father were played by David Hyde Pierce and John Mahoney respectively, echoing the roles they played in Frasier. Grammer, who based Bob 's voice on that of actor Ellis Rabb, has been praised for his portrayals of the character. In 2006, he won an Emmy for Outstanding Voice - Over Performance for his work in the episode "The Italian Bob ''. As of December 2017, Bob has had speaking appearances in 20 episodes and been featured in 13; the most recent of the latter, "Gone Boy '', aired during the 29th season. In addition to his recurring role in the series, Sideshow Bob has made several appearances in other Simpsons media. He appears in the Simpsons Comics, cameos in the 2007 video game The Simpsons Game, and stars as the main antagonist in The Simpsons Ride at Universal Studios ' theme parks. A lover of Gilbert and Sullivan operettas, Sideshow Bob is also known for his singing voice; several of Grammer 's performances have been included in The Simpsons musical compilations. The character of Sideshow Bob began his career as the non-speaking sidekick on Krusty the Clown 's television show. The episode "Brother from Another Series '' (season eight, 1997) reveals that Bob only received the job after his younger brother Cecil failed an audition, because Krusty considered Bob to be a perfect comic foil. After repeated instances of abuse, including being shot from a cannon and hit constantly with pies, the Yale - educated Bob became angry at Krusty and resentful of the clown 's success. In "Krusty Gets Busted '' (season one, 1990) Bob disguised himself as Krusty and framed him for armed robbery of the Kwik - E-Mart. After Krusty is arrested, Bob takes control of the show, introducing children to elements of high culture. However, Bob 's reign is short - lived; Bart Simpson exposes him as the robber, Krusty is released, and Bob is fired and sent to jail. In "Black Widower '' (season three, 1992), Bob 's first major appearance after framing Krusty, he is released from prison and marries Bart 's aunt Selma Bouvier. As part of a scheme to inherit money she has invested in the stock market, Bob attempts to blow Selma up during their honeymoon. Bart again foils the plan and Sideshow Bob returns to prison. After being paroled from prison in "Cape Feare '' (season five, 1993), Bob targets Bart directly, threatening him repeatedly and forcing the Simpsons into hiding as part of the Witness Relocation Program. Bob follows them to their hideout, a houseboat on Terror Lake, and, after subduing the family, prepares to kill Bart. He allows a final request, however, and Bart asks to hear Bob sing the entire score of H.M.S. Pinafore. The delaying tactic leads to Bob 's third arrest. Bob is released from prison once again in "Sideshow Bob Roberts '' (season six, 1994), and runs for Mayor of Springfield as the Republican Party candidate. He defeats Democratic Party incumbent Joe Quimby in a landslide, but Bart and Lisa discover that Bob rigged the election, leading to another incarceration. Bob escapes from prison for the first time in "Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming '' (season seven, 1995), and threatens to blow up Springfield with a nuclear bomb unless the city stops broadcasting all television shows. He is thwarted when he finds out that the bomb itself is a dud, then kidnaps Bart and flies the Wright Brothers ' plane in an attempt to kill himself, Bart, and Krusty (who is hiding inside a shack, improvising a performance on the Emergency Broadcast System). This too is thwarted, and Bob returns to prison. In the following season, Bob takes advantage of the prison 's work release program, and appears to be genuinely redeemed. In "Brother from Another Series '', Reverend Lovejoy declares him a changed man and recommends him for a work release opportunity. Bob is discharged from prison into the care of his brother Cecil, who is Springfield 's chief hydrological and hydrodynamical engineer. However, the scheming Cecil, still smarting over his failed audition for Krusty, tries to frame Bob by sabotaging the Springfield Dam. Bob, Bart, and Lisa together stop Cecil and save the town, and both brothers, despite Bob 's genuine innocence, are sent to prison. In "Day of the Jackanapes '' (season 12, 2001), Bob discovers that Krusty has erased all of the early shows featuring Sideshow Bob as Krusty himself is declaring his fifth and final retirement after being annoyed with the network executives. Bob is released from prison and develops a plot to kill Krusty using Bart as a suicide bomber during Krusty 's retirement special. Just as Bob was to succeed, he overhears Krusty publicly holding himself responsible for turning Bob into a criminal, expressing his regret of mistreating Bob during his years as Sideshow. To appease things, Krusty sings himself a song on Bob 's behalf, and being touched by this, Bob decides to abort his plan of attempted murder and reconciles with Krusty, although he is returned to prison for it. Bob 's aid is sought by Springfield police in "The Great Louse Detective '' (season 14, 2002). After an attempt is made on Homer Simpson 's life, Bob is released from prison to help find the culprit. When the mystery is solved, he returns to murder Bart. However, Bob finds he is "accustomed to (Bart 's) face '' and can not do it. It is revealed in "The Italian Bob '' (season 17, 2005) that Bob has moved to Italy to make a fresh start. He is elected mayor of a village in Tuscany and marries a local woman named Francesca, with whom he has a son named Gino. The Simpson family, in Italy to retrieve a car for Mr. Burns, encounters him by chance. Bob welcomes them with hospitality on the condition that they not reveal his felonious past; however, a drunken Lisa jokes about Bob 's criminal deeds, alienating Bob from his citizens. He, his wife and son swear a vendetta on the Simpsons. The entire Terwilliger family returns in "Funeral for a Fiend '' (season 19, 2007) in which Bob 's father, Robert Terwilliger Sr., and mother, Dame Judith Underdunk, make their first appearances. Bob fakes his own death and locks Bart in the coffin, which he attempts to cremate at the otherwise empty funeral home as all the Terwilligers laugh maniacally. They are foiled by Lisa and the rest of the Simpson family and sent to prison. Bob briefly returns in the season 20 episode "Wedding for Disaster '', when Bart and Lisa initially suspect Bob of kidnapping Homer to prevent him from attending his second wedding with Marge (due to a keychain they found had an ' S ' and a ' B '), but Krusty provides him with an alibi, explaining to the kids that Bob was with him the whole day. Eventually, Bob and the kids discover the true culprits, Patty and Selma. Bob reappears again in the episode "The Bob Next Door '' (season 21, 2010), where he switches faces with his prison cellmate Walt Warren. Bob returns to Springfield and moves into the house next to the Simpson family, assuming Walt 's identity. He exploits this to make his latest attempt to kill Bart legally over state lines, but is foiled again and gets taken away by state police. Bob briefly appears in "At Long Last Leave '' (season 23, 2012), where he attends a town meeting to decide if the Simpson family should be banished from Springfield, and is one of many who express their desire for it to happen. In "The Man Who Grew Too Much '' (season 25, 2014), he was revealed as a Chief Scientist for a genetic engineering company named Monsarno, having received the position after he was selected as a test subject and published the results of the experiments to which he was subjected. He and Lisa bond over their interest in Walt Whitman, but Bob soon reveals that he has also genetically modified himself to give himself various superhuman abilities, intending to acquire DNA from the relics of various historical figures stored in the Springfield Museum to make himself a superhuman dictator. However, after he is provoked into a fight, he realizes that he has become a crude monster and jumps off the Springfield Dam, surviving because the gills he gave himself allow him to survive in the lake. Bob briefly appears in "Clown in the Dumps '' (season 26, 2014), where offered his condolences to Krusty after the death of his father, Rabbi Krustofsky. He also made a brief appearance on "Blazed and Confused '' (season 26, 2014), where he meets Mr. Lassen, Bart 's former teacher, who was now reduced to working in prison as a guard after Bart 's actions got him fired. Despite Lassen 's offer to get him out, Bob rejects the idea that they team up as Lassen thought that they would take turns gutting Bart. In Treehouse of Horror XXVI segment "Wanted: Dead, then Alive '', Bob successfully kills Bart, but finds his life so meaningless in Bart 's absence that he creates a machine to bring Bart back to life so that he can keep killing his enemy over and over, until the other Simpsons rescue Bart and Bart uses the resurrection machine to turn Bob into a twisted amalgamation of creatures. Bob has made a brief appearance in "Gal of Constant Sorrow '', grunting in annoyance as he wipes off Bart 's graffiti from Hettie Mae Boggs ' promo poster on the wall along with Snake Jailbird and other inmates. Bob appeared in the 29th season in Gone Boy when he tries to track down the whereabouts of Bart Simpson. In addition to regular roles in the television series, Sideshow Bob has made several appearances in other Simpsons media. Kelsey Grammer recorded several Sideshow Bob lines for The Simpsons Movie, but the scene was cut. Sideshow Bob has made regular appearances in the monthly Simpsons Comics, and several of Kelsey Grammer 's singing performances have been included in The Simpsons CD compilations. His performance of the H.M.S. Pinafore in "Cape Feare '' was later included on the album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons, and the song "The Very Reason That I Live '' from "The Great Louse Detective '' was included on The Simpsons: Testify. A previously unaired song, "Hullaba Lula '', originally written for "Day of the Jackanapes '', was also included on that compilation. The producers modeled the song after "Zip - a-Dee - Doo - Dah '', but were forced to remove the song from the episode when they were unable to obtain the rights to it. In The Simpsons Game, released in November 2007, Bob has a speaking cameo appearance at the end of the chapter titled "Invasion of the Yokel - Snatchers '' in which he was working with Kang and Kodos. Sideshow Bob appears in the 1991 The Simpsons Arcade Game, on the fifth level where he is pulling a cart containing a roast chicken health pick up. Bob was also included as a level boss in the 1991 video game Bart vs. the Space Mutants. Sideshow Bob plays a lead role in The Simpsons Ride, which opened at Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Hollywood in May 2008. Voiced by Grammer, he is the main villain in the ride, having escaped from prison to get revenge on the Simpson family. In The Simpsons: Tapped Out, a city builder game released in February 2012, Sideshow Bob occurs as a bonus. Popping up every couple hours, the players are given a chance to tap on him to receive a small sum of money, and "send '' him to jail. In a later update to the game, Sideshow Bob also has a stand in Krusty Land, where player get to pop balloons for a chance to win donuts and Krusty tickets. The Simpsons: Tapped Out Terwilligers content update was released April 14, 2015 and has several references to the Simpsons episodes with Sideshow Bob. This game event was split in 3 acts and ended June 4, 2015. New characters, skins and costumes include Sideshow Bob, Cecil Terwilliger, Gino Terwilliger, Francesca Terwilliger, Dr. Robert Terwilliger Sr., Judith Underdunk, Captain Bob and Opera Krusty. Most of the event action takes place at Monsarno Research and Opera House. Sideshow Bob first appeared in "The Telltale Head '', the eighth episode of season one. His design was relatively simple compared to later incarnations, and his hairstyle was rounded. However, towards the end of the episode, he appears again, in a panning shot of a crowd, with his familiar hairstyle. His first major appearance was in season one 's twelfth episode "Krusty Gets Busted '', written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky. Bob 's design was updated for "Krusty Gets Busted ''; as the episode 's animation style evolved, director Brad Bird made the character of Sideshow Bob sleeker and more refined, to fit Grammer 's voice technique. Following the re-design, animators tried to redraw his scenes in "The Telltale Head '', but had insufficient time before the show was produced. Bob has no lines of dialogue during the first half of "Krusty Gets Busted ''; the character 's only communication takes the form of a slide whistle. This was designed to make Bob appear simplistic, so that when he finally spoke, viewers would be surprised to hear his sophisticated vocabulary. An early version of the script for "Krusty Gets Busted '' called for James Earl Jones to voice Bob, but the producers instead selected Kelsey Grammer. For Bob 's voice, Grammer performed an impression of theatre actor and director Ellis Rabb. Grammer had once worked for Rabb, whose "lamenting tones became (the) foundation for Sideshow Bob ''. Sideshow Bob 's full name is Robert Underdunk Terwilliger. His last name was first revealed in "Black Widower '' while his middle name was first mentioned in "Sideshow Bob Roberts ''. Competing theories as to the origin of his name exist; some sources say he was named after the character Dr. Terwilliker, a megalomaniac outwitted by a boy named Bart in the film The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T by Dr. Seuss, but others say he was named after Terwilliger Boulevard in Portland, Oregon. Yet another theory is that he was named after Sergeant Terwilliger and Mrs. Underdunk in the pilot episode of the TV show Hunter. For season three 's "Black Widower '', the writers echoed the premise of Wile E. Coyote chasing the Road Runner from Looney Tunes cartoons by having Bob unexpectedly insert himself into Bart 's life and attempt to kill him. Executive producer Al Jean has compared Bob 's character to that of Wile E. Coyote, noting that both are intelligent, yet always foiled by what they perceive as an inferior intellect. For "Black Widower '', director David Silverman updated the character model to reflect the animation of director Brad Bird. A rule for earlier episodes featuring Bob called for a recap of his evil deeds; this was dropped after season eight 's "Brother from Another Series '' when the chronology became too lengthy. Another rule established by the show 's writers mandated Bob 's return to prison at the end of each episode, although this pattern was abandoned in later episodes like "The Great Louse Detective '' and "The Italian Bob ''. Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein, the showrunners for the seventh and eighth seasons, believed that every season of the show should contain an episode starring Sideshow Bob. However, by the seventh season Bob had already been the focus of four stories, and writers were having trouble developing new ways to include him. Weinstein describes Bob 's dialogue as difficult to write, due to his unique and refined style of speaking. Despite these challenges, however, creators of The Simpsons usually look forward to "Sideshow Bob episodes ''; the writers consider them enjoyable to write, and former director Dominic Polcino describes them as "a treat '' to work on. Kelsey Grammer initially expected Sideshow Bob to be a one - time role, and calls him "the most popular character I 've ever played ''. Grammer usually joins the show 's "table readings '' (wherein cast members read each script together for the first time), and former executive producer David Mirkin described working with Grammer as very pleasant, due to his lively sense of humor. Grammer, Mirkin says, is capable of perfect readings, but noted that the actor dislikes performing Sideshow Bob 's evil laugh. In a 2007 interview, Simpsons executive producer Al Jean listed Grammer as one of his favorite guest stars (second only to Phil Hartman), saying "his voice is so rich. '' Writer George Meyer commented that "writing for Kelsey is great, he can give the kind of purple, florid, melodramatic speeches that most of the characters would never give. And he can sing. '' The show 's writers admire Grammer 's singing voice, and try to include a song for each appearance. Alf Clausen, the primary composer for The Simpsons, commented that "(Grammer) is so great. He 's just amazing. You can tell he has this love of musical theater and he has the vocal instrument to go with it, so I know whatever I write is going to be sung the way I 've heard it. '' Clausen composed Sideshow Bob 's theme, which is played whenever Bob gets out of prison or is about to commit a sinister action, and was first used in "Cape Feare ''. It is based on the score of the film Cape Fear, composed by Bernard Herrmann. The musical score for "Cape Feare '' earned Clausen an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Dramatic Underscore -- Series in 1994. Bob 's prisoner number is often 24601, which is Jean Valjean 's prisoner number in Les Misérables. Another trademark for Bob is a visual gag of stepping on a rake and being struck in the face with its handle; this joke first appeared in "Cape Feare ''. To fill time, the writers added nine consecutive iterations of the same joke in quick succession. The sequence has become known as the "rake joke '' and was described by Entertainment Weekly as showing "genius in its repetitive stupidity. '' The episode "Brother from Another Series '' introduces Bob 's brother Cecil. After writer Ken Keeler was assigned to write an episode featuring Sideshow Bob, he drew inspiration from episodes of Frasier. He decided to incorporate elements of Grammer 's other show into the character of Sideshow Bob, and designed Cecil to resemble Grammer 's brother on Frasier. Cecil is voiced by David Hyde Pierce, who portrayed Frasier Crane 's brother Niles. Pierce commented, "Normally, I would not do something like this. But how often do you get a chance to work with an actor like Kelsey Grammer and, more importantly, play his brother? '' Several of Frasier 's producers were asked to review the original script and provide feedback. Their comments were positive; they only expressed concern with a very brief scene in which Cecil talks to a visible character whom he refers to as "Maris ''. In Frasier, Maris Crane is an unseen character, and the producers of Frasier asked that the scene be removed. Many of the interactions between Bob and Cecil were based on those of Niles and Frasier. Cecil was drawn to resemble David Hyde Pierce, while retaining a visual similarity to Sideshow Bob. According to director Pete Michels, it was difficult to draw Bob and Cecil standing together, because of their comically oversized feet. Cecil returns in season 19 's "Funeral for a Fiend '', which introduces the brothers ' previously unseen father, Dr. Robert Terwilliger, played by John Mahoney. Mahoney portrayed Martin Crane, the father of Grammer 's and Pierce 's characters in Frasier. Whereas in Frasier, Mahoney played the "down - to - Earth, average guy '' to Grammer 's and Hyde Pierce 's "uppity snobs '', Robert Terwilliger Sr. was portrayed as equally highbrow as Bob. His wife, Bob 's mother, is Dame Judith Underdunk, "the finest classical actress of her generation. '' She sports the same curly spiked hair as her two sons. Bob also has a wife named Francesca (voiced by Maria Grazia Cucinotta) and a son named Gino, both of whom were introduced in season 17 episode "The Italian Bob '' and returned for "Funeral for a Fiend ''. The character of Sideshow Bob and Grammer 's voicework have received many accolades. In 2006 IGN listed him as the second - best "peripheral character '' on The Simpsons, commenting that Bob is "a man of contradictions; his goofy appearance, complete with palm tree like hair, does n't seem to match up to the well spoken and even musically talented maniac. '' Also that year, Wizard Magazine rated Bob as the 66th greatest villain of all time. Adam Finley of TV Squad wrote that "that baritone voice, the Shakespearean delivery, and the ability to go from calm and collected to stark raving mad all within the same second make Sideshow Bob one of the best recurring characters on the show. '' Kelsey Grammer has consistently received praise for his voicework, and has been described as "brilliant '', "inimitable '' and "a feast of mid-Atlantic anglophilia ''. In 2006, Grammer won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice - Over Performance for his role in "The Italian Bob ''; he had previously won four awards in the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series category for his portrayal of the title role on Frasier. In 2008, Grammer was included in Entertainment Weekly 's list of the sixteen best Simpsons guest stars; Hyde Pierce was also included in that list. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "Kelsey Grammer 's grand voice - performance as Sideshow Bob is Frasier pickled in arsenic. '' In her book My Life as a 10 - Year - Old Boy, Nancy Cartwright (who performs the voice of Bart Simpson) wrote that "Kelsey Grammer scores big - time by injecting caustic, bitter, contemptuous and deliciously vile energy into his rendition of Sideshow Bob. Springfield just would n't be the same without him. '' Most of the episodes featuring Bob have been well received by fans and critics. "Cape Feare '' is generally regarded as one of the best episodes of The Simpsons and placed third on Entertainment Weekly 's 2003 list of the show 's top 25 episodes. IGN considers it the best episode of the fifth season. In 2007, Vanity Fair called it the show 's fourth - best episode, because of its "masterful integration of filmic parody and a recurring character ''. Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star listed "Cape Feare '', "Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming '' and "Brother From Another Series '' among the best episodes of the series, writing "forget Frasier, these are Kelsey Grammer 's best roles. '' "The Italian Bob '' and its writer John Frink won a Writers Guild of America Award in 2007 in the animation category. In December 2009, Robert Canning of IGN ranked the ten episodes to feature Bob that had aired at the time. The first five Bob episodes took up the top five, with "Cape Feare '' being ranked first. "The Italian Bob '' was ranked tenth, with the explanation that "All the things we love about a Sideshow Bob episode -- the vengeance, the familiar settings and characters, the elaborate scheming -- were missing from this half - hour. Without it, Bob was n't nearly as entertaining, and the episode did n't result in a whole lot of laughs. '' He noted that only "The Italian Bob '' and the ninth ranked "Funeral for a Fiend '' were "the only ones I 'd consider clunkers. The remaining episodes are all quite fun. '' In Planet Simpson, author Chris Turner writes that Bob is built into a highbrow snob and conservative Republican so that the writers can continually use him as a strawman and pincushion. He represents high culture while Krusty represents low culture, and Bart, stuck in between, always wins out. In the book Leaving Springfield, David L.G. Arnold comments that Bart is a product of a "mass - culture upbringing '' and thus is Bob 's enemy. Frustrated by his early role as the target of "Krusty 's cheap gags '', Bob frames Krusty and takes over the show. He changes the content of that show to present readings of classic literature and segments examining the emotional lives of pre-teens. He believes that by exposing the kids to high culture he will improve their lives. Arnold writes that "Bob 's own conscience and morality are clearly unaffected by the high culture he represents. '' He also tries to "manipulate the tastes of the masses '' by becoming a criminal mastermind. Arnold believes that this is most apparent in "Sideshow Bob Roberts '', wherein he rigs the election to become the mayor of Springfield. When accused of election fraud, he rants, "Your guilty consciences may force you to vote Democratic, but secretly you yearn for a cold - hearted Republican who 'll cut taxes, brutalize criminals, and rule you like a king! You need me, Springfield! '' He considers himself a member of the social elite, and happily uses Machiavellian methods to acquire and maintain power. Bob 's intelligence serves him in many ways. During the episode "Cape Feare '', for example, the parole board asks Bob why he has a tattoo that says "Die, Bart, Die ''. Bob replies that it is German for "The, Bart, The ''; members of the board are impressed by his reasoning. Believing that "nobody who speaks German could be an evil man '', they release him. However, his love of high culture is sometimes used against him. In the same episode, Bob agrees to perform the operetta H.M.S. Pinafore in its entirety as a last request for Bart. The tactic stalls Bob long enough for the police to arrest him.

who plays carole king in the musical beautiful

Beautiful: the Carole King musical - wikipedia Beautiful: The Carole King Musical is a jukebox musical with a book by Douglas McGrath that tells the story of the early life and career of Carole King, using songs that she wrote, often together with Gerry Goffin, and other contemporary songs by Barry Mann, Cynthia Weil, Phil Spector and others. The original production of Beautiful received its world premiere at the Curran Theatre, San Francisco, in October 2013, with direction by Marc Bruni and choreography by Josh Prince, and starring Jessie Mueller and Jake Epstein as Carole King and Gerry Goffin. It made its Broadway debut at the Stephen Sondheim Theatre in January 2014. A West End production starring Katie Brayben as Carole began in February 2015. A U.S. tour launched in September 2015. Beautiful: The Carole King Musical had a pre-Broadway try - out in San Francisco, California, at the Curran Theatre from September 24, 2013 through October 20, with an official opening October 8. The production was staged by Marc Bruni, with choreography by Josh Prince and musical direction by Jason Howland. Jessie Mueller played Carole King. The musical sold out its entire run at the Curran Theatre. The musical opened on Broadway at the Stephen Sondheim Theatre on January 12, 2014, after previews from November 12, 2013. In addition to Mueller as King, the cast features Jake Epstein as Gerry Goffin, Anika Larsen as Cynthia Weil and Jarrod Spector as Barry Mann. King attended the April 3, 2014 performance and appeared on stage with the cast at the curtain call, singing "You 've Got a Friend '' together with them. A production in London 's West End opened on February 25, 2015, following previews beginning February 10, 2015, at the Aldwych Theatre. Prior to the announcement, Baz Bamigboye from the Daily Mail reported that producers are looking for a full British cast for the transfer, meaning that Jessie Mueller would not transfer for the London production. On September 25, 2014, it was announced that British actress Katie Brayben would take the lead role of Carole King, with further casting including Alan Morrissey as Gerry Goffin, Gary Trainor as Don Kirshner, Glynis Barber as Genie Klein, Lorna Want as Cynthia Weil and Ian McIntosh as Barry Mann. Beginning November 30, 2015, Cassidy Janson took the lead role of Carole King and Diane Keen replace Glynis Barber in the role of Genie Klein. it was announced on May 23, 2017 that the London production will close August 5, 2017. The musical began a U.S. tour starting in September 2015 in Providence, Rhode Island, at the Providence Performing Arts Center, with engagements across the United States, ending in San Francisco in August 2016. The role of Carole King was played by Abby Mueller (the sister of Jessie Mueller), with Liam Tobin as Gerry Goffin, Ben Fankhauser as Barry Mann and Becky Gulsvig as Cynthia Weil. A UK tour began September 2017 at the Alhambra Theatre in Bradford and ends at the New Theatre in Oxford in May 2018, starring former Over the Rainbow contestant Bronté Barbé as Carole King. An Australian tour will begin in Sydney on 24 September 2017 at the Lyric Theatre. Esther Hannaford will lead the production, playing Carole King. Further venues and casting is to be announced. From the Beautiful: The Carole King Musical cast recording booklet At Carnegie Hall in 1971, Carole King sings "So Far Away ''. Then, in Brooklyn 1958, 16 - year - old Carole tells her mother, Genie, she is going into Manhattan to try to sell a song to music publisher Donnie Kirshner. In the long tradition of mothers, Genie is opposed to her daughter 's wish and in the equally long tradition of teenagers not caring about their mother 's opinion, Carole goes anyway. At 1650 Broadway, she hears the "1650 Broadway Medley ''. She then sings her new song "It Might As Well Rain Until September ''. Donnie says he will take it and hopes she has others. At Queens College, Carole meets a handsome young lyricist named Gerry Goffin. They agree to collaborate, musically and romantically, which in both cases turns out to be a fertile arrangement. When they go to Donnie 's to play their new song, Carole confesses to Gerry that she is pregnant. Gerry asks her to marry him. It gives her an extra depth of feeling when she sings their new song for Donnie, "Some Kind of Wonderful '', which The Drifters then record. They get an office at 1650. While there, Carole meets a new lyricist Cynthia Weil ("Happy Days Are Here Again ''), who is looking for a composer to work with. Gerry and Carole sing their new song "Take Good Care of My Baby '', during which Barry Mann, the composer with the office next door, enters. Barry meets Cynthia and they decide to collaborate. As they begin to work, sparks fly. Donnie tells them he needs a song for the Shirelles. The couples compete for the job. In Donnie 's office the next morning, Carole and Gerry present "Will You Love Me Tomorrow ''. Cynthia and Barry perform "He 's Sure the Boy I Love ''. Donnie picks Carole and Gerry 's song for The Shirelles and it goes to no. 1 ("Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow '' (Reprise)). And so, on either side of the same wall, a competition is born. The two teams turn out an amazing parade of songs: "Up on the Roof '', "On Broadway '', "The Loco - Motion '' and "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' ''. Gerry and Carole are at the taping of a TV special where their new song, "One Fine Day '', is being performed by the dazzling Janelle Woods. During a break, Gerry confesses to Carole that he is restless in their marriage. He wants to sleep with Janelle, and he does n't want to lie about it. Carole is stunned. As the song begins again, she takes it over and sings it herself. Carole is in a recording studio doing a demo of "Chains ''. Gerry is off with Janelle but tells her he will meet her later! Nick, a guitarist, asks Carole to come sing at the Bitter End sometime but she declines -- she 's a songwriter, not a singer. The thing with Gerry is getting her down so she goes and talks to Cynthia who is also having trouble with Barry -- they split up. Carole decides to tell Gerry he has to end the affair with Janelle. As she leaves, Barry comes in. He and Cynthia make up and play their new song, "Walking in the Rain ''. Gerry shows up, but he is not making sense. He eventually has a breakdown. At the hospital, he tells Carole he will end the affair with Janelle and that he wants to come home. She suggests they make a new start and move to the suburbs ("Pleasant Valley Sunday ''). Barry, Cynthia and Donnie come to see the new house. Barry plays their new song, "We Gotta Get Out of This Place ''. Depressed that he and Carole ca n't do as well, Gerry leaves in a funk for the city. While he is gone, it comes out that Barry and Cynthia have seen him with another woman, a singer named Marilyn Wald. Carole goes to Marilyn 's apartment and Gerry is there. It 's the final straw, and she ends their marriage. At the Bitter End, where Barry and Cynthia hear their song "Uptown '', Carole explains she went to Los Angeles for a vacation and has started writing on her own. Nick, the guitarist from the studio who asked her to sing with his group, is playing there and urges her to sing. She sings her new song, "It 's Too Late ''. She decides to move to Los Angeles. At 1650, she says goodbye to Donnie, Barry and Cynthia and plays them a parting present ("You 've Got a Friend ''). In Los Angeles, she records her album, Tapestry. The session goes well until the last song, which she is afraid to sing. It 's a song she wrote with Gerry and she is afraid of the feelings it may stir up. Her producer, Lou Adler, persuades her. She sings "(You Make Me Feel Like A Natural Woman) ''. The album is a smash. Carole is at Carnegie Hall for her concert. Before the show starts, Gerry knocks on her dressing room door. He has brought her a good luck present, but has something even more valuable: an apology for all the ways he hurt her. With a full heart he wishes her well. Carole comes onto the stage of Carnegie Hall alone. She sits at the piano. Then with all the joy inside her, she sings "Beautiful ''. All songs written by Goffin and King except as noted † Not included on the original Broadway Cast Album. The musical uses a 12 - member orchestra consisting of three keyboards, two guitars, bass, drums, percussion, two reeds, trumpet / flugelhorn, and trombone / bass trombone. In addition the performer playing Carole King plays the piano if it is Katie Brayben (London) whereas Jessie Mueller (Broadway) needed piano lessons so she could mime. The Broadway cast album was recorded in February 2014 by Ghostlight Records and was released in digital form on April 1, 2014. It was in stores as of May 13, 2014. (The Broadway cast album includes the song "You 've Got a Friend '', although that song is not listed in the opening night credits.) The album was also released on a vinyl format. Ben Brantley, reviewing for The New York Times, called the musical a "friendly, formulaic bio-musical ''. He wrote that the musical shows the change in King from a modest songwriter to the popular and confident performer of those songs, showing the "real, conflicted person within the reluctant star. '' Jesse Green, in his review for the New York Magazine, praised the performers but criticized the book, writing that the musical does not have the "dramatic coherence of book biomusicals ''. Similarly, Elyse Sommer, in her review for curtainup.com, praised the performers, especially Mueller, Spector and Larsen, as well as the "shimmery lighting '' and the costumes. She wrote that while the musical "does n't hang its songs on the greatest or most suspenseful story ever told, it has enough bounce and Broadway show glitz to keep you in your seat ''. On March 22, 2015, it was announced that Sony Pictures would be bringing the musical to the big screen with Douglas McGrath adapting his book into a screenplay and stage producer Paul Blake producing through Tom Hanks and Gary Goetzman 's production company, Playtone. The producers of the original Broadway production include: Paul Blake, Sony / ATV Music Publishing, Jeffery A. Sine, Richard A. Smith, Mike Bosner, Harriet Newman Leve, Elaine Krauss, Terry Schnuck, Orin Wolf, Patty Baker, Roger Faxon, Larry Magrid, Kit Seidel, Lawrence S. Toppall, Fakston Productions, Mary Soloman, William C. Cohen, John Gore, Barbara Freitag, Loraine Alterman Boyle, Matthew C. Blank, Tim Hogue, Joel Hyatt, Marianne Mills, Michael J. Moritz Jr., StylesFour Production, Corey Brunish, Brisa Trinchero, Jeremiah J. Harris, Sherry Kondor (Executive Producer), Christine Russell (Executive Producer).

when was the new national flag of the republic of south africa hoisted for the first time

Flag of South Africa - Wikipedia The flag of South Africa was designed in March 1994 and adopted on 27 April 1994, at the beginning of South Africa 's 1994 general election, to replace the flag that had been used since 1928. The new national flag, designed by the then State Herald of South Africa Frederick Brownell, was chosen to represent the country 's new democracy after the end of apartheid. The flag has horizontal bands of red (on the top) and blue (on the bottom), of equal width, separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal "Y '' shape, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side (and follow the flag 's diagonals). The "Y '' embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes. The stripes at the fly end are in the 5: 1: 3: 1: 5 ratio. At the time of its adoption, the South African flag was the only national flag in the world to comprise six colours in its primary design and without a seal and brocade. The design and colours are a synopsis of principal elements of the country 's flag history. The colours themselves have no essential meaning. The central design of the flag, beginning at the flagpost in a "V '' form and flowing into a single horizontal band to the outer edge of the fly. According to official South African government information, the South African flag is "a synopsis of principal elements of the country 's flag history. '' Although different people may attribute personal symbolism to the individual colours or colour combinations, "no universal symbolism should be attached to any of the colours. '' The only symbolism in the flag is the V or Y shape, which can be interpreted as "the convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity ''. From time to time explanations of the meanings or symbolism of the flag 's colours are published in various media, including official government publications and speeches by government officials. Three of the colours -- black, green and yellow -- are found in the flag of the African National Congress. The other three -- red, white and blue -- are used in the modern flag of the Netherlands and the flag of the United Kingdom; the colours white and blue were also found in the old flag of South Africa. Former South African President F.W. de Klerk, who proclaimed the new flag on 20 April 1994, stated in his autobiography, The Last Trek: a New Beginning, that chilli red was chosen instead of plain red (which Anglo - Africans would have preferred) or orange (as Afrikaners would have preferred). The Anglo - Boer War between 1899 and 1902 ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902 and resulted in what is now South Africa falling under the British Union Flag. The former Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid - Afrikaanse Republiek (Transvaal) became British colonies along with the existing Cape and Natal colonies. Each was also entitled to a colonial flag following in the British tradition. On 31 May 1910 these four colonies came together to form the Union of South Africa and the individual colonial flags were no longer used and new South African flags came into being. Once again, as a British dominion the British Union Flag was to continue as the national flag and the standard British ensign pattern was used as a basis for distinctive South African flags. As was the case throughout the British Empire, the Red and Blue Ensigns were the official flags for merchant and government vessels at sea, and the British Admiralty authorised them to be defaced in the fly with the shield from the South African coat of arms. These ensigns were not intended to be used as the Union 's national flag, although they were used by some people as such. Although these ensigns were primarily intended for maritime use, they were also flown on land. The South Africa Red Ensign was South Africa 's de facto national flag between 1910 and 1928 and was flown at times from Government buildings. The design of the Red Ensign was modified slightly in 1912 when the shield was placed on a white disc so as to make it more distinguishable. The Red Ensign continued to be used as the flag of the South African merchant marine until 1951. The Blue Ensign was flown over the Union 's offices abroad between 1910 and 1928. The Blue Ensign from 1912 to 1928. These flags never enjoyed much popular support due to the animosities lingering after the Anglo - Boer War. The Afrikaner descendants of the Dutch settlers from the former Boer Republics found the prominent position of the British Union Flag to be offensive while the English - speakers saw any move to remove it as an Afrikaner plot to deprive them of their imperial symbol. Due to the lack of popularity of these flags, there were intermittent discussions about the desirability of a more distinctive national flag for South Africa after 1910, it was only after a coalition government took office in 1925 that a bill was introduced in Parliament to introduce a national flag for the Union. This provoked an often violent controversy that lasted for three years based on whether the British Union Flag should be included in the new flag design or not. The Natal Province even threatened to secede from the Union should it be decided to remove it. Finally, a compromise was reached that resulted in the adoption of a separate flag for the Union in late 1927 and the design was first hoisted on 31 May 1928. The design was based on the so - called Van Riebeeck flag or "Prince 's Flag '' (Prinsenvlag in Afrikaans) that was originally the Dutch flag; it consisted of orange, white, and blue horizontal stripes. A version of this flag had been used as the flag of the Dutch East India Company (known as the VOC) at the Cape (with the VOC logo in the centre) from 1652 until 1795. The South African addition to the design was the inclusion of three smaller flags centred in the white stripe. The miniature flags were the British Union Flag (mirrored) towards the hoist, the flag of the Orange Free State hanging vertically in the middle and the Transvaal Vierkleur towards the fly. The position of each of the miniature flags is such that each has equal status. However, to ensure that the Dutch flag in the canton of the Orange Free State flag is placed nearest to the upper hoist of the main flag, the Free State flag must be reversed. The British Union Flag, which is nearest to the hoist and is thus in a more favoured position, is spread horizontally from the Free State flag towards the hoist and is thus also reversed. Although placed horizontally furthest from the hoist, to balance the British Union Flag, the Vierkleur is the only one of the miniature flags which is spread in the same direction as the main flag. This compensates for its otherwise less favourable position. In this arrangement, each of the miniature flags enjoy equal precedence. Note that the miniature flag of the Orange Free State contains a miniature of the Dutch flag, making the old South African flag the only former national flag in the world containing a flag in a flag in a flag. The choice of the Prinsenvlag (which was believed to be the first flag hoisted on South African soil by Jan van Riebeeck of the VOC) as the basis upon which to design the South African flag had more to do with compromise than Afrikaner political desires, since the Prinsenvlag was politically neutral, as it was no longer the national flag of any nation. A further element of this compromise was that the British Union Flag would continue to fly alongside the new South African national flag over official buildings. This dual flag arrangement continued until 1957 when the British Union Flag lost its official status per an Act of Parliament. Following a referendum the country became a republic on 31 May 1961, but the design of the flag remained unchanged. However, there was intense pressure to change the flag, particularly from Afrikaners who still resented the fact that the British Union Flag was a part of the flag. In 1968, the then Prime Minister, John Vorster, proposed the adoption of a new flag from 1971, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the declaration of a republic but this never materialised. The present South African national flag was first flown on 27 April 1994, the day of the 1994 election. However, the flag was first intended to be an interim flag only, and its design was decided upon only a week beforehand. The choice of a new flag was part of the negotiation process set in motion when Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990. When a nationwide public competition was held in 1993, the National Symbols Commission received more than 7,000 designs. Six designs were shortlisted and presented to the public and the Negotiating Council, but none elicited enthusiastic support. A number of design studios were then contacted to submit further proposals, but these also did not find favour. Parliament went into recess at the end of 1993 without a suitable candidate for the new national flag. In February 1994, Cyril Ramaphosa and Roelf Meyer, the chief negotiators of the African National Congress and the National Party government of the day respectively, were given the task of resolving the flag issue. A final design was adopted on 15 March 1994, derived from a design developed by the State Herald Fred Brownell, who had also previously designed the Flag of Namibia. This interim flag was hoisted for the first time on the 27 April 1994, the day when the nation 's first fully inclusive elections commenced which resulted in Nelson Mandela being inaugurated as South Africa 's first democratically elected president on 10 May 1994. The proclamation of the new national flag by South African President F.W. de Klerk was only published on 20 April 1994, a mere seven days before the flag was to be inaugurated, sparking a frantic last - minute flurry for flag manufacturers. As stated in South Africa 's post-apartheid interim constitution, the flag was to be introduced on an interim probationary period of five years, after which there would be discussion about whether or not to change the national flag in the final draft of the constitution. The Constitutional Assembly was charged with the responsibility of drafting the country 's new constitution and had called for submissions, inter alia, on the issues of its various national symbols. It received 118 submissions recommending the retention of the new flag and 35 suggesting changes to it. Thus on 28 September 1995 it decided that the flag should be retained unchanged and accordingly it was included as Section One of the Constitution of South Africa which came into force in February 1997. The South African government published guidelines for proper display of the flag at designated flag stations, in Government Notice 510 of 8 June 2001 (Gazette number 22356). These rules apply only to official flag stations and not to the general public. The Southern African Vexillological Association (SAVA), a non-official association for the study of flags, published their own guide for proper display of the flag in 2002. This guide has no official authority but was drawn up with generally accepted vexillological etiquette and principles in mind. An addendum to the Transitional Executive Council agenda (April 1994) described the flag in heraldic terms as follows: The National flag shall be rectangular in the proportion of two in the width to three to the length; per pall from the hoist, the upper band red (chilli) and lower band blue, with a black triangle at the hoist; over the partition lines a green pall one fifth the width of the flag, fimbriated white against the red and blue, and gold against the black triangle at the hoist, and the width of the pall and its fimbriations is one third the width of the flag. Schedule One of the Constitution of South Africa (1996) replaced the heraldic definition and described the flag in plain English as follows:

how do inorganic acids act as denaturing agent for proteins

Prion - wikipedia Prions are infectious agents composed entirely of a protein material that can fold in multiple, structurally abstract ways, at least one of which is transmissible to other prion proteins, leading to disease in a manner that is epidemiologically comparable to the spread of viral infection. Prions composed of the prion protein (PrP) are believed to be the cause of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) among other diseases. Prions were initially identified as the causative agent in animal TSEs derived from scrapie in sheep and later bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) -- known popularly as "mad cow disease ''. Human prion diseases include Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease (CJD) and its variant (vCJD), Gerstmann -- Sträussler -- Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, and kuru. All known prion diseases in mammals affect the structure of the brain or other neural tissue. No effective medical treatment is known. The illness is progressive and always fatal. A 2015 study concluded that multiple system atrophy (MSA), a rare human neurodegenerative disease, is caused by a misfolded version of a protein called alpha - synuclein, and is therefore also classifiable as a prion disease. Several yeast proteins have also been identified as having prionogenic properties. A protein as a stand - alone infectious agent stands in contrast to all other known infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, all of which contain nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or both). For this reason, a minority of researchers still consider the prion / TSE hypothesis unproven. Prions may propagate by transmitting their misfolded protein state. When a prion enters a healthy organism, it induces existing, properly folded proteins to convert into the misfolded prion form. In this way, the prion acts as a template to guide the misfolding of more proteins into prion form. In yeast, this refolding is assisted by chaperone proteins such as Hsp104. These refolded prions can then go on to convert more proteins themselves, leading to a chain reaction resulting in large amounts of the prion form. All known prions induce the formation of an amyloid fold, in which the protein polymerises into an aggregate consisting of tightly packed beta sheets. Amyloid aggregates are fibrils, growing at their ends, and replicate when breakage causes two growing ends to become four growing ends. The incubation period of prion diseases is determined by the exponential growth rate associated with prion replication, which is a balance between the linear growth and the breakage of aggregates. The propagation of the prion depends on the presence of normally folded protein in which the prion can induce misfolding; animals that do not express the normal form of the prion protein can neither develop nor transmit the disease. Prion aggregates are extremely stable and accumulate in infected tissue, causing tissue damage and cell death. This structural stability means that prions are resistant to denaturation by chemical and physical agents, making disposal and containment of these particles difficult. Prion structure varies slightly between species, but nonetheless prion replication is subject to epimutation and natural selection just like other forms of replication. During the 1960s, two London - based researchers, radiation biologist Tikvah Alper and biophysicist John Stanley Griffith, developed the hypothesis that some transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are caused by an infectious agent consisting solely of proteins. Earlier investigations by E.J. Field into scrapie and kuru had identified the transfer of pathologically inert polysaccharides that only become infectious in the host. Alper and Griffith wanted to account for the discovery that the mysterious infectious agent causing the diseases scrapie and Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease resisted ionizing radiation. (A single ionizing "hit '' normally destroys an entire infectious particle, and the dose needed to hit half the particles depends on the size of the particles. Empirical results of ionizing doses applied to the unknown infectious substance evidenced an infectious particle size too small to be a viral mechanism.) Francis Crick recognized the potential significance of the Griffith protein - only hypothesis for scrapie propagation in the second edition of his "Central dogma of molecular biology '' (1970): While asserting that the flow of sequence information from protein to protein, or from protein to RNA and DNA was "precluded '', he noted that Griffith 's hypothesis was a potential contradiction (although it was not so promoted by Griffith). The revised hypothesis was later formulated, in part, to accommodate reverse transcription (which both Howard Temin and David Baltimore discovered in 1970). In 1982, Stanley B. Prusiner of the University of California, San Francisco announced that his team had purified the hypothetical infectious prion, and that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a specific protein -- though they did not manage to isolate the protein until two years after Prusiner 's announcement. While the infectious agent was named a prion, the specific protein that the prion was composed of is also known as the Prion Protein (PrP), though this protein may occur both in infectious and non-infectious forms. Prusiner won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1997 for his research into prions. The protein that prions are made of (PrP) is found throughout the body, even in healthy people and animals. However, PrP found in infectious material has a different structure and is resistant to proteases, the enzymes in the body that can normally break down proteins. The normal form of the protein is called PrP, while the infectious form is called PrP -- the C refers to ' cellular ' PrP, while the Sc refers to ' scrapie ', the prototypic prion disease, occurring in sheep. While PrP is structurally well - defined, PrP is certainly polydisperse and defined at a relatively poor level. PrP can be induced to fold into other more - or-less well - defined isoforms in vitro, and their relationship to the form (s) that are pathogenic in vivo is not yet clear. PrP is a normal protein found on the membranes of cells. It has 209 amino acids (in humans), one disulfide bond, a molecular mass of 35 -- 36 kDa and a mainly alpha - helical structure. Several topological forms exist; one cell surface form anchored via glycolipid and two transmembrane forms. The normal protein is not sedimentable; meaning that it can not be separated by centrifuging techniques. Its function is a complex issue that continues to be investigated. PrP binds copper (II) ions with high affinity. The significance of this finding is not clear, but it is presumed to relate to PrP structure or function. PrP is readily digested by proteinase K and can be liberated from the cell surface in vitro by the enzyme phosphoinositide phospholipase C (PI - PLC), which cleaves the glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) glycolipid anchor. PrP has been reported to play important roles in cell - cell adhesion and intracellular signaling in vivo, and may therefore be involved in cell - cell communication in the brain. Protease - resistant PrP - like protein (PrP) is an isoform of PrP from which is structurally altered and converted into a misfolded proteinase K - resistant form in vitro. To model conversion of PrP to PrP in vitro, Saborio et al. rapidly converted PrP into a PrP by a procedure involving cyclic amplification of protein misfolding. The term "PrP '' has been made to distinguish between PrP, which is isolated from infectious tissue and associated with the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy agent. For example, unlike PrP, PrP may not necessarily be infectious. The infectious isoform of PrP, known as PrP, is able to convert normal PrP proteins into the infectious isoform by changing their conformation, or shape; this, in turn, alters the way the proteins interconnect. PrP always causes prion disease. Although the exact 3D structure of PrP is not known, it has a higher proportion of β - sheet structure in place of the normal α - helix structure. Aggregations of these abnormal isoforms form highly structured amyloid fibers, which accumulate to form plaques. It is unclear as to whether these aggregates are the cause of cell damage or are simply a side - effect of the underlying disease process. The end of each fiber acts as a template onto which free protein molecules may attach, allowing the fiber to grow. Under most circumstances, only PrP molecules with an identical amino acid sequence to the infectious PrP are incorporated into the growing fiber. However, rare cross-species transmission is also possible. The physiological function of the prion protein remains a controversial matter. While data from in vitro experiments suggest many dissimilar roles, studies on PrP knockout mice have provided only limited information because these animals exhibit only minor abnormalities. In research done in mice, it was found that the cleavage of PrP proteins in peripheral nerves causes the activation of myelin repair in Schwann Cells and that the lack of PrP proteins caused demyelination in those cells. A review of evidence in 2005 suggested that PrP may have a normal function in maintenance of long - term memory. As well, a 2004 study found that mice lacking genes for normal cellular PrP protein show altered hippocampal long - term potentiation. A 2006 article from the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research indicates that PrP expression on stem cells is necessary for an organism 's self - renewal of bone marrow. The study showed that all long - term hematopoietic stem cells express PrP on their cell membrane and that hematopoietic tissues with PrP - null stem cells exhibit increased sensitivity to cell depletion. The first hypothesis that tried to explain how prions replicate in a protein - only manner was the heterodimer model. This model assumed that a single PrP molecule binds to a single PrP molecule and catalyzes its conversion into PrP. The two PrP molecules then come apart and can go on to convert more PrP. However, a model of prion replication must explain both how prions propagate, and why their spontaneous appearance is so rare. Manfred Eigen showed that the heterodimer model requires PrP to be an extraordinarily effective catalyst, increasing the rate of the conversion reaction by a factor of around 10. This problem does not arise if PrP exists only in aggregated forms such as amyloid, where cooperativity may act as a barrier to spontaneous conversion. What is more, despite considerable effort, infectious monomeric PrP has never been isolated. An alternative model assumes that PrP exists only as fibrils, and that fibril ends bind PrP and convert it into PrP. If this were all, then the quantity of prions would increase linearly, forming ever longer fibrils. But exponential growth of both PrP and of the quantity of infectious particles is observed during prion disease. This can be explained by taking into account fibril breakage. A mathematical solution for the exponential growth rate resulting from the combination of fibril growth and fibril breakage has been found. The exponential growth rate depends largely on the square root of the PrP concentration. The incubation period is determined by the exponential growth rate, and in vivo data on prion diseases in transgenic mice match this prediction. The same square root dependence is also seen in vitro in experiments with a variety of different amyloid proteins. The mechanism of prion replication has implications for designing drugs. Since the incubation period of prion diseases is so long, an effective drug does not need to eliminate all prions, but simply needs to slow down the rate of exponential growth. Models predict that the most effective way to achieve this, using a drug with the lowest possible dose, is to find a drug that binds to fibril ends and blocks them from growing any further. Until 2015 all known mammalian prion diseases were considered to be caused by the prion protein, PrP; in 2015 Multiple System Atrophy was found to be likely caused by a new prion, the misfolded form of a protein called alpha - synuclein. The endogenous, properly folded form of the prion protein is denoted PrP (for Common or Cellular), whereas the disease - linked, misfolded form is denoted PrP (for Scrapie)), after one of the diseases first linked to prions and neurodegeneration.) The precise structure of the prion is not known, though they can be formed by combining PrP, polyadenylic acid, and lipids in a protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) reaction. Proteins showing prion - type behavior are also found in some fungi, which has been useful in helping to understand mammalian prions. Fungal prions do not appear to cause disease in their hosts. Prions cause neurodegenerative disease by aggregating extracellularly within the central nervous system to form plaques known as amyloid, which disrupt the normal tissue structure. This disruption is characterized by "holes '' in the tissue with resultant spongy architecture due to the vacuole formation in the neurons. Other histological changes include astrogliosis and the absence of an inflammatory reaction. While the incubation period for prion diseases is relatively long (5 to 20 years), once symptoms appear the disease progresses rapidly, leading to brain damage and death. Neurodegenerative symptoms can include convulsions, dementia, ataxia (balance and coordination dysfunction), and behavioural or personality changes. All known prion diseases, collectively called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are untreatable and fatal. However, a vaccine developed in mice may provide insight into providing a vaccine to resist prion infections in humans. Additionally, in 2006 scientists announced that they had genetically engineered cattle lacking a necessary gene for prion production -- thus theoretically making them immune to BSE, building on research indicating that mice lacking normally occurring prion protein are resistant to infection by scrapie prion protein. In 2013, a study revealed that 1 in 2,000 people in the United Kingdom might harbour the infectious prion protein that causes vCJD. Many different mammalian species can be affected by prion diseases, as the prion protein (PrP) is very similar in all mammals. Due to small differences in PrP between different species it is unusual for a prion disease to transmit from one species to another. The human prion disease variant Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease, however, is believed to be caused by a prion that typically infects cattle, causing Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and is transmitted through infected meat. It has been recognized that prion diseases can arise in three different ways: acquired, familial, or sporadic. It is often assumed that the diseased form directly interacts with the normal form to make it rearrange its structure. One idea, the "Protein X '' hypothesis, is that an as - yet unidentified cellular protein (Protein X) enables the conversion of PrP to PrP by bringing a molecule of each of the two together into a complex. Current research suggests that the primary method of infection in animals is through ingestion. It is thought that prions may be deposited in the environment through the remains of dead animals and via urine, saliva, and other body fluids. They may then linger in the soil by binding to clay and other minerals. A University of California research team, led by Nobel Prize winner Stanley Prusiner, has provided evidence for the theory that infection can occur from prions in manure. And, since manure is present in many areas surrounding water reservoirs, as well as used on many crop fields, it raises the possibility of widespread transmission. It was reported in January 2011 that researchers had discovered prions spreading through airborne transmission on aerosol particles, in an animal testing experiment focusing on scrapie infection in laboratory mice. Preliminary evidence supporting the notion that prions can be transmitted through use of urine - derived human menopausal gonadotropin, administered for the treatment of infertility, was published in 2011. In 2015, researchers at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston found that plants can be a vector for prions. When researchers fed hamsters grass that grew on ground where a deer that died with chronic wasting disease (CWD) was buried, the hamsters became ill with CWD, suggesting that prions can bind to plants, which then take them up into the leaf and stem structure, where they can be eaten by herbivores, thus completing the cycle. It is thus possible that there is a progressively accumulating number of prions in the environment. Infectious particles possessing nucleic acid are dependent upon it to direct their continued replication. Prions, however, are infectious by their effect on normal versions of the protein. Sterilizing prions, therefore, requires the denaturation of the protein to a state in which the molecule is no longer able to induce the abnormal folding of normal proteins. In general, prions are quite resistant to proteases, heat, ionizing radiation, and formaldehyde treatments, although their infectivity can be reduced by such treatments. Effective prion decontamination relies upon protein hydrolysis or reduction or destruction of protein tertiary structure. Examples include sodium hypochlorite, sodium hydroxide, and strongly acidic detergents such as LpH. 134 ° C (274 ° F) for 18 minutes in a pressurized steam autoclave has been found to be somewhat effective in deactivating the agent of disease. Ozone sterilization is currently being studied as a potential method for prion denaturation and deactivation. Renaturation of a completely denatured prion to infectious status has not yet been achieved; however, partially denatured prions can be renatured to an infective status under certain artificial conditions. The World Health Organization recommends any of the following three procedures for the sterilization of all heat - resistant surgical instruments to ensure that they are not contaminated with prions: While PrP is considered the only mammalian prion, prion - like domains have been found in a variety of other mammalian proteins. Some of these proteins have been implicated in the ontogeny of age - related neurodegenerative disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, known as Motor Neurone Disease outside the US), frontotemporal lobar degeneration with ubiquitin - positive inclusions (FTLD - U), Alzheimer 's disease, and Huntington 's disease, as well as some forms of Systemic Amyloidosis including AA (Secondary) Amyloidosis that develops in humans and animals with inflammatory and infectious diseases such as Tuberculosis, Crohn 's disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, and HIV AIDS. AA amyloidosis, like prion disease, may be transmissible. This has given rise to the ' prion paradigm ', where otherwise harmless proteins can be converted to a pathogenic form by a small number of misfolded, nucleating proteins. The definition of a prion - like domain arises from the study of fungal prions. In yeast, prionogenic proteins have a portable prion domain that is both necessary and sufficient for self - templating and protein aggregation. This has been shown by attaching the prion domain to a reporter protein, which then aggregates like a known prion. Similarly, removing the prion domain from a fungal prion protein inhibits prionogenesis. This modular view of prion behaviour has led to the hypothesis that similar prion domains are present in animal proteins, in addition to PrP. These fungal prion domains have several characteristic sequence features. They are typically enriched in asparagine, glutamine, tyrosine and glycine residues, with an asparagine bias being particularly conducive to the aggregative property of prions. Historically, prionogenesis has been seen as independent of sequence and only dependent on relative residue content. However, this has been shown to be false, with the spacing of prolines and charged residues having been shown to be critical in amyloid formation. Bioinformatic screens have predicted that over 250 human proteins contain prion - like domains (PrLD). These domains are hypothesized to have the same transmissible, amyloidogenic properties of PrP and known fungal proteins. As in yeast, proteins involved in gene expression and RNA binding seem to be particularly enriched in PrLD 's, compared to other classes of protein. In particular, 29 of the known 210 proteins with an RNA recognition motif also have a putative prion domain. Meanwhile, several of these RNA - binding proteins have been independently identified as pathogenic in cases of ALS, FTLD - U, Alzheimer 's disease, and Huntington 's disease. The pathogenicity of prions and proteins with prion - like domains arises from their self - templating ability and the resulting exponential growth of amyloid fibrils. The presence of amyloid fibrils in patients with degenerative diseases has been well documented. These amyloid fibrils are seen as the result of pathogenic proteins that self - propagate and form highly stable, non-functional aggregates. While this does not necessarily imply a causal relationship between amyloid and degenerative diseases, the toxicity of certain amyloid forms and the overproduction of amyloid in familial cases of degenerative disorders supports the idea that amyloid formation is generally toxic. Specifically, aggregation of TDP - 43, an RNA - binding protein, has been found in ALS / MND patients, and mutations in the genes coding for these proteins have been identified in familial cases of ALS / MND. These mutations promote the misfolding of the proteins into a prion - like conformation. The misfolded form of TDP - 43 forms cytoplasmic inclusions in afflicted neurons, and is found depleted in the nucleus. In addition to ALS / MND and FTLD - U, TDP - 43 pathology is a feature of many cases of Alzheimer 's disease, Parkinson 's disease and Huntington 's disease. The misfolding of TDP - 43 is largely directed by its prion - like domain. This domain is inherently prone to misfolding, while pathological mutations in TDP - 43 have been found to increase this propensity to misfold, explaining the presence of these mutations in familial cases of ALS / MND. As in yeast, the prion - like domain of TDP - 43 has been shown to be both necessary and sufficient for protein misfolding and aggregation. Similarly, pathogenic mutations have been identified in the prion - like domains of heterogeneous nuclear riboproteins hnRNPA2B1 and hnRNPA1 in familial cases of muscle, brain, bone and motor neuron degeneration. The wild - type form of all of these proteins show a tendency to self - assemble into amyloid fibrils, while the pathogenic mutations exacerbate this behaviour and lead to excess accumulation. Fungal proteins exhibiting templated conformational change were discovered in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Reed Wickner in the early 1990s. For their mechanistic similarity to mammalian prions, they were termed yeast prions. Subsequent to this, a prion has also been found in the fungus Podospora anserina. These prions behave similarly to PrP, but, in general, are nontoxic to their hosts. Susan Lindquist 's group at the Whitehead Institute has argued some of the fungal prions are not associated with any disease state, but may have a useful role; however, researchers at the NIH have also provided arguments suggesting that fungal prions could be considered a diseased state. There is mounting evidence that fungal proteins have evolved specific functions that are beneficial to the microorganism that enhance their ability to adapt to their diverse environments. As of 2012, there are eight known prion proteins in fungi, seven in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sup35, Rnq1, Ure2, Swi1, Mot3, Cyc8, and Mod5) and one in Podospora anserina (HET - s). The article that reported the discovery of a prion form, the Mca1 protein, was retracted due to the fact that the data could not be reproduced. Notably, most of the fungal prions are based on glutamine / asparagine - rich sequences, with the exception of HET - s and Mod5. Research into fungal prions has given strong support to the protein - only concept, since purified protein extracted from cells with a prion state has been demonstrated to convert the normal form of the protein into a misfolded form in vitro, and in the process, preserve the information corresponding to different strains of the prion state. It has also shed some light on prion domains, which are regions in a protein that promote the conversion into a prion. Fungal prions have helped to suggest mechanisms of conversion that may apply to all prions, though fungal prions appear distinct from infectious mammalian prions in the lack of cofactor required for propagation. The characteristic prion domains may vary between species -- e.g., characteristic fungal prion domains are not found in mammalian prions. Advancements in computer modeling have allowed scientists to identify compounds that can treat prion - caused diseases, such as one compound found to bind a cavity in the PrP and stabilize the conformation, reducing the amount of harmful PrP. Antiprion antibodies capable of crossing the blood - brain - barrier and targeting cytosolic prion protein (an otherwise major obstacle in prion therapeutics) have been described. In the last decade, some progress dealing with ultra-high - pressure inactivation of prion infectivity in processed meat has been reported. In 2011, it was discovered that prions could be degraded by lichens. There continues to be a very practical problem with diagnosis of prion diseases, including BSE and CJD. They have an incubation period of months to decades, during which there are no symptoms, even though the pathway of converting the normal brain PrP protein into the toxic, disease - related PrP form has started. At present, there is virtually no way to detect PrP reliably except by examining the brain using neuropathological and immunohistochemical methods after death. Accumulation of the abnormally folded PrP form of the PrP protein is a characteristic of the disease, but it is present at very low levels in easily accessible body fluids like blood or urine. Researchers have tried to develop methods to measure PrP, but there are still no fully accepted methods for use in materials such as blood. In 2010, a team from New York described detection of PrP even when initially present at only one part in a hundred billion (10) in brain tissue. The method combines amplification with a novel technology called Surround Optical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA) and some specific antibodies against PrP. After amplifying and then concentrating any PrP, the samples are labelled with a fluorescent dye using an antibody for specificity and then finally loaded into a micro-capillary tube. This tube is placed in a specially constructed apparatus so that it is totally surrounded by optical fibres to capture all light emitted once the dye is excited using a laser. The RT - QuIC assay, a microplate reader - based prion detection method which uses as reagents normally folded prions, fluorescently labelled so that they "light up '' when they are misfolded; samples suspected of containing misfolded prions are added and misfolded reagents can be detected by standard fluorescence detection methods. Astemizole has been found to have anti-prion activity. Another type of chemical that may be effective against prion infection is the luminescent conjugated polythiophenes, fluorescent compounds that are often used to stain tissue samples. In a 2015 study, led by Adriano Aguzzi, professor of neurobiology at the University of Zurich, found that when they injected mice with a prion disease and then with polythiophenes, the mice survived eighty percent longer than the control mice that were only injected with the prion disease. Whether prions cause disease or are merely a symptom caused by a different agent is still debated by a minority of researchers. The following sections describe several hypotheses: Some pertain to the composition of the infectious agent (protein - only, protein with other components, virus, or other), while others pertain to its mechanism of reproduction. Prior to the discovery of prions, it was thought that all pathogens used nucleic acids to direct their replication. The "protein - only hypothesis '' states that a protein structure can replicate without the use of nucleic acids. This was initially controversial as it contradicts the central dogma of molecular biology, which describes nucleic acid as the central form of replicative information. Evidence in favor of a protein - only hypothesis includes: A gene for the normal protein has been identified: the PRNP gene. In all inherited cases of prion disease, there is a mutation in the PRNP gene. Many different PRNP mutations have been identified and these proteins are more likely to fold into abnormal prion. Although this discovery puts a hole in the general prion hypothesis, that prions can aggregate only proteins of identical amino acid make - up. These mutations can occur throughout the gene. Some mutations involve expansion of the octapeptide repeat region at the N - terminal of PrP. Other mutations that have been identified as a cause of inherited prion disease occur at positions 102, 117 & 198 (GSS), 178, 200, 210 & 232 (CJD) and 178 (Fatal Familial Insomnia, FFI). The cause of prion disease can be sporadic, genetic, or infectious, or a combination of these factors. For example, to have scrapie, both an infectious agent and a susceptible genotype must be present. Despite much effort, significant titers of prion infectivity have never been produced by refolding pure PrP molecules, raising doubt about the validity of the "protein only '' hypothesis. In addition, the "protein only '' hypothesis fails to provide a molecular explanation for the ability of prion strains to target specific areas of the brain in distinct patterns. These shortcomings, along with additional experimental data, have given rise to the "multi-component '' or "cofactor variation '' hypothesis. In 2007, biochemist Surachai Supattapone and his colleagues at Dartmouth College produced purified infectious prions de novo from defined components (PrP, co-purified lipids, and a synthetic polyanionic molecule). These researchers also showed that the polyanionic molecule required for prion formation was selectively incorporated into high - affinity complexes with PrP molecules, leading them to hypothesize that infectious prions may be composed of multiple host components, including PrP, lipid, and polyanionic molecules, rather than PrP alone. In 2010, Jiyan Ma and colleagues at The Ohio State University produced infectious prions from a recipe of bacterially expressed recombinant PrP, POPG phospholipid, and RNA, further supporting the multi-component hypothesis. This finding is in contrast to studies that found minimally infectious prions produced from recombinant PrP alone. In 2012, Supattapone and colleagues purified the membrane lipid phosphatidylethanolamine as a solitary endogenous cofactor capable of facilitating the formation of high - titer recombinant prions derived from multiple prion strains. They also reported that the cofactor is essential for maintaining the infectious conformation of PrP, and that cofactor molecules dictate the strain properties of infectious prions. Reports suggest that imbalance of brain metal homeostasis may be a cause of PrP - associated neurotoxicity, though the underlying mechanisms are difficult to explain based on existing information. Proposed hypotheses include a functional role for PrP in metal metabolism, and loss of this function due to aggregation to the disease - associated PrP form as the cause of brain metal imbalance. Other views suggest gain of toxic function by PrP due to sequestration of PrP - associated metals within the aggregates, resulting in the generation of redox - active PrP complexes. The physiological implications of some PrP - metal interactions are known, while others are still unclear. The pathological implications of PrP - metal interaction include metal - induced oxidative damage, and in some instances conversion of PrP to a PrP - like form. The protein - only hypothesis has been criticised by those maintaining that the simplest explanation of the evidence to date is viral. For more than a decade, Yale University neuropathologist Laura Manuelidis has been proposing that prion diseases are caused instead by an unidentified slow virus. In January 2007, she and her colleagues published an article reporting to have found a virus in 10 %, or less, of their scrapie - infected cells in culture. Evidence in favor of a viral hypothesis includes: Studies propagating TSE infectivity in cell - free reactions and in purified component chemical reactions is thought to strongly suggest against TSE viral nature. However, some viruses, such as Poliovirus, have the ability to replicate in cell - free reactions. The ' virino hypothesis ' postulates that the TSE agent is a foreign, self replicating nucleic acid or nucleic acid fragment bound to PrP. Spiroplasma is a cell wall -- deficient bacteria related to Mycoplasma, which some think may be the cause of the TSEs. The lack of a cell wall means they are not susceptible to conventional antibiotics such as penicillin, which target cell wall synthesis. Frank O. Bastian of Louisiana State University first discovered Spiroplasma - like inclusions in the brain of a CJD patient during an autopsy in 1979 and has hypothesized that this bacterium could possibly be the cause of the TSEs. However, as of 2015, with the exception of Spiroplasma mirum strain SMCA causing spongiform microcystic encephalitis in suckling rats, other researchers have been unable to duplicate these findings, casting doubt on the Spiroplasma hypothesis. In defense of the Spiroplasma hypothesis, Bastian pointed out that Spiroplasma is hard to culture and that strain variation makes it hard to detect certain strains using PCR and other techniques, thus giving a false negative. Acinetobacter is a bacterium which some think is the cause of the TSEs. The word prion, coined in 1982 by Stanley B. Prusiner, is a portmanteau derived from protein and infection, hence prion, and is short for "proteinaceous infectious particle '', in reference to its ability to self - propagate and transmit its conformation to other proteins. Its main pronunciation is / ˈpriːɒn / (listen), although / ˈpraɪɒn /, as the homographic name of the bird is pronounced, is also heard.

how sikkim became a part of indian union

History of Sikkim - Wikipedia The history of Sikkim an area in present - day North - East India, began in 1642 a kingdom established when India and Nepal were still many princely states with many rulers at that time and had not unified to the present Union of India and present country of Nepal. At that time Sikkm had already solidified into country then with a king known as a Chogyal or dharma king and till 16 may 1975 was an independent country ruled by the monarchs. Sikkim had twelve kings Palden Thondup Namgyal was the last king of Independent Sikkim. There was contacts between ancient Hindus and Tibetans, followed by the establishment of a Buddhist kingdom or Chogyal in the 17th century. Sikkim emerged as a polity in its own right against a backdrop of incursions from Tibet and Bhutan, during which the kingdom enjoyed varying degrees of independence. In the early 18th century, the British Empire sought to establish trade routes with Tibet, leading Sikkim to fall under British suzerainty until independence in 1947. Initially, Sikkim remained an independent country, until it merged with India in 1975 after a decisive referendum. Many provisions of the Indian constitution had to be altered to accommodate the international treaties between Sikkim and India. When the Kirat King Yalambar captured central Nepal in 1,500 B.C his kingdom extended from river Trisuli in the west to river Teesta in the east. According to Hindu mythology, Lord Shiva is said to have appeared in the form of hunter Kirateshwar or Lord of the Kiratas to Arjuna in the very spot where the ancient Kirateshwar temple lies in Legship, West Sikkim. By the 6th century the Lepchas occupied the Lapchan area of Nepal (present Ilam region), present Sikkim, Har Chu Valley and Ammo Chu Valley (present South Western Bhutan) and most of Eastern part of Greater Sikkim up to the Chumbi Valley. Meanwhile, the Limbus inhabited the Western part of Greater Sikkim (present Limbuwan region). A part of Limbuwan is still retained in present Sikkim in the West district, South district and a part of North district. The Lepchas spoke the Lepcha dialect and were believers of Boongthism and Munism or Animism by faith. The Limbus spoke the Limbu dialect and were believers of Yumaism or Yuma Sammang, a form of Kirat Mundhum. In the 7th century, Thekung Adek consolidated the Lepcha tribes and declared himself a Panu, a Tribal Religious and Administrative chief or king. Similarly, the Limbu tribes were ruled by 10 elected chiefs or Hangs from each of their clans to form a social and administrative body called Thibong Yakthum Tumyanghang (tribal republic council or Ten Limbus Council). Around 870 A.D. Na Hang, the chief of Daramdin, West Sikkim was incited by the Chilikchom people to fight against the Kirati Limbu king of Limbuwan, Mabo Hang. Na Hang was defeated and the Chilikchom were banished from Limbuwan. Sikkim also finds mention in many Hindu texts because the Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche or Padmasambhava is said to have passed through the land in the 9th century. According to legend, the Guru blessed the land, introduced Buddhism to Sikkim and also foretold the era of the monarchy in the state, which would arrive centuries later. There are numerous stories regarding the migration of Tibetans into Sikkim and the establishment of the Sikkimese monarchy. The most popular states that in the 13th century, Guru Tashi, a prince from the Minyak House in Kham in Eastern Tibet, had a divine revelation one night instructing him to travel south to seek his fortunes. Guru Tashi settled down in the Chumbi Valley. The population and linguistic survey were not held during this period but it 's certain that the region was inhabited by the Lepchas, the Limbus, the Magars and some Bhutias in the later periods. By 1641 the Lepchas, the Limbus and the Magars were ruling in different villages independently. The Limbu and the Magar tribes lived in the remote Western and Southern regions. In the early 17th century the Bhutias were forced to take refuge in Sikkim due to the conflict between followers of the Yellow hat and the Red hats in Tibet. The Bhutias tried to convert the Sikkimese worshippers of nature to Buddhism and succeeded to an extent. The Tibetan Lamas sought to establish Sikkim as a Buddhist Kingdom thereby electing a Lhopa King of Tibetan origin. In 1642, the fifth generation descendant of Guru Tashi, Phuntsog Namgyal was consecrated as the first Denjong Gyalpo or the Chogyal (king) of Sikkim by Lhatsun Chhenpo, Nga - dag Lama and Kathhog Lama, three great Lamas who came from the north, west and south to Yuksom Norbugang in West Sikkim. The event, Naljor Chezhi, was as predicted by Guru Rinpoche some eight hundred years before. The Dalai Lama sent the new Chogyal a silk scarf, the mitre of Guru Rinpoche and a sand image of him as a coronation present. However the Limbu and the Magar chiefs refused to accept the rule of the Chogyal who had to bring in Tibetan soldiers to subdue them. This historical gathering of the three virtuous lamas is called Yuksom, which in Lepcha means ' The Place where the Three monks met ' as in Lepcha a lama is called a "Yukmun '' and the word for three is "Som ''. The Chogyal, along with the three lamas proselytised the Lepcha tribes into Buddhism and annexed the Chumbi Valley, the present - day Darjeeling district and parts of today 's eastern Nepal. Shortly after his coronation the new Chogyal appointed 12 kalons or ministers from the Bhutia community and split his kingdom into 12 Dzongs or administrative units, which each contained a fort. Individual Dzongs were headed by a Dzonga drawn from amongst the Lepchas. The lands of Sikkim were leased as gifts to kazis and thikadars who in turn leased sub-plots to peasants at high rents. Mandals (headmen) and karbaris (assistants to the mandals) were employed by the kazis and thikadars as rent collectors and dispute mediators. Out of Sikkims 104 revenue estates, 61 were leased to kazis and thikadars for fixed sums, five were given to monasteries and fifteen retained by the Chogyal for his private use. The Limbu chiefs or the Subbas were also given full autonomy of their districts under the King. Thus Phuntsog Namgyal became the first King of the Kingdom of Sikkim and all the Kirat chiefs agreed to regard him as the supreme ruler. However the Magars did not get along with the Bhutias and left Sikkim after they were defeated in a battle. The King called all the Kirat chiefs and proclaimed that Bhutias or Lhopsas, Tsongs or the Limbus and the Mempas or the Lepchas were all part of one family known as the Lho - Mehn - Tsong with the King as the father, the Lepchas as the mother and the Limbus as the sons and they were forbidden to fight amongst themselves. The signing of this tripartite treaty of Lho - Mehn - Tsong Tsum was overseen by eight Bhutia tribal leaders, twelve Limbu tribal leaders and four Lepcha tribal leaders in present West Sikkim. Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded by his son, Tensung Namgyal in 1670. The reign of this Chogyal was peaceful and saw the capital move from Yuksom to Rabdentse. Chakdor Namgyal, the king 's second wife 's son, took over the throne from him in 1700. This outraged his elder half - sister Pendiongmu, who ousted him with the help of the Bhutanese. From 1700 to 1706, when Chakdor Namgyal, the third Chogyal of the Kingdom of Sikkim, most parts of it were invaded by Deb Naku Zidar, the king of Bhutan. Chakdor Namgyal went into exile in Tibet. The Tibetan people subsequently expelled the Bhutanese army, and called Chakdor Namgyal back to Sikkim. Chakdor 's son Gyurmed Namgyal succeeded him in 1717. Gyurmed 's reign saw many skirmishes between the Nepalese and Sikkimese. Phuntsog Namgyal II, the illegitimate child of Gyurmed, succeeded his father in 1733. His reign was tumultuous in the face of attacks by the Bhutanese and the Nepalese who managed to capture the capital Rabdentse. Tenzing Namgyal, Chogyal from 1780 to 1793, was a weak ruler, and his sovereignty saw most of Sikkim being appropriated by Nepal. In 1788, the Nepali Gorkha Army invaded Sikkim, and took Limbuana and the former capital Rabdentse by storm. The king of Sikkim went into exile in Tibet for a second time. In 1788, the 8th Dalai Lama stationed him in Chumbi Valley in Rènà zong (also "Rèrì, '' today 's Yadong County). His son Tshudpud Namgyal, returned to Sikkim in 1793 to reclaim the throne with the help of China. Finding Rabdentse too close to the Nepalese border, he shifted the capital to Tumlong. With the arrival of the British in neighbouring India, Sikkim allied itself with them as they had a common enemy -- the Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal. The infuriated Nepalese attacked Sikkim with vengeance, over-running most of the region including the Terai. This prompted the British East India Company to attack Nepal resulting in the Anglo - Nepalese War, which began in 1814. Treaties signed between British and Nepal -- the Sugauli Treaty and Sikkim and British India -- Treaty of Titalia, returned the territory annexed by the Nepalese to Sikkim in 1817. Meanwhile, the British were looking for a route to establish trading links with Tibet. An offshoot of the ancient Silk Road through Sikkim meant that the kingdom was ideal as a transit route. A secondary reason for the establishment of links was to quell the growing Russian influence in Tibet in the context of The Great Game. However ties between Sikkim and India grew sour with the taxation of the area of Morang by the British. An internal disturbance, which began in 1825, gave the British the opportunity to secure the 1835 cession of Darjeeling to British Sikkim in view of its perceived advantages as a sanitorium. Unhappy with this development, Sikkim 's Dewan often frustrated the cessation by denying aid to the British in capturing escaped criminals and offering amnesty for escaped slaves. As compensation for the loss, the British Government paid the Sikkim Raja Rs. 3,000 from 1841 onwards, a sum that was later increased to Rs. 12,000. In 1849, British doctor Archibald Campbell, then superintendent of Darjeeling, and botanist Joseph Hooker, ventured into the mountains of Sikkim with the permission of the British and the Chogyal of Sikkim but strayed across the Cho La into Tibet. They were detained by the Sikkim government at the instigation of the pro-Tibetan "mad Dewan '' T. Namguey, which led to a punitive British expedition against the Himalayan kingdom. Although subsequent bloodshed was avoided, the British annexed the whole of Darjeeling district and the Terai in 1861. In the same year, signature of the Treaty of Tumlong effectively made Sikkim a de facto protectorate of the British. Alongside "British Sikkim '', "Independent Sikkim '' continued to exist as a rump state centred around the capital at Gangtok ruling over 2,500 square miles (6,500 km) of territory. The former Chogyal was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Sidkeong Namgyal in 1863. The Chogyals endeavored to modernize Sikkim in the succeeding decades, along with their army. A state visit to Darjeeling by Sidekong 's half brother, Chogyal Thutob Namgyal in 1873 failed to yield such results, and he returned to Tumlong disappointed. In 1886, the British, interested in trade with Tibet, launched a brief expedition into Sikkim. The Tibetans occupied several of Sikkim 's northern border forts, and the Chogyal and his wife were held prisoner by the British when they came to negotiate at Calcutta. In 1888, the Tibetans were defeated and northern Sikkim came under the rule of British India. The British established new landholdings in Sikkim, but released the Chogyal only to have him captured again in 1891. In 1894, the capital was shifted to Gangtok. In 1895, the Chogyal was released, but the British governors in India reneged on an agreement -- the Ten Clauses Agreement -- which returned sovereignty to Sikkim. The Political Officer in Sikkim, John Claude White, refused to return any sovereignty, and only let the Chogyal retain the judiciary of Sikkim. In 1905, the Prince of Wales -- the future King George V -- arrived in Calcutta on a state visit during which he met the Chogyal. The two made an excellent acquaintance and the Crown Prince of Sikkim, Sidkeong Tulku was sent to study at Oxford University. When Sidkeong came to power, he arranged widened sovereignty for Sikkim from King George 's government and endorsed sweeping reforms in his short rule as Chogyal, which ended in 1914. In 1918, Sikkim 's independence in all domestic affairs was restored, and in the next decade the kingdom embarked on a policy to end social ills, outlawing gambling, child labour, and indentured service. Sikkim had retained guarantees of independence from Britain when it became independent, and such guarantees were transferred to the Indian government when it gained independence in 1947. A popular vote for Sikkim to join the Indian Union failed and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru agreed to a special protectorate status for Sikkim. Sikkim was to be a tributary of India, in which India controlled its external defence, diplomacy and communication. A state council was established in 1953 to allow for constitutional government for the Chogyal, which was sustained until 1973. In 1962, India and the People 's Republic of China went to war. Although Sikkim was an independent country, skirmishes occurred at the Nathula Pass between Indian border guards and the Chinese soldiers. After the war, the ancient pass was shut down (it reopened 6 July 2006). The old ruler Tashi Namgyal died in 1963 after suffering from cancer. The last hereditary ruler, the Chogyal Palden Thondup Namgyal, ascended to the throne in 1965. Trouble began to brew for the crown even before the Chogyal assumed the throne, as Indian Prime Minister Nehru, who had carefully preserved Sikkim 's status as an independent protectorate, died in 1964. His daughter Indira Gandhi, who became Prime Minister in 1966, would have little patience for maintaining an independent Sikkim or its monarchy. The chogyal, who responded to the increased pressure by drinking, was viewed by India as politically dangerous, especially after his wife, the American socialite Hope Cooke, published a journal article advocating a return of certain former Sikkimese properties. In early 1970 the anti-monarchy Sikkim National Congress Party demanded fresh elections and greater representation for the Nepalese. In 1973, anti-royalty riots in front of the palace led to a formal request for protection from India. India worried that an unstable Sikkim would invite China to act on its claims that Sikkim was part of Tibet, and therefore part of China. The Indian government appointed a Chief administrator, Mr. B.S. Das, who effectively wrested control of the country away from the Chogyal. Frosty relations between the Chogyal and the elected Kazi (Prime Minister) Lhendup Dorji resulted in an attempt to block the meeting of the legislature. The Kazi was elected by the Council of Ministers which was unanimous in its opposition to the retention of the Monarchy. Prime Minister Dorji appealed to the Indian Parliament for representation and change of status to statehood. On 14 April 1975, a referendum was held, in which Sikkim voted to merge with the union of India. Sikkim became the 22nd Indian State on 26 April 1975. On 16 May 1975, Sikkim officially became a state of the Indian Union and Lhendup Dorji became head of State (chief minister). The position of Chogyal was thus abolished, ending the monarchy. In 1982, Palden Thondup died of cancer in the United States. The 1979 assembly election saw Nar Bahadur Bhandari elected Chief Minister of Sikkim. Bhandhari held on to win again in 1984 and 1989. In 1994, Assembly politician Pawan Kumar Chamling became the Chief Minister of Sikkim. In 1999, 2004, 2009 and 2014 Chamling consolidated his position to sweep the polls. Sino - Indian relations were somewhat bruised in 2000 by an event in Sikkim which challenged China 's longstanding claim of Sikkim as an independent country. The unusual event was the escape of Ogyen Trinley Dorje from Tibet to Dharamsala, India. Ogyen Trinley Dorje is one of the two rival claimants who seeks recognition as the 17th Karmapa, the head of the Black Hat branch of Tibetan Buddhism (see Karmapa controversy). The two claimants did battle in the Indian court system for control of the considerable funds collected by the 16th Karmapa for the restoration and maintenance of Rumtek Monastery, located in Gangtok, Sikkim. The Chinese, who recognise Ogyen Trinley Dorje as the true Karmapa, were unhappy about the court outcome which awarded the monastery funds to the other rival. However, the Chinese government was in a quandary as to what to do about it, as any protest to India would mean an explicit endorsement that the high court of India holds jurisdiction over Sikkim. In 2003, with the thawing of relations between the two nations, Indian sovereignty over Sikkim was finally recognised by China. The two governments also proposed to open the Nathula and Jelepla Passes in 2005. On 18 September 2011, a magnitude 6.9 M earthquake struck Sikkim, killing at least 116 people in the state and in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Tibet. More than 60 people died in Sikkim alone, and the city of Gangtok suffered significant damage. ((Navbox

who is the serial killer in bates motel

Norman Bates - wikipedia Norman Bates is a fictional character created by Robert Bloch as the main antagonist in his 1959 novel Psycho, and portrayed by Anthony Perkins in the 1960 version of Psycho directed by Alfred Hitchcock and the Psycho franchise. He is also portrayed by Vince Vaughn in the 1998 version of Psycho, and by Freddie Highmore in the television series Bates Motel (2013 - 2017) which retells the Psycho story over the years prior to the events of the novel and film. Unlike the franchise produced by Universal Studios, Norman is not the principal antagonist in Bloch 's subsequent novels and is succeeded by copycat killers who assume Norman 's identity after his death in 1982 's Psycho II. The character was inspired by Wisconsin murderer Ed Gein. Both the 1959 novel, its 1960 film adaptation and the 1990 film prequel explain that Norman suffered severe emotional abuse as a child at the hands of his mother, Norma, who preached to him that sexual intercourse was sinful and that all women (except herself) were whores. The novel also suggests that their relationship may have been incestuous. After Norman 's father, John Bates, died, Norman and his mother lived alone together "as if there was no one else in the world '' until Norman reached adolescence, when his mother met Joe Considine (Chet Rudolph in Psycho IV: The Beginning) and planned to marry. Considine convinced Norma to open a motel. Driven over the edge with jealousy, Norman murdered both of them with strychnine. After committing the murders, Norman staged it like murder - suicide, making it look as if Norma had killed her fiancé and then herself. After a brief hospitalization for shock, he developed dissociative identity disorder, assuming his mother 's personality to repress his awareness of her death and to escape the feelings of guilt for murdering her. He inherited his mother 's house -- where he kept her corpse -- and the family motel in the (fictional) small town of Fairvale, California. Bloch sums up Norman 's multiple personalities in his stylistic form of puns: "Norman '', a child dependent on his mother; "Norma '', a possessive mother who kills anyone who threatens the illusion of her existence; and "Normal '', a functional adult who goes through the motions of day - to - day life. "Norma '' dominates and belittles "Norman '' much as she had when she was alive, forbidding him to have friends and flying into violent rages whenever he feels attracted to a woman. "Norma '' and "Norman '' carry on conversations through Norman talking to himself and to her corpse in his mother 's voice, and Norman dresses in his mother 's clothes whenever "Norma '' takes hold completely. In Bloch 's 1959 novel and the 1960 Hitchcock film, Marion Crane (Janet Leigh), a young woman on the run after stealing money from her employer, checks into the motel one night. Norman is smitten with her, and shyly asks her to have dinner with him in the house. "Norma '' flies into a rage and threatens to kill Marion if Norman lets her in the house. Norman defies her and eats dinner with Marion anyway, but lashes out at her when she suggests that he institutionalize his mother. When Marion goes to her room to shower, Norman spies on her through a peephole he drilled in the wall. "Norma '' takes control and stabs Marion to death (she beheads her in the novel). When Norman awakes to discover what he believes his mother has done, he sinks Marion 's car -- with her corpse and the money in the trunk -- into a nearby swamp. As "Norma '', he also murders Milton Arbogast (Martin Balsam), a private detective hired by Marion 's employer, days later. Norman is finally caught when Marion 's sister Lila (Vera Miles) and boyfriend, Sam Loomis (John Gavin), arrive at the motel looking for her. When Norman figures out what they want, he knocks Sam out and goes running after Lila, who has reached the house and found Norma 's corpse. He attacks her as "Norma '', but Sam, after awakening from having been knocked out, overpowers him, and Norman is finally arrested. Norman is declared insane and sent to an institution, where "Norma '' takes complete, and permanent, control of his mind: he becomes his mother. In Bloch 's 1982 sequel to his first novel, Psycho II, Norman escapes from the psychiatric hospital by killing a nun and donning her habit. Picked up as a hitchhiker, Norman tries to attack the driver with a tire iron, but the driver overpowers him. This in turn causes a fiery accident where the driver escapes, but Norman dies. Norman 's psychiatrist, Dr. Adam Claiborne, discovers Norman 's corpse and assumes his personality. In Bloch 's 1990 sequel to his second novel, Psycho House, Norman appears only as a novelty animatronic on display in the Bates Motel, which has been converted into a tourist attraction. In Bloch 's 2016 prequel to his second novel, Psycho: Sanitarium, Dr. Felix Reed tries to bring Norman out of a catatonic state. Sanitarium introduces Robert Newman, Norman 's twin brother who was taken away at birth after the attending doctor pronounced him brain damaged. As Robert and Norman grow to know each other, Norman senses a darkness in Robert, even deeper than that which has lurked in Norman himself. In 1983 's Psycho II, the first sequel to the original film, Norman is released from the institution twenty - two years after his arrest, seemingly cured. He meets Mary Loomis (Meg Tilly) -- Marion Crane 's niece -- and falls in love with her. However, a series of mysterious murders occurs, as well as strange appearances and messages from "Norma '', and Norman slowly loses his grip on sanity. The mysterious appearances and messages turn out to be a plot by Mary 's mother, Lila Loomis, to drive him insane again in order to get him recommitted. The actual murders turn out to be the work of Norman 's coworker, Emma Spool (Claudia Bryar). Before Norman discovers this, however, Mary Loomis is shot dead by the police during a confrontation with Norman, and Spool murders Lila. When Spool tells Norman that she is his real mother, he kills her and embalms her corpse while assuming the "Mother '' personality once again. In 1986 's Psycho III, one month later, Norman continues to struggle, unsuccessfully, against "Norma '' 's dominion. He also finds another love interest named Maureen Coyle (Diana Scarwid), who eventually dies at "Norma '' 's hand. In the film, Mrs. Spool 's corpse is first discovered by sleazy musician Duane Duke (Jeff Fahey), whom Norman kills when Duke tries to use the discovery to blackmail Norman. Tracy Venable (Roberta Maxwell), a reporter interested in Norman 's case, finds out the truth about Spool. "Norma '' orders Norman to kill Tracy, but in the end he destroys "Norma '' 's corpse violently, attempting to break free of her control. He is then arrested and put back in the institution. During the last few minutes of the movie, Tracy tells Norman that Emma Spool was his aunt, not his mother, and had killed his father in a jealous rage when he chose Norma over her. After Norma gave birth to Norman, Emma kidnapped the child, believing he was her son. She was arrested and institutionalized, leaving Norman to be raised by Norma. 1990 's Psycho IV: The Beginning, the final film in the series, retcons the revelations of the second and third film, supplying that Norman 's father was stung to death by bees and removing all references to Emma Spool. In this film, Norman has been released from an institution, and is married to one of the hospital 's psychologists, a woman named Connie (Donna Mitchell). When his wife becomes pregnant, he lures her to his mother 's house and tries to kill her, wanting to prevent another of his "cursed '' line from being born into the world; the film implies that Norma (Olivia Hussey) suffered from schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder and passed the illnesses on to her son. However, he relents at the last minute, when Connie professes her love for him. He then burns the house down in an attempt to free himself of his past. During the attempt, he is tormented by hallucinations of "Norma '' and several of his victims. He almost dies in the flames before willing himself to get out, apparently defeating his illness at long last; he is finally free of his mother 's voice, which demands to be let out. This was Anthony Perkins ' final performance as Norman Bates; Henry Thomas portrayed Norman as a teenager. In the 1987 television spin - off movie and series pilot Bates Motel, Norman is never released from the institution after his first incarceration. He befriends Alex West (Bud Cort), a fellow inmate who had murdered his stepfather, and wills ownership of the titular motel to him before dying of old age. The TV series Bates Motel, a contemporary prequel to the 1960 film Psycho, set in the present day, depicts the young Norman Bates ' life with his mother, Norma (Vera Farmiga). However the final season of the series loosely adapts the plot of Psycho. In this continuity, Norman suffers from hallucinations and blackouts, and begins manifesting his "Mother '' personality while Norma is alive. He kills his abusive father, Sam (David Cubitt), while in a dissociative state, and Norma moves them from Arizona, where he was born and raised, to White Pine Bay, Oregon, to protect him. The series also introduces his maternal half - brother, Dylan Massett (Max Thieriot) and gives him a love interest in Emma Decody (Olivia Cooke), a classmate with cystic fibrosis. As "Norma '', Norman murders Blaire Watson (Keegan Connor Tracy), one of his teachers who seduces him; Bradley Martin (Nicola Peltz), a girl he has feelings for; and Audrey Ellis Decody (Karina Logue), Emma 's estranged mother. Fearing for his sanity, Norma briefly has him committed to a mental institution. While there, Norman recovers a memory of witnessing his father rape Norma; it is implied that this trauma fractured his psyche. When Norman 's sanity begins to deteriorate, Norma marries the town sheriff, Alex Romero (Nestor Carbonell), so she can use his insurance coverage to pay for Norman to be treated in a mental institution. While the marriage is at first merely a financial arrangement, they eventually fall in love. After Norman is released from the institution and finds out that Norma is married, he grows insanely jealous and tries to kill both Norma and himself by flooding the house with carbon monoxide while his mother sleeps. Romero arrives at the house in time to revive Norman, but finds that Norma is already dead. Romero figures out what happened and swears revenge, but is arrested for perjury before he can do anything. Meanwhile, Norman can not bear losing his mother, so he digs up her corpse and assumes her personality to preserve the illusion of her being alive. Two years later, Norman is running the motel and living alone in the house with Norma 's corpse, which he keeps frozen and preserved in the cellar. He and his "Mother '' personality live together as if there is no one else in the world, and she takes care of his problems - such as killing and disposing of a hitman sent by Romero and helping him get rid of his uncle, Norma 's brother Caleb (Kenny Johnson), after he discovers the truth. When Norman falls for Madeline Loomis (Isabelle McNally), a lonely housewife whose husband Sam (Austin Nichols) is cheating on her, "Norma '' becomes jealous and starts behaving erratically, at one point taking possession of Norman 's mind and making him have sex with a man at a gay bar while dressed in Norma 's clothes. Norman finally begins to suspect that "Norma '' is not real, and she confirms that he created her in his mind to deal with things that he could not, such as his abusive father. When Sam 's mistress Marion Crane (Rihanna) checks into the motel, Norman has dinner with her and tells her that Sam is married. Marion comes back to the motel after confirming Sam 's infidelity, and seeks comfort from Norman. He fears that "Norma '' will kill her, however, and tells her to leave and never come back. When Sam comes to the motel to look for Marion, Norman stabs him to death in the shower. Dylan comes to see Norman after learning of Norma 's death, and they get into a fight that ends with Norman assaulting his half - brother at "Norma '' 's instigation. Terrified of what he might do, Norman calls 9 - 11 and confesses to murdering Sam. While he is in jail, Sheriff Jane Greene (Brooke Smith) finds the bodies of Norman 's other victims, and charges him with their murders, as well. While Norman is awaiting trial, Romero - who had earlier escaped from prison - breaks into his cell and takes him hostage. They drive to the woods where Norman hid Norma 's corpse after the police began searching his house. There, Norman gets the better of Romero and shoots him dead, but not before his former stepfather tells him he will never escape from murdering his own mother. When Norman finally admits to himself that he killed Norma, "Norma '' appears to him and tells him she is leaving, as there is no longer anything she can protect him from. Now completely alone, Norman loses all contact with reality. He calls Dylan and invites him over for a "family dinner '', complete with Norma 's corpse seated at the head of the table. When Dylan tells him that Norma is dead, Norman flies into a rage and attacks him with a knife, forcing Dylan to shoot him. As he dies, Norman sees a vision of his mother embracing him. The character Norman Bates in Psycho was loosely based on two people. First was the real - life murderer Ed Gein, about whom Bloch later wrote a fictionalized account, "The Shambles of Ed Gein '', in 1962. (The story can be found in Crimes and Punishments: The Lost Bloch, Volume 3). Second, it has been indicated by several people, including Noel Carter (wife of Lin Carter) and Chris Steinbrunner, as well as allegedly by Bloch himself, that Norman Bates was partly based on Calvin Beck, publisher of Castle of Frankenstein. The characterization of Norman Bates in the novel and the movie differ in some key areas. In the novel, Norman is in his mid-to - late 40s, short, overweight and homely. In the movie, he is in his mid-20s, tall, slender, and handsome. Reportedly, when working on the film, Hitchcock decided that he wanted audiences to be able to sympathize with Norman and genuinely like the character, so he made him more of a "boy next door ''. In the novel, Norman becomes "Norma '' after getting drunk and passing out; in the movie, he remains sober before switching personalities. In the novel, Norman is well - read in occult and esoteric authors such as P.D. Ouspensky and Aleister Crowley. He is aware that "Norma '' disapproves of these authors as being against religion. Norman Bates was portrayed by Anthony Perkins in Hitchcock 's seminal 1960 film adaptation of Bloch 's novel and its three sequels. Perkins hosted an episode of Saturday Night Live in 1976 in which he performed numerous sketches portraying Norman, including the instructional video "The Norman Bates School of Motel Management ''. He also portrayed Norman, albeit more lightheartedly, in a 1990 commercial for Oatmeal Crisp cereal. Vince Vaughn portrayed Norman in Gus Van Sant 's 1998 version of Psycho, while Kurt Paul, Perkins ' "Mother '' stunt double in Psycho II and Psycho III, took on the role in the made - for - TV film spin - off Bates Motel. Oz Perkins, Anthony 's son, portrayed a younger version of Norman in Psycho II. Henry Thomas played a younger version of the character in Psycho IV: The Beginning. Freddie Highmore portrayed Norman in the TV series Bates Motel. For his performance, Highmore was nominated twice for a Critic 's Choice Award, a Saturn Award, and won a People 's Choice Award in 2017. Norman appears in the 1992 three - issue comic book adaptation of the 1960 film Psycho released by Innovation Publishing. Despite being a colorized adaptation of the Hitchcock film, the version of Norman present in the comics resembles the one from Bloch 's original novel: a middle - aged, overweight, balding man. Comic artist Felipe Echevarria has explained that this was due to Perkins ' refusal to allow his likeness to be replicated for the books, wanting to disassociate himself with Norman Bates. Norman Bates is ranked as the second greatest villain on the American Film Institute 's list of the top 100 film heroes and villains, behind Hannibal Lecter and before Darth Vader. His line "A boy 's best friend is his mother '' also ranks as number 56 on the institute 's list of the 100 greatest movie quotes. In 2008, Norman Bates was selected by Empire Magazine as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters. Bates also ranked number 4 on Premiere magazine 's list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.

who played al pacino's daughter in heat

Heat (1995 film) - wikipedia Heat is a 1995 American crime film written, produced and directed by Michael Mann, and starring Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, and Val Kilmer. De Niro plays Neil McCauley, a professional thief, while Pacino plays Lt. Vincent Hanna, a LAPD robbery - homicide detective tracking down McCauley 's crew. The story is based on the former Chicago police officer Chuck Adamson 's pursuit during the 1960s of a criminal named McCauley, after whom De Niro 's character is named. Heat is a remake by Mann of a TV series he had worked on, the pilot of which was released as a TV movie, L.A. Takedown in 1989. Heat was a critical and commercial success, grossing $67 million in the United States and $187 million worldwide (about $295 million in 2017) against a $60 million budget. It was well received by critics. The film - critic aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports 86 % positive reviews, calling the film "an engrossing crime drama that draws compelling performances from its stars and confirms Michael Mann 's mastery of the genre. '' Neil McCauley, a career criminal, hires Waingro to help him rob $1.6 million in bearer bonds from an armored car. During the heist, Waingro impulsively kills a guard, infuriating McCauley. When his crew, Chris Shiherlis, Michael Cheritto and Trejo, attempt to kill Waingro, he escapes. McCauley 's fence, Nate, suggests he sell the stolen bonds back to their original owner, money launderer Roger Van Zant. Van Zant agrees, but instructs his men to ambush McCauley at the meeting. McCauley survives the ambush and vows revenge against Van Zant. LAPD Lieutenant Vincent Hanna, working with Sergeant Drucker and Detectives Sammy Casals, Mike Bosko, and Danny Schwartz, investigate the heist and identify McCauley 's crew as the perpetrators. They discover their next target to be a precious metals depository. The unit stakes out the depository and observe the crime in progress, but inadvertently alert McCauley to their presence. McCauley abandons the burglary. Hanna, dissatisfied with the lack of evidence, lets McCauley 's crew escape. Despite the increased police surveillance, McCauley 's crew agrees to one last brazen bank robbery worth $12 million to secure their financial futures. Waingro approaches Van Zant with information about eliminating McCauley 's crew. McCauley starts a relationship with Eady, a designer he meets in a cafe. Hanna moves into a hotel after learning his wife Justine is having an affair. Hanna pulls over McCauley on the freeway and invites him to coffee. Face - to - face, the aging professionals bond over their personal problems. Hanna 's concern for his depressed stepdaughter Lauren and his string of failed marriages due to work, and McCauley 's solitary life of a career criminal which, forbidding attachment and requiring mobility, makes his romantic relationships tenuous. Both men reaffirm their commitment to their work and to using lethal force if necessary to stop the other. After coffee, Hanna discovers that McCauley 's crew have evaded their surveillance. When Trejo withdraws from the robbery, McCauley recruits ex-convict Donald Breedan into the crew. Hanna 's unit receives a confidential tip and interrupt McCauley 's crew in the middle of their bank robbery. In the ensuing gunfight, several police officers, including Bosko, are killed, while McCauley 's crew loses Breedan and Cheritto. Shiherlis is wounded, but escapes with McCauley. McCauley leaves Shiherlis with a doctor to treat his wounds. He breaks into Trejo 's house to find Trejo near death. Trejo reveals that Waingro alerted Van Zant to their bank robbery, who subsequently informed the police. McCauley finishes off Trejo at his own request, then kills Van Zant at his home. McCauley approaches Eady, who has accepted his criminal activities, with a plan to flee to New Zealand. Hanna orders police surveillance on Waingro and leaks his location to criminal channels, suspecting McCauley will attempt to kill him before leaving town. Shiherlis ' estranged wife Charlene is detained in a police safehouse, where Drucker threatens her with criminal charges if she does n't betray Shiherlis to police. Charlene agrees, but when Shiherlis shows up in disguise, she surreptitiously warns him, allowing Shiherlis to slip through the dragnet. Hanna finds Lauren unconscious in his hotel room from a suicide attempt and rushes her to the hospital. McCauley and Eady drive to the airport when he receives word of Waingro 's location at a nearby hotel. Initially dismissive, McCauley decides to risk his freedom for revenge. He infiltrates the hotel, pulling a fire alarm to distract security and confronts Waingro before killing him. Moments away from escape, he notices Hanna approaching through the crowds and is forced to abandon Eady for his freedom. Hanna chases McCauley into a field outside the LAX freight terminal. In the cat - and - mouse shootout, McCauley is exposed, and Hanna mortally wounds him. Near death, McCauley offers his hand to Hanna, who takes it, and reverently watches his adversary die. De Niro was the first cast member to get the film script, showing it to Pacino who also wanted to be a part of the film. De Niro believed Heat was a "very good story, had a particular feel to it, a reality and authenticity. '' Xander Berkeley had played Waingro in L.A. Takedown, an earlier rendition of Mann 's script for Heat. He was cast in a minor role in Heat. In 2016, Pacino revealed that his character was under the influence of cocaine throughout the whole film. In order to prepare the actors for the roles of McCauley 's crew, Mann took Kilmer, Sizemore and De Niro to Folsom State Prison to interview actual career criminals. While researching her role, Ashley Judd met several former prostitutes who became housewives. Heat is based on the true story of a real Neil McCauley, a calculating criminal and ex-Alcatraz inmate who was tracked down by Detective Chuck Adamson in 1964. Neil McCauley was raised in Wisconsin where his father worked as steam fitter to provide his family with a middle - class life. The normalcy of Neil 's youth faded following the adoption of another child and his father 's death in 1928. At 14, he quit school to find work to support his mother and five siblings. The McCauleys soon relocated to Chicago. In Chicago, McCauley began his criminal career after his mother began drinking heavily. By the time he was 20, he had already done three stints in county jail for larceny. In 1961, McCauley was transferred from Alcatraz to McNeil, as mentioned in the film, and he was released in 1962. Upon his release, he immediately began planning new heists. With ex-cons Michael Parille and William Pinkerton they used bolt cutters and drills to burglarize a manufacturing company of diamond drill bits, a scene which is closely recreated in the film. Detective Chuck Adamson, upon whom Al Pacino 's character is largely based, began keeping tabs on McCauley 's crew around this time, knowing that he had become active again. The two even met for coffee once, just as portrayed in the film. Their dialogue in the script was almost exactly word for word the conversation that McCauley and Adamson had. The next time the two would meet, guns would be drawn, just as the movie portrays. On March 25, 1964, McCauley and members of his regular crew followed an armored car that delivered money to a Chicago grocery store. Once the drop was made, three of the robbers entered the store. They threatened the clerks and stole money bags worth $10,000 before they sped off amid a hail of police gunfire. McCauley 's crew was unaware that Adamson and eight other detectives had blocked off all potential exits, and when the getaway car turned down an alley and the bandits saw the blockade, they realized they were trapped. All four suspects exited the vehicle and began firing. Two of his crew, men named Breaden and Parille, were slain in an alley while a third man, Polesti (on whom Chris Shiherlis is very loosely based), shot his way out and escaped. McCauley was shot to death on the lawn of a nearby home. He was 50 years old and the prime suspect in several burglaries. Polesti was caught days later and sent to prison. As of 2011 Polesti was still alive. Adamson went on to a successful career as a television and film producer, and died in 2008 at age 71. Michael Mann 's 2009 film Public Enemies stated in its end credits "In memory of Chuck Adamson ''. As an additional inspiration for Hanna, in an 1995 interview Mann cited an unnamed man working internationally against drug cartels. Additionally, the character of Nate, played by Jon Voight, is closely based on real - life former career criminal and fence turned writer Edward Bunker, who served as a consultant to Mann on the film. In 1979, Mann wrote a 180 - page draft of Heat. He re-wrote it after making Thief in 1981 hoping to find a director to make it and mentioning it publicly in a promotional interview for his 1983 film The Keep. In the late 1980s, he offered the film to his friend, film director Walter Hill, who turned him down. Following the success of Miami Vice and Crime Story, Mann was to produce a new crime television show for NBC. He turned the script that would become Heat into a 90 - minute pilot for a television series featuring the Los Angeles Police Department Robbery -- Homicide division, featuring Scott Plank in the role of Hanna and Alex McArthur playing the character of Neil McCauley, renamed to Patrick McLaren. The pilot was shot in only nineteen days, atypical for Mann. The script was abridged down to almost a third of its original length, omitting many subplots that made it into Heat. The network was unhappy with Plank as the lead actor, and asked Mann to recast Hanna 's role. Mann declined and the show was cancelled and the pilot aired on August 27, 1989 as a television film entitled L.A. Takedown. which was later released on VHS and DVD in Europe. In April 1994, Mann was reported to have abandoned his earlier plan to shoot a biopic of James Dean in favor of directing Heat, producing it with Art Linson. The film was marketed as the first on - screen appearance of Robert De Niro and Al Pacino together in the same scene -- both actors starred in The Godfather Part II, but owing to the nature of their roles, they were never seen in the same scene. Pacino and De Niro were Mann 's first choices for the roles of Hanna and McCauley, respectively, and they both immediately agreed to act. Mann assigned Janice Polley, a former collaborator on The Last of the Mohicans, as the film 's location manager. Scouting locations lasted from August to December 1994. Mann requested locations which did not appear on film before, in which Polley was successful -- fewer than 10 of the 85 filming locations were previously used. The most challenging shooting location proved to be Los Angeles International Airport, with the film crew almost missing out due to a threat to the airport by the Unabomber. To make the long shootout more realistic they hired British ex-Special Air Service special forces sergeant Andy McNab as a technical weapons trainer and adviser. He designed a weapons training curriculum to train the actors for three months using live ammunition before shooting with blanks for the actual take and worked with training them for the bank robbery. Principal photography for Heat lasted 107 days. All of the shooting was done on location, Mann deciding not to use a soundstage. Heat was released on December 15, 1995, and opened # 3 in the box office with $8,445,656 opening weekend in 1,325 theaters (behind Jumanji and Toy Story respectively). It grossed $67,436,818 in United States box offices, and $120 million in foreign box offices. Heat was ranked the # 25 highest - grossing film of 1995. Heat was released on VHS in June 1996. Due to its running time, the film had to be released on two cassettes. A DVD release followed in 1999. A two - disc special - edition DVD was released in 2005, featuring an audio commentary by Michael Mann, deleted scenes, and numerous documentaries detailing the film 's production. This edition contains the original theatrical cut. The initial Blu - ray Disc was released on November 10, 2009, featuring a high - definition film transfer, supervised by Mann. Among the disc extras were Mann 's audio commentary, a one - hour documentary about the making of the film and ten minutes worth of scenes cut from the film. As well as approving the look of the transfer, Mann also recut two scenes slightly differently, referring to them as "new content changes ''. A Director 's Definitive Edition Blu - Ray was released on May 9 2017 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment, who acquired the distribution rights to the film through their part - ownership of Regency back in 2015. Sourced from a 4K remaster of the film supervised by Mann, the two disc set contains all the extras from the 2009 Blu - ray, along with two filmmakers panels from 2015 and 2016 discussing the movie with the filmmakers. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 86 % of 78 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 7.8 / 10. The film 's critical consensus reads, "Though Al Pacino and Robert De Niro share but a handful of screen minutes together, Heat is an engrossing crime drama that draws compelling performances from its stars -- and confirms Michael Mann 's mastery of the genre. '' Metacritic gives the film a score of 76 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Roger Ebert gave the film 31⁄2 stars out of 4, writing: "It 's not just an action picture. Above all, the dialogue is complex enough to allow the characters to say what they 're thinking: They are eloquent, insightful, fanciful, poetic when necessary. They 're not trapped with cliches. Of the many imprisonments possible in our world, one of the worst must be to be inarticulate -- to be unable to tell another person what you really feel. '' Simon Cote of The Austin Chronicle called the film "one of the most intelligent crime - thrillers to come along in years '', and said Pacino and De Niro 's scenes together were "poignant and gripping ''. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called the film a "sleek, accomplished piece of work, meticulously controlled and completely involving. The dark end of the street does n't get much more inviting than this. '' Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote, "Stunningly made and incisively acted by a large and terrific cast, Michael Mann 's ambitious study of the relativity of good and evil stands apart from other films of its type by virtue of its extraordinarily rich characterizations and its thoughtful, deeply melancholy take on modern life. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B − rating, saying that "Mann 's action scenes (...) have an existential, you - are - there jitteriness, '' but called the heist - planning and Hanna 's investigation scenes "dry, talky. '' The film was nominated for the American Film Institute 's "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills '' list. The explicit nature of several of the film 's scenes was cited as the model of a spate of robberies since its release. This included armored car robberies in South Africa, Colombia, Denmark, and Norway and most famously the 1997 North Hollywood shootout, in which Larry Phillips, Jr. and Emil Mătăsăreanu robbed the North Hollywood branch of the Bank of America and, similarly to the film, were confronted by the LAPD as they left the bank. This shootout is considered one of the longest and bloodiest events of its type in American police history. Both robbers were killed, and eleven police officers and seven civilians were injured during the shootout. Heat was widely referenced during the coverage of the shootout. For his film The Dark Knight, director Christopher Nolan drew inspiration in his portrayal of Gotham City from Heat in order "to tell a very large, city story or the story of a city ''. Heat was one of the inspirations behind the video game Grand Theft Auto V, notably the mission "Blitz Play '' where the crew blocks and then knocks over an armored car in order to rob it. In March 2016, Mann announced that he is developing a Heat prequel novel as part of launching his company Michael Mann Books. On December 19, 1995, Warner Bros. Records released a soundtrack album on cassette and CD to accompany the film, entitled Heat: Music from the Motion Picture. The album was produced by Matthias Gohl. It contains a 29 - minute selection of the film score composed by Elliot Goldenthal, as well as songs by other artists such as U2 and Brian Eno (collaborating as Passengers), Terje Rypdal, Moby, and Lisa Gerrard. Heat used an abridged instrumental rendition of the Joy Division song "New Dawn Fades '' by Moby, which also features in the same form on the soundtrack album. Mann reused the Einstürzende Neubauten track "Armenia '' in his 1999 film The Insider. The film ends with Moby 's "God Moving Over the Face of the Waters '', a different version of which was included at the end of the soundtrack album. Mann and Goldenthal decided on an atmospheric situation for the film soundtrack. Goldenthal used a setup consisting of multiple guitars, which he termed "guitar orchestra '', and thought it brought the film score closer to a European style. The soundtrack was noted for lack of a central theme. Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks.com criticized the omission from the album of much music heard in the film due to the film 's length, but praised the album as a decent listening experience, and Goldenthal 's score as "psychologically engaging and intellectually challenging '', believing it to be one of Goldenthal 's best. AllMusic called it a "soundtrack for the mind (...) full of twists and turns ''. Musicfromthemovies.com thought of the album as uncharacteristic for Goldenthal 's style, calling the atmosphere "absolutely electrifying ''. A video game based on the film was announced at E3 2006, under development by Gearbox Software for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. During E3 2009, it was revealed that Gearbox did not have the license of the film to make the game, as this was being optioned to be sold. Michael Mann, director of the film, was reported to be involved with the game. In a 2009 interview Randy Pitchford, President, CEO, and co-founder of Gearbox Software, said that development of the game had been halted and the IP could potentially be available to another developer saying: "In a nutshell, we 're nowhere. We have passionate game makers that would love to do it. We 've got filmmakers that think it 's a great idea that would love to see it done. We have publishing partners that would love to publish it. But we have no time. That 's the limiting factor. Because of the situation, we 're not keeping the IP locked down anymore. So if somebody else were in a spot where they could do it, and everybody was comfortable with that, then conceivably that could happen. ''

when did the revolutionary war end and start

American Revolutionary war - Wikipedia American - Allied victory: Thirteen Colonies (before 1776) United States (after 1776) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire Co-belligerents: Dutch Republic Mysore British Empire Hanover German mercenaries: Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan George III Lord North Lord George Germain United States: Army & Militia: 40,000 (average) 200,000 (total served) Navy: 5,000 sailors (peak 1779) 53 frigates and sloops (total served) State Navies: 106 ships (total served) Privateers: 55,000 sailors (total served) 1,697 ships Allies: Army: 63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar) Navy: 146 ships - of - the - line (1782) Native American Allies: Great Britain: Army: 48,000 (America peak) 121,000 (global 1781) 7,500 (Gibraltar) Navy: 94 ships - of - the - line (1782) 104 frigates (1781) 37 sloops (1781) 171,000 sailors Loyalists: 25,000 (total served) Hanoverians: 2,365 (total served) German mercenaries: 29,875 (total served) Native American Allies: United States: 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease France: at least 7,000 dead (2,112 in the United States) Spain: 5,000 killed Netherlands: 500 killed Great Britain: Army: 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy: 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease (1776 -- 1780) 42,000 deserted Germans: 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted Loyalists: 7,000 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 5,300 died of disease (estimated) The American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and her Thirteen Colonies, which declared independence as the United States of America. After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Following the Stamp Act, Patriot protests against taxation without representation escalated into boycotts, which culminated in the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power. British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British decisively failed. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate New England. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777. Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered. Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive, but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes. In 1651, the Parliament of England sought to regulate trade in America by passing the Navigation Acts, ensuring that trade only enriched Britain. The economic effects were minimal, but they triggered serious political friction. The American colonists had fought King Philip 's War without significant assistance from the Crown, and this contributed to a growing sense of American identity separate from that of Britain. Britain continued to assert control into the 1680s, culminating in the abrogation of colonial charters and the establishment of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Colonists, however, felt that the Dominion was undermining their democratic liberty and they overthrew it in 1689; the Crown made no attempt to restore it. The British government continued to pursue trade control, however, passing acts that taxed wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 was especially egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the local economy, and consequently they were rarely paid. Smuggling, bribery, piracy, and intimidation of customs officials became commonplace. Colonial wars were also a contributing factor. The return of Louisbourg to France in 1748 following the War of the Austrian Succession caused considerable resentment in New England, the colonists having expended great effort in subduing the fortress only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy. Britain triumphed over France and Spain in the Seven Years ' War, but this led to a financial crisis, as the national debt had doubled to £ 130 million, and the annual cost of the British civil and military establishment in America had quintupled when compared to 1749. Smuggling had been tacitly accepted, but now the British began to consider that it blunted their revenue, so Whitehall decided to ensure that customs duties were unavoidable by passing the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives. Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually '', an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire. Parliament did repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies. From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became widespread. Enforcing the acts proved difficult; the seizure of the sloop Liberty on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England. Tensions rose after the murder of a teen by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre. In 1772, colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea, passing the Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor -- so the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests. Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy. Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity. Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission. The colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts '', and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of America. The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment. The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal which would have created an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain. Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire, and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774. Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony. It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war. Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militias. On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord. Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston. On March 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with three senior generals; William Howe, John Burgoyne and Henry Clinton. On June 17, the British seized the Charlestown peninsular after a costly frontal assault, leading Howe to replace Gage. Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack which had gained them little, while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt. On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington 's surprise. After a plan to assault the city was rejected, in early March 1776, the Americans fortified Dorchester Heights with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga. On March 17, the British were permitted to withdraw unmolested, sailing to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New York. Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Native American tribes to support them, while the Americans attempted to maintain their neutrality. Fearing an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec, with a largely Francophone population, had only been under British rule for twelve years, and the Americans expected that liberating them from the British would be welcomed. After an arduous march, the Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31, which was decisively defeated. After a loose siege, the Americans withdrew on May 6. 1776. A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec. However, the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit, due to the presence of American ships on Lake Champlain. On October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing the Americans to withdraw to Ticonderoga, ending the campaign. The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion, while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support. The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no further attempts to invade were ever realized. In Virginia, the Royal governor, Lord Dunmore, had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. After war broke out, Dunmore issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775, promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. After Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. After negotiations broke down, Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town. In South Carolina, fighting broke out on November 19 between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony. Loyalists recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South were decisively defeated, subduing Loyalist sentiment. An expedition of British regulars to reconquer South Carolina launched a failed attack on Charleston on June 28, 1776, effectively leaving the South in Patriot control until 1780. The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas Colony in the West Indies, in order to secure ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no resistance. For two weeks, the Americans confiscated all the supplies they could load, and sailed away on March 17. After a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6, the squadron reached New London on April 8. After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war, which Parliament rejected as insincere. King George III then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, leading to an emboldening of hitherto weak support for independence in the colonies. After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected to oppose coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes. British Tories refused to compromise, while Whigs argued current policy would drive the colonists towards secession. Despite opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort. The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time. Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the King. Militarily, the initial hostilities was a sobering lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability. The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage; the British lost control over every colony. The army had been kept deliberately small since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King. Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops, and, after a year, were able to send an army of 32,000 men to America, the largest it had ever sent outside Europe at the time. In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence. On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention, issuing its declaration on July 4. Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9, invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King, melting it to make bullets. British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves. Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived, intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment, exile, and, in some cases, death. American Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans. Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war, and offered them a choice between swearing loyalty to the republic, or either face exile, or forfeit the right to protection. Quakers, who remained neutral, had their property confiscated. States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts they were owed. After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. Howe set sail in June 1776, and began landing troops on Staten Island on July 2. Due to poor intelligence, Washington split his army to positions across the city. An informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans. On August 27, Howe defeated Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Had Howe chose to land on Manhattan, Washington could have been encircled and his army destroyed. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead. Washington managed to withdraw to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance. Following the withdrawal, a second attempt to negotiate peace failed, as the British delegates did not possess authorization to grant independence. Howe then seized control of New York on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day. Howe attempted encirclement of Washington again, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value. Washington 's retreat left the remnants of his forces isolated, and, on November 16, the British captured an American army, taking 3,000 prisoners, amounting to the worst American defeat to date. Washington fell back four days later. Henry Clinton then captured Newport, an operation which he opposed, feeling the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington. The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous "prison ships '', in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined. Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, and Washington escaped unmolested. The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men, and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York. News of the campaign was well received in Britain; festivities took place in London, and public support reached a peak. William Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath by the King. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The American defeat revealed Washington 's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the situation, and his poorly - trained troops, who fled in disorder when fighting began. In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters, and were in a good place to resume campaigning. On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware, and overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton the following morning, taking 900 prisoners. The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale, and gave a new hope to the cause for independence. Cornwallis marched to re-take Trenton, though his efforts to this end were repulsed on January 2. Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies, as well as recovering morale in the army. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown on January 6, though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued. While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington 's amazement. In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England. Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance. Howe instead argued capturing Philadelphia and defeating Washington was a priority. Germain approved this plan, leaving Howe unable to assist Burgoyne. Washington himself was baffled by Howe 's choices. Alden argues Howe was influenced by the idea that, upon success, he would not receive credit, but Burgoyne. Controversy persists over whether Germain approved Burgoyne 's plan after reading Howe 's, and whether he shared this information with his subordinates. Howe was not given any explicit orders to assist Burgoyne, however, a copy Germain sent to Quebec explicitly stated Howe was to assist Burgoyne 's efforts. Another letter stated Howe should launch his campaign against Philadelphia as intended, while allowing enough time to assist Burgoyne. Black argues Germain either left his generals too much latitude, or without a clear direction. Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would rendezvous at Albany. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. The hasty withdrawal of the Continental Army after little resistance outraged the American public. Burgoyne 's pursuit ran into stiff resistance at Hubbardton and Fort Anne. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance. Progress was slow; the Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded the area of food. Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him. On August 16, a British foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were captured. As a result of the defeat, the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him. Meanwhile, Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be unable to render aid. Having considered his options, Burgoyne decided to continue the advance. On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman 's Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and critical supplies were running low. Henry Clinton did capture two key forts on October 6 to divert American resources, though he turned back ten days later. Meanwhile, the American army was growing in size daily, swelling to some 15,000 men. On October 7, a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit, and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of foreign assistance. Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed. Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult to understand, Howe 's critics accused him of treason. Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army. A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown, north of Philadelphia. Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed. Again, Howe did not follow - up on his victory, leaving the American army intact and able to fight. Later, after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides. Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies. On December 19, Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops. Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed could have ended the war. The Continental Army was put through a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling. Meanwhile, Howe resigned, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit. The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the field, greatly boosting morale and confidence. By July, both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior. The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands, although Lord North refused to grant independence. No positive reply was received from the Americans. French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British, and he sought a casus belli to go to war with and weaken their perennial foe following the conquest of Canada in 1763. The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war, proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign. The French public favored war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and financial risk. The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile, but doing so also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean. To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade. Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain. Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776. Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with Portugal, Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain. However, Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year, hoping to weaken Britain 's empire. In the Spanish - Portuguese War (1776 - 77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain. Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel the British from Central America. Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic. Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated, preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater, and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America. Despite this, the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown. Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed, citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in detail. Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally, the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request. Consequently, the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies. French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports. The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently, the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status. The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780. Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778. On 12 April 1779, Spain entered the war, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar. On June 24, Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock. The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to resupply the garrison. Meanwhile, a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland. A combination of poor planning, disease, logistical issues and high financial expenditures resulted in the expedition 's failure. However, a diversionary Franco - American squadron under John Paul Jones did meet with some success on 23 September. On 16 January 1780, the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar. On 9 August, a Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off The Azores, led by John Moutray, bound for the West Indies. The defeat was catastrophic for Britain; losing 52 merchant ships, 5 East Indiamen, 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops, 294 guns and 3,144 men, making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made. The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million, or £ 180 million in today 's money, dealing a severe blow to British commerce. In the Caribbean, intending to damage British trade, the French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica. In order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands, and to strike a blow to privateering, French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778. To monitor the French naval base on Martinique, the British defeated a French naval force on 15 December, and captured St. Lucia on 28 December. Though both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, the French under the Comte d'Estaing soon enjoyed superiority in the Caribbean, and began capturing British territories; seizing St. Vincent on 18 June, and Grenada on 4 July. On July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada, the British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated, the worst loss the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690. Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique. On the mainland, Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Louisiana, had intercepted intelligence the British were planning to invade New Orleans, and decided to strike first. Gálvez intended to conquer West Florida, and set out with 670 men on August 27, 1779, though his force was soon swollen to 1,400 by local Native Americans. On 7 September, Fort Bute fell to the Spanish, who then marched on to Baton Rouge, arriving on September 12. After a nine - day siege, the town fell. Leaving a garrison behind, Gálvez returned to New Orleans to recruit additional troops. In early 1780, Gálvez mounted an expedition to take Mobile, setting off with 750 troops on 11 January. Joined by reinforcements from Havana, siege operations commenced on March 1, and the town fell after a 14 - day siege. Gálvez had hoped to push on to Pensacola, the British capital of West Florida, however, a hurricane devastated his expedition, stalling it till 1781. In Central America, the defence of Guatemala was a priority for Spain. The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region. After inadequate first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October, and captured the fort on 20 October. However, the British suffered terribly due to disease, and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November, and Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied the fort. In 1780, John Dalling, governor of Jamaica, planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two, by capturing Granada, which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River. The British expedition, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson, set out on 3 February 1780. On 17 March, the expedition reached Fort San Juan and laid siege, capturing it on 29 April. The British were ravaged by disease, and were running low on food due to poor logistics. The British withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat; some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest British disaster of the war. After word of hostilities with France reached India, the British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions, and took Pondicherry after a two - week siege on 19 October 1778. The Company resolved to drive the French out of India entirely, capturing the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779. Mahé had been under the protection of Mysore, as French ordnance passed through the port to the Mysorean ruler, Hyder Ali. Tensions were already inflamed due to British support for Malabar rebels against Ali, and the fall of Mahé precipitated war. In July 1780, Ali invaded the Carnatic, and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A 7,000 - strong Company relief force under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September; thus far the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India. Instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second Company army at Madras, Ali renewed the siege at Arcot, capturing it on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year. Following the British defeat at Saratoga, and the entry of France into the war, Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating in New York. French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, arriving shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York. Concluding New York 's defences were too formidable for the French fleet, the Franco - American forces opted to attack Newport. This effort, launched on August 29, failed after the French opted to withdraw, greatly angering the Americans. The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook. In July, Clinton 's attempts to coax Washington into a decisive engagement with a major raid into Connecticut failed. That month, a large American naval operation to retake Maine resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941. The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition, destroying a large number of Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids. During the winter of 1779 -- 80, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war, the national currency was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and, in early 1780, whole regiments mutinied over the conditions. In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to re-take New Jersey. On June 7, an invasion of 6,000 men under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen met stiff resistance from the local militia. Though the British held the field, Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army, and withdrew. A fortnight later, Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt, which was soundly defeated at Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey. Meanwhile, American general Benedict Arnold had grown disenfranchised with the war, and conspired with the British to surrender the key American fortress of West Point. Arnold 's plot was foiled upon the capture of his contact, John André, and he escaped to British lines in New York. Though Arnold 's reasoning reflected Loyalist opinion, Patriots strongly condemned him. West of the Appalachians, the war was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted due to adverse weather. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4, and then secured Vincennes, although the latter was quickly recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the Americans counter-attacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking Hamilton prisoner. On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky, as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August, which met with some success, but did little to abate the Native American raids on the frontier. An attempt by French militia to capture Detroit ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the Indian tribes and occupy their land. In 1778, despite the defeat at Saratoga, the British turned their attention to reconquering the South. Prominent Loyalists with great influence in London had convinced the British that Loyalist support was high in the South, and that a campaign there would inspire a popular Loyalist uprising. The British centred their strategy upon this thinking. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets. On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah. British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. Despite a promising initial turnout in early 1779, a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14, demonstrating their vulnerability when operating away from British regulars. The British recovered their loss, defeating Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3. The British then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation was noted for a high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists. In October, a combined Franco - American effort to capture Savannah failed. In 1780, Henry Clinton moved against Charleston, capturing it on May 12. With few losses of their own, the British took 5,266 prisoners, effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29. Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. In the interim, the war was carried on by Patriot militias, whom effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, York County, Stanly County, and Lancaster County. Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. Soon after arriving, on August 16, Gates suffered a major defeat at Camden, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. While Patriot militia continued to interfere in attempts to pacify the countryside, Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north. This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina. In the interim, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene. Unable to confront the British directly, Greene dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17, 1781, at Cowpens. As after the defeat of the Loyalists at King 's Mountain, Cornwallis was criticized for his decision to detach a substantial part of his army without adequate support. Despite the setbacks, Cornwallis proceeded to advance into North Carolina, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support. Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition. By March, Greene 's army had grown enough where he felt confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15, and, though Greene was beaten, Cornwallis ' army had suffered irreplaceable casualties. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining as expected due to effective Patriot suppression. Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the interior of the Carolinas, and Georgia, wide open to Greene. In Cornwallis ' absence, Greene proceeded to reconquer the South. Despite suffering a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25, American troops continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area, capturing Fort Watson, and Fort Motte. Augusta, the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah, fell on June 6. In an effort to stop Greene, a British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8. Despite inflicting a tactical defeat on Greene 's army, the casualties suffered by the British were such that they withdrew to Charleston. While minor skirmishes in the Carolinas continued till the end of the war, British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict. Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of the American 's supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Cornwallis believed a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, instead favoring conducting a campaign further north in the Chesapeake region. Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis approving his plan, neglecting to include Clinton in the decision - making entirely, despite him being Cornwallis ' superior officer. Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton. Clinton, however, had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart, Marriot Arbuthnot. Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French planners realized closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success. The French fleet, led by the Comte de Grasse, had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed. Washington and his French counterpart, the Comte de Rochambeau, discussed their options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia, where the British were less well - established and thus, easier to defeat. Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His instructions to Cornwallis during this time were vague, rarely forming explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base, and transfer troops to the north to defend New York. Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown, and awaited the Royal Navy. Washington still favored an assault on New York, but was essentially overruled when the French opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco - American army moved south to cooperate with de Grasse to defeat Cornwallis. Lacking sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French, the British dispatched an inadequate fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and assume naval dominance. On September 5, the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown, cutting Cornwallis off from reinforcements and relief. Despite the continued urging of his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works, instead expecting reinforcements would arrive from New York. On September 28, the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown. Believing relief from Clinton was imminent, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then occupied by the Franco - American troops, serving to hasten his subsequent defeat. A British attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point failed when a storm hit. Under increasing bombardment and with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis and his subordinates agreed their situation was untenable, and negotiated a surrender on October 17. Some 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Franco - American army. The same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve Yorktown. Following British successes at Newport and Charleston, the North government had gained support in Parliament. However, the government 's decision to allow Irish Catholics to enlist in the army was deeply unpopular, triggering a massive protest in London in 1780, culminating in widespread rioting. The riots were the most destructive in London 's history, damaging the prestige of the government. On 25 November 1781, the situation worsened when news of the surrender at Yorktown arrived in London. Prime Minister Lord North is said to have repeatedly exclaimed; "Oh, God! It 's all over! '' King George III received the news with dignity, though later became depressed and considered abdication. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, though a motion proposed on December 12 to end the war was defeated by only one vote. Lord Germain, who had overseen strategic matters in the war effort, was dismissed from office in early 1782. Soon after, a no confidence motion in the Prime Minister was passed, forcing the resignation of North and leading to the collapse of his ministry. The Rockingham Whigs came to power soon after and began opening negotiations for peace. Prime Minister the Marquess of Rockingham died in office on 1 July 1782, and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne, forcing the resignations of prominent Whigs Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox, with whom Shelburne had an icy relationship. Shelburne was initially hesitant to granting full American independence, instead preferring the colonies accept Dominion status, though such intentions were never realized. Despite the defeats in America, the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned there, occupying New York, Charleston and Savannah. Henry Clinton was recalled to London after the defeat at Yorktown, and departed America in March 1782. He was replaced by Guy Carleton, who was under orders to suspend offensive operations in America. After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports, though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum. The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain, however, the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early peace. To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel. Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled. On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed. Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon met with more success in August; invading Minorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St. Philip 's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782, securing a primary war goal for the Spanish. At Gibraltar, a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties. On 20 October 1782, following a successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea. On 7 February 1783, after 1,322 days of siege, the Franco - Spanish army withdrew, decisively defeated. In the West Indies, on 29 -- 30 April 1781, a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de Grasse. de Grasse continued seizing British territories; Tobago fell on 2 June, Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782, St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February, despite a British naval victory on 25 January, and Montserrat on 22 February. In 1782, the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined. On 7 April 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue, and invade Jamaica from the north. The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April. The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins, and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy. After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez, an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane. Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile. Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781. After re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February. Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay. After a 45 - day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida. In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas, although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April. In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras. Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black River. Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes, Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River, which he did on 22 August. However, with peace talks opening, and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations took place. Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781. Sint Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island 's wealth. Following Dutch entry into the conflict, East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781. Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782. In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory. After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes ' fleet came off worse, and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to Suffren. Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July. Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and the British remained in control of Negapatam. Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later. Meanwhile, Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped. Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781, Pollilur on 27 August, and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic. On 18 February 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner. The war had, by this point, reached an uneasy stalemate. On 7 December 1782, Hyder Ali died, and the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan. Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783. Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783. On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore, and though narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India. On 25 June, the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On 30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege. Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784. Little fighting took place thereafter, and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March. Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives. Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire, though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778. Negotiations soon began in Paris. The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war, a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power, enhancing American leverage at the negotiations. Spain initially impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River, below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control. The United States fiercely opposed the proposal. The Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec, while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery. According to one historian, Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London. As Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it ''. Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian War. Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812. Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted. However, in the long - term, the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain. France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty. Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam. Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782, while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784. The war formally concluded on September 3, 1783. The last British troops departed New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States. The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions. Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war. The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain. British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces. A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046 in North America (1775 -- 1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778 -- 1780). In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies. Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds. Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat. Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776 -- 1780). The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors. Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war. The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war; of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone. At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was flourishing, and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world. The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90 % of the population worked in farming, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade. Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort. As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers, France, Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a continental ''. By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million. The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts. Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million, (£ 27.1 billion in today 's money), generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War. Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound. The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans, accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs. Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient taxation system, the French tax system was highly unstable, eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786. The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century. The debt continued to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres. Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779. Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico, and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia. The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million, while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army. In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised 45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry. The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in North America. Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648, the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, and the overthrow of James II, and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King. Despite this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier ''. Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day, the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman, 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits, as service was nominally for life. To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units. After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3, and increased it again the following year, to £ 3.3 s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age. Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang '', was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting. By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally, 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas. Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the conflict. At its height, the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line, 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service. In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia, and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic, such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money, in exchange for mercenary troops. In total, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states; Brunswick (5,723), Hesse - Kassel (16,992), Hesse - Hannau (2,422), Ansbach - Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck - Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt - Zerbst (1,160). King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war. Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe. Without any major allies, the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas. Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity. To bolster numbers, the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war, and provided some of the best troops in the British service; the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies, especially in the South. Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the war. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command, stating; "I can not draw the sword in such a cause ''. The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants, and were only following orders. As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks. Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for (their) consumption ''. Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments. Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best, and the British Army was no exception. No logistical corps existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire. No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the army. Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers. The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement. During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature exceeded 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat. The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel. British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign. Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time. Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801. Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan, while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire. Furthermore, flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog ''. Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land. Other factors also impeded this option; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed. After France entered the war, the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America. The food that could be bought in America was purchased at vastly inflated prices. Soldiers stationed in the West Indies perhaps suffered the worst; the garrison commander of Tobago, Barbados, and Antigua frequently complained of the near - total lack of regular supply from Britain, and the food that could be bought was so expensive that the pay of the troops was inadequate to cover the costs. Food supplies were frequently in terrible condition, infested with mould, weevils, worms, and maggots. Provisions were frequently destroyed by rats, and their containers were too fragile to sustain a long ocean voyage or the rigors of campaigning. The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil. British troops stationed in America were often on the verge of starvation. Life at sea was little better. Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer. The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames "molar breakers '' and "worm castles '', and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages. The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea. Rum was issued as part of a daily ration and was a popular drink among soldiers and sailors alike, often mixed with fresh water to make grog. Discipline in the armed forces was harsh, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences, nor was it applied sparingly. For instance, during the Saratoga campaign, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. During the Napoleonic Wars, one soldier received 700 lashes for stealing a beehive, while another, whom had received only 175 strikes of his 400 - lash sentence, spent three weeks in hospital from his injuries. The practise could often be a contentious source of resentment; during the Battle of Quatre Bras in 1815, the commander of the 92nd Foot was shot and killed by a soldier whom he had recently flogged. Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy, and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors. Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Soldiers drank heavily, and was not exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses they had been quartered in. Despite such issues, British troops are reported to have been generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. This is contrasted by Hessian diaries, who wrote of their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners. The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety amongst the colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal mercenaries. British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that "the English should treat the Germans as brothers ''. The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect. During peacetime, the Army 's idleness led to it becoming riddled with corruption and inefficiency, resulting in a myriad of administrative difficulties once campaigning began. The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning. The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses. Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss, the British decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults. The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts. Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle. Ellis, however, considers that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again ''. Conversely, the United States Army 's official textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of possibility. Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William Howe 's command, the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans. Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington, and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army. At White Plains, he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army, and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage. After securing control of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army. Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats, Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters, much to their surprise. During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter, determining that Washington was of a greater threat. The decision left Burgoyne precariously isolated, and left the Americans confounded at the decision. Alden argues Howe may have been motivated by political opportunism; if Burgoyne was successful, he would receive the credit for a decisive victory, and not Howe. However, the confusion was further compounded by the lack of explicit and contradictory instructions from London. When Howe launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him. The decision so confused Parliament, that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason. During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of Brandywine, and again after the Battle of Germantown. At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear, and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both sides. While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have ended the war. Following the conclusion of the campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill. During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns. Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army, have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies. During the winter of 1776 -- 1777, Howe split his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the concurrent Battle of Princeton. While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts. Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions. In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain, and the British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens. Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support. Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized. As a result, subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace, as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition. Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest. The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781, effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year. In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis ' superior, strongly opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North. London had approved Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a muddled strategic direction. Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions. Clinton, however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year, owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval counterpart. As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected, despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers. Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat. These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army, and the end of major operations in North America. Like Howe before him, Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland. That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly, that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed. Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food. By 1780, the situation had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain. Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived. The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict, yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston. Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland. For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists. Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war. Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering. The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as "like trying to conquer a map ''. Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown. Consequently, British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists, which never transpired on the scale required. Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population (vs. 40 - 45 % Patriots) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780. The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars, which presented them with a major dilemma. The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances. The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain, and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South. Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict, the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland. As a result, King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with. The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War, leaving them at a critical disadvantage. The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to defeat. In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined. Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term, and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict. The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel. However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long - established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress. Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting. At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage. The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth. When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area. Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war. Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy. And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington 's army had 20,000 men, with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war. The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships. John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters. Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities on the American side. It was also difficult for Great Britain to transport troops across the Atlantic and they depended on local supplies that the Patriots tried to cut off. By comparison, Duffy notes that Frederick the Great usually commanded from 23,000 to 50,000 in battle. Both figures pale in comparison to the armies that were fielded in the early 19th century, where troop formations approached or exceeded 100,000 men. African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30 % of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war. This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists. Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies. Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men. The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, although they did not take sides; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated the split. Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain. Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola. Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom. About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves. Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism. McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large - scale desertion, so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops. These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.

how did twist of fate on zee world end

Kumkum Bhagya - Wikipedia Kumkum Bhagya (Vermilion in my Fate) (International title: Twist of Fate) is a Hindi - language Indian soap opera which premiered on April 15, 2014 and is broadcast on weeknights on Zee TV. The show is loosely based on the novel Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen. Kumkum Bhagya follows the love story of a famous musician Abhi who married Pragya, initially thought to be the love interest of the person who was the crush of Abhi 's sister, but ends up knowing the truth and falls in love with her. The pivotal characters of this show are strong, feisty women, living together in an all - female matriarchal family. The series stars Sriti Jha, Shabbir Ahluwalia, Mrunal Thakur, Arjit Taneja / Vin Rana as lead roles. The series is produced by Ekta Kapoor under the banner Balaji Telefilms. Continuing her tradition, Ekta Kapoor has named the series starting with the letter "K '' because she feels it is lucky. The show is directed by Sameer Kulkarni and developed by Ekta Kapoor. The series started as the story of Pragya and Bulbul and their mother Sarla 's hope to see them married, but as time went by, the show is about Abhi and Pragya. Due to Kumkum Bhagya 's popularity, a spinoff series has been made titled Kundali Bhagya, which portrays the life of Pragya 's long lost two sisters Preeta and Srishti. Kumkum Bhagya is the love story of Abhishek Mehra and Pragya Arora. Sarla Arora, who runs a marriage hall, lived with the hope of seeing her two daughters happily married. Pragya, the elder daughter, is practical, hard working and teaches at a college. Bulbul, the younger daughter, has her head in the clouds, has a job but hates her boss Purab. The show follows the lives of the two sisters and their hopes, dreams and aspirations. Initially, the series followed a love triangle between Pragya, Bulbul and Suresh, where Pragya loved Suresh, who had feelings for Bulbul, leading to Pragya and Suresh 's engagement getting cancelled. Simultaneously, Abhishek (Abhi) is a rock star who was in a relationship with a supermodel called Tanushree (Tanu) and Purab happened to be Abhi 's best friend, who was engaged to his sister Aliya. Purab and Bulbul initially had hatred feelings for each other, but the story took a turn when the two fell in love. Aliya misunderstood his affair with Bulbul thinking that he loved Pragya. As a result, Aliya, Tanu together with Abhi planned to get Abhi married to Pragya out of revenge. After the marriage, Pragya got to know the whole situation and for her sister 's protection, lied to Abhi that she indeed was in a relationship with Purab and eventually asked Bulbul to forget Purab, which Bulbul agreed to. Purab agreed to get married to Aliya as he got to know the whole situation as well, but was unable to forget Bulbul. He escaped on his marriage day with Aliya to marry Bulbul where she revealed to Abhi that she was the girl Purab loved, in order to save her sister from misery. A complicated relation started in everyone 's life. Aliya and Tanu planned conspiracies against Pragya but their plans failed and brought her more close to Abhi, leading them to develop feelings for one another. Abhi got to know Aliya and Tanu 's true intentions, slapped Aliya for her wrongdoings, lead by her developing a grudge for her brother, he eventually improved his relation with Purab and Bulbul. Tanu on the other hand, accidentally got pregnant after a one - night stand with a man called Nikhil. She faked her DNA reports and declared that Abhi was the father in order to get him back, leading to Abhi and Pragya 's separation. Tanu was supported by Nikhil himself who wanted Abhi 's wealth, Aliya who wanted exact revenge against him and Abhi 's cousin brother Raj, who blamed Abhi for his misfortune. Pragya overheard Aliya and Tanu 's conversation but before telling Abhi, suffered an accident and was declared dead. After one month, Pragya returned with a bold and arrogant appearance, having a new motive of revealing her enemies and getting Abhi back. In the same arc, Bulbul and Purab got married where a sequence of love and jealousy started between Bulbul, Purab and Aliya. Furthermore, to save her sister from Aliya, Bulbul risked her life and died. An infuriated Pragya finally revealed the truth about Aliya, who was then banished from the family. Raj, whose misunderstanding about Abhi was cleared by Pragya, turned positive and complicated his relationship with his wife Mitali for actually being responsible for his problems. Pragya finally discovered Tanu and Nikhil 's relation, decided to expose Tanu, but however failed to do so, but on the other Tanu got a miscarriage in an accident and blamed Pragya. Facing Abhi 's anger, Pragya still proved herself right and finally revealed the truth about Tanu, having gained back his trust. The two proposed to each other in Abhi 's mansion in Lonavla, after which Abhi lost his memory in a car accident meant for Pragya, getting amnesia and forgetting two - and - a-half years of his life, including Pragya. For his protection, Pragya decided to leave him, however did not divorce him. The show roughly took a two month leap and continued with Pragya overhearing her mother saying that she had lost the Kumkum Bhagya Marriage Hall. Determined to help her family, she enrolled as a receptionist at Love Life Music Company, where she met Abhi who came to record his new album. From there on they slowly became friends where Abhi hired her as his personal assistant. Aliya who took advantage of Abhi 's amnesia returned back and wanted Abhi to marry Tanu in order to keep him away from Pragya. Abhi and Pragya 's boss - employee relationship bloomed into something more and Abhi saw Pragya as his best friend and even something more. After much conspiracies, Pragya challenged Aliya and Tanu that she will bring back Abhi 's memory before his marriage with Tanu, she was supported by Dadi and Purab. Abhi has some unclear flashbacks of his past in his dreams. Purab makes Abhi realize his feelings for Pragya. He later confesses his love to Pragya and she also confesses her love to him. But unknown to them, Tanu 's mum has heard everything. She calls Abhi and lies to him that she is in the last stage of pancreatic cancer and may die anytime and that her last wish is to see her daughter married. Abhi falls for it and decides to continue with his marriage with Tanu, breaking Pragya 's heart in the process. Pragya leaves to go home and decides not to come to the wedding. However, Dadi comes and convinces her saying she has a solution. She tells Pragya she wants to swap her and Tanu so she can marry Abhi. Pragya agrees after some persuasion. For their plan to work, Purab chloroforms Tanu. When on her way to the mandap, Nikhil discovers that it is Pragya and not Tanu and kidnaps her while he manages to get Tanu conscious with Aliyah 's help. So Tanu goes to sit at the mandap to marry Abhi whiles Nikhil decides to kidnap and take Pragya away. However Sarla witnesses her daughter 's kidnapping and is hit on the head to unconsciousness by Nikhil when she attempts to stop them. They take Pragya away whiles Janki takes Sarla to the hospital. Meanwhile when Abhi and Tanu are about to take rounds, Tanu slips and her dupatta removes. Dadi, Dasi and Purab realise that it is n't Pragya who is marrying Abhi and gets worried having no way to stop the wedding. Pragya cries at her kidnapped location thinking her husband is marrying another woman and she ca n't do anything but fortunately, Sarla makes it on time to the Mehra house exactly when Abhi and Tanu are going for their last round, to announce her daughter 's kidnapping. Abhi leaves with Purab immediately to rescue Pragya without completely the last round infuriating Tanu who ask Nikhil to kill Pragya but Pragya manages to escape from the goons. When Pragya finds out that Abhi who had reach the location to save her has also been kidnapped, she goes back to save Abhi too. When Aliya finds out Nikhil has her brother, she goes there to warn him not to hurt Abhi but later discovers that Pragya is back and with Abhi in the room but Nikhil does n't believe her when she tells him. Tanu 's anger increases and she ask Nikhil to now kill both Abhi and Pragya. Nikhil decides to hire a contract killer since he ca n't do it himself. However before the killer arrives, Abhi and Pragya manage to outsmart the goons and ride away on a horse but the Killer catches sight of them. When Nikhil tells him they are the people he wants him to kill, the Killer and Nikhil 's goons chase them. After a lot of cat and dog (chase and run), Abhi and Pragya meet with an accident when Abhi gets distracted whiles driving. Pragya shouts for help when she gets conscious but ca n't revive Abhi. Fortunately, an old man comes to the forest and offers help introducing himself as Raghuvir. Pragya leaves with him. When Abhi gains consciousness, they tell Raghuvir the whole story about the kidnapping and he decides to help them. Abhi, Pragya and Raghuvir manage to outsmart the contract killer and his goons when they come there and they leave without finding them. During a conversation with Raghuvir, Abhi realises Pragya 's worth and decides to marry her immediately. They run to a temple in the forest where they get married. Meanwhile Purab and the police search for Abhi and Pragya. The contract killer and the goons reach Abhi and Pragya and another run and chase begins. Purab and the police reach there also and he tells Abhi and Pragya to leave whiles he fights with the contract killer. Abhi and Pragya find the killer 's car and he manages to start the engine. However a rock which was under the car destroys the breaks and the break oil leaks. Abhi and Pragya realize this when Abhi 's attempts to stop the car is to no avail. They both remince their romantic moments before crashing into a tree. However, the contract killer decides not to give up until he sees their dead bodies. Pragya gains consciousness and manages to drag Abhi on a cart to Raghuvir 's house. Whiles unconscious, Abhi finally regains his memory much to Pragya 's delight. She cries with tear of happiness. Pragya later finds a family photoframe of herself, her mother (Sarla), her sister (Bulbul), Raghuvir and two other girls. She confronts Raghuvir who then realizes that Pragya is his daughter and tells her the whole story about how her mother and himself separated and that the two other girls are her siblings, Preeta and Shristi. Abhi and Pragya convince him to meet Sarla again and seek her forgiveness but wake up the next day to find out that Raghuvir has left leaving a note that says he does n't have the courage to face Sarla. Pragya and Abhi decide to go home but the contract killer and the goons find them. Pragya takes a bullet that was meant for Abhi which infuriates Abhi who attacks the killer and pushes him off the cliff, killing him. Abhi runs back only to find the river taking Pragya away. He tries to save her to no avail and gets unconscious in the process. When he wakes up Purab announces that Pragya is dead but Abhi refuses to accept this. Sarla comes to the house in rage to reveal Tanu and Aliya 's truth to Abhi. Abhi slaps Aliya when she tries to misbehave with Sarla and reveals that he has already regained his memory and kicks Aliya and Tanu out. The show takes a leap of 1 month and two days where it is Pragya 's birthday and Abhi decides to celebrate it believing that Pragya will return. There is a new plot where a lookalike (Munni) of Pragya is introduced. Aliya and Tanu ask her to go to the Mehra house and pretend to be Pragya then make everybody hate her. Munni however refuses and goes to Abhi 's concept that he is holding that day. However, she 's unable to tell him when two suicide bombers come to the concert. Abhi, Munni, Rishab, Karan and Purab manage to get hold of the situation but the venue catch fire in the process. Munni falls unconscious due to the smoke. Abhi takes her home thinking her to be Pragya. Deep in the night, Aliya sneaks into Abhi 's room in the Mehra house while Abhi and the rest of the family were distracted by Tanu, and threatens Munni with hurting her niece and nephew if she tells Abhi their truth. Munni finally agrees to pretend to be Pragya when Aliya carries out her threat by kidnapping her niece and nephew. She comes to live in the Mehra house as Pragya. However, some events make the family doubt if she really is Pragya. Aliya and Tanu are able to re-enter the Mehra house with Munni 's help. On the other hand Purab gets attacked by some goons when he goes to deposit Abhi 's money in the bank but a brave woman called Disha (Ruchi Savarn) saves him. Sangram Singh who is the head of the goons decide to take his revenge on Disha and tries to rape her in the market but Purab saves her. Sangram and his men chase them and they run and hide in the school where Disha teaches where they both fall asleep under a table. Disha returns home the following day to find out that her wedding has been cancelled because Sangram lied to the groom that she slept with Purab the night before. Disha 's father cries saying who will marry his daughter after this. Sangram decides to take advantage and offers to marry her just to take revenge for the slap she gave him. Disha 's father agrees and convinces Disha who was afraid for her father 's health. Purab decides to stop the wedding somehow and fights with Sangram who 's head hits a table and he gets unconscious. Purab wears his cloth to marry Disha instead but Disha 's aunty finds Sangram Singh unconscious and wakes him up. They stop the marriage when Purab and Disha are about to take the last round. Purab and Disha escape from there while Sangram Singh and his men chase them. Purab calls Abhi and tells him everything. Abhi tells the family and decides to get Purab and Disha married when they come. Purab initially disagrees due to the guilt of betraying Bulbul but is later convinced. Sarla gives him her blesses. Aliya gets infuriated when she finds out about the marriage. Dadi spoils her plan of getting Disha unconscious and marrying Purab instead. Unfortunately, Sangram Singh and his men get Abhi 's resident address and come there in desguise of dancers. Sangram holds a knife to Dadi 's neck demanding for Disha who had been hidden by Munni. Afraid of Sangram hurting the family, Munni hands over Disha to Sangram Singh who decides to burn her alive but Abhi tries to defend Disha and Sangram threatens him with a gun. The real Pragya, who was in a coma all this while, regains consciousness sensing Abhi in danger. Meanwhile at the Mehra house, Munni outsmarts Sangram Singh and his men and they do n't kill Disha. The police arrive but Sangram manages to escape from there vowing to kill Munni, who he thinks to be Pragya. Purab and Disha finally get married. Aliya and Tanu give property papers to Munni to make Abhi sign them but Munni refuses but they blackmail her. Munni still hesitates since she has started having feelings for Abhi and does n't want to betray him. Pragya decides to return to Mumbai in so much eagerness to meet Abhi who must be missing her but her dreams get shattered when she finds the family preparing for pooja for Abhi and his wife (though she did n't see his wife clearly). She gets heartbroken to realize Abhi moved on without her and decides to leave his life. She however returns to the house and follows the family to the temple where Abhi and his wife are doing the pooja. She decides to confront the whole family for moving on without her but wastes enough time for the pooja to be completed. Munni comes to stand beside Pragya to pray and ask forgiveness from God for doing pooja with someone else 's husband without seeing Pragya 's face but after her prayer, she turns and sees Pragya who also sees her. Pragya gets shocked to see that Abhi 's wife is her look alike. The show premiered at 09: 00 pm (IST) on Tuesday on April 15, 2014 and airs episodes from Monday to Friday. Talking about introducing a fresh concept on primetime, Zee TV Programming Head, Namit Sharma said, "It takes one epic show to replace another, so you can imagine. It is a passionate drama of love, a far cry from regular saas - bahu soaps and has an ensemble cast of some very talented actors. '' On this, Ekta Kapoor from Balaji Telefilms added, "While two of my shows (Pavitra Rishta and Jodha Akbar) are already on - air and doing immensely well on Zee TV, it 's a pleasure to extend my partnership with Zee to a third show. Pavitra Rishta has had a run of over Five years now and the journey has been most gratifying for me as a producer. While the audiences who are hooked on to Pavitra Rishta will continue to enjoy the show at 6: 30 PM, Kumkum Bhagya will open at 9 PM, drawing maximum eyeballs. It is so contemporary in its treatment that viewers will be able to instantly spot characters out of their own lives in the show. It 's a story of passionate love that anyone with a soul would be able to easily relate to. '' Speaking of his comeback as an actor, Shabbir Ahluwalia, the protagonist of the show says, "With me producing shows, it was getting very difficult to manage time for acting assignments. But now, I have decided to concentrate on acting. You ca n't be away from what you love doing for long. The role appealed to me a great deal. This is the first time that I will be playing a rockstar on television and in order to look my part, I had to ensure that I did not just get my costume and look right, but also get that attitude right that is required to portray a rockstar onscreen. '' The series is a love story produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor under the banner Balaji Telefilms that airs on Zee TV. Ekta Kapoor considers the letter K to be lucky and has named many of her productions starting with K. Shabbir Ahluwalia, who was also cast in Ekta 's TV Series Kayamath, was selected to portray the lead role of Abhishek Prem Mehra. Ahluwalia made his comeback after Zee 20 Cricket League. Actress Sriti Jha landed in lead role opposite Shabbir Ahluwalia in the show. Mrunal Thakur was selected to portray the second leading role of Bulbul while Arjit Taneja was cast opposite her. In May 2014, Shikha Singh entered the show as the main antagonist Aliya Mehra, while Madhurima Tuli was cast to portray the negative role of Tanu. Later, tuli has to shoot for her film Baby (2015 Hindi film) so, this role was later played by Leena Jumani in September 2014. Actor Faisal Rashid was selected to portray the role of Suresh (Pragya 's fiance) who played an important role in April -- May 2014, but in May 2015 he quit the series. Actress Supriya Shukla was cast to play the role of Sarla Arora, while Madhu Raja played the role of Daljeet Arora. Other supporting cast include Samiksha Bhatnagar, Ankit Mohan and Charu Mehra and Amit Dhawan. Bhatnagar, who portrayed the supporting role of Mitali was replaced by Swati Anand within the month of launch while Anurag Sharma, who also appeared in Ekta Kapoor 's Pavitra Rishta, Bade Achhe Lagte Hain, Yeh Hai Mohabbatein and Itna Karo Na Mujhe Pyaar replaced Amit. In 2015, Neel Motawani (who was also cast in other shows of Ekta) was selected to play the negative role of Neel; while in June 2015 Nikhil Arya entered the series playing the role of main male antagonist Nikhil Sood. In December 2015, Actress Mrunal Thakur who played the role of Bulbul opted out from the show and was to be replaced by Kajol Shrivastava, however the replacement never occurred and the character of Bulbul was phased out of the series after Mrunal 's departure. In August 2016, Ankit Mohan quit the show and therefore, his character left as well. In September 2016, Arjit Taneja quit the show and was replaced by Vin Rana. In October 2016, Nikhil Arya was replaced by Rujut Dahiya. In July 2017, actress Ruchi Savarn entered the show as Purab 's new love - mate. Series was released on April 15, 2014 on Zee TV, the series also airs on Zee TV HD and Zee TV Asia. Show was also broadcast internationally on Channel 's international distribution. It airs in U.K., U.S., Malaysia, Canada, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Ireland, South Africa, Indonesia, Chile, Philippines, Ghana (Adom TV) (where it is very popular) and Singapore on Zee TV and also airs in Pakistan being a part of channel Geo Kahani 's contract with ZEEL, the series airs a 60 - minute episode plus commercials starting from Mondays through Fridays at 22: 30 (PST) and tops rating chart, after Uri - Attack Geo network terminated the broadcast of Kumkum Bhagya along with all Indian shows. From April 2014, show 's episodes were released on YouTube, in mid 2015, the channel stopped its full length episodes and released its episodes on their app DittoTV, a live TV feature was introduced on Ditto where Zee TV 's Live streaming was available on subscription, the show also aired its live episodes in Ditto. In late 2015, the app introduced their Before TV service where they launched Kumkum Bhagya 's episodes before airing on TV, new episodes where released during 5: 30am (IST), the service was available on a subscription plan. Though YouTube service was terminated, the channel still release their episodes on the Zee TV website and Zee TV app. It was dubbed in Tamil as Iru Malargal on Polimer TV, which is well known for dubbing serials and gained high TRP Ratings. After that, ZEE Network stopped providing the dubbing rights to Polimer TV and now they are continuing it in Zee Tamizh as Iniya Iru Malrgal. It was also dubbed in Telugu as kumkuma bhagyam in Zee Telugu. In Sri Lanka it is currently airing on Hiru TV in every week day from 7.30 to 8.00.pm titled as Adarei Man Adarei which is sinhala dubbed. In Mauritius, it is currently airing on Zee TV Africa and on MBC Digital 4 (Mauritius). In Indonesia, it is currently airing on Antv since 5 September 2016 and dubbed in Bahasa Indonesia as Lonceng Cinta (Bells of Love). In Indonesian, it began airing on ANTV from 5 September 2016 under the title Lonceng Cinta. In Africa, the series is dubbed in English airs as Twist of Fate on Zee World (Zee Africa). In the Arab world, the series is dubbed in Arabic and airs under the name مكانك في القلب هو القلب كله on Zee Alwan. Initially started with low ratings, the show climbed to Top 5 most watched shows across all GEC 's and second most watched show of Zee TV after only a few weeks of its launch and was touted as the biggest fiction launch of 2014. The serial is very popular among Indian and Pakistani women. Launched in Week 16, Kumkum Bhagya opened with 4.9 TVR and averaged to 3.3 TVR. In week 17, It fell further and averaged to 2.7 TVR. In Week 18, It improved and averaged to 3.2 TVR. In the fourth week of its launch i.e., in Week 19, it fell further and averaged to 2.8 TVR. For The Week 21, it improved a bit and averaged to 3.0 TVR but was among top 5 low rated shows on the channel. In Week 22, the show improved its ratings and rated 3.3 TVR. In Week 23, the show maintained its stability and averaged 3.2 TVR. In Week 24, the show increased from 3.2 TVR to 3.5 TVR. In Week 25, the show jumped from 3.5 TVR to 4.9 TVR thereby being the second most watched show of the channel for the week behind Jodha Akbar. In the Week 26, the show improved its ratings further and averaged 5.7 TVR its highest ever since its launch and was again second most watched show of Zee TV. For the Week 27, the show improved further and averaged to 6.3 TVR and was amongst Top 6 Shows across all GEC 's. It was constistent in Week 28 with 6.3 TVR. In Week 29, it averaged to 6.6 TVR and was amongst Top 10 Shows across all GEC 's. In week 30, the show broke all its previous records with an average ratings of 7.4 TVR and was touted as the biggest fiction launch of the year. The show also gave tough fight to GEC leader Diya Aur Baati Hum that airs at same slot on Star Plus. On the reception of the show in such a short span of time, Zee TV business head Pradeep Hejmadi announced that he considered the ' wedding track ' a very important inflection point for people to gravitate to the series, believing it to be attracting increasing interest in all parameters. He also added "Each story has its own promise and people who tune in are people who are bought into those promises or are keen to explore the relationships or the characters that stand out speaking to them. We concentrated on bringing out the key inflection points for the show and it was important because it is the core promise of Kumkum Bhagya. In the thirty - first week, Kumkum Bhagya averaged to 7.5 TVR up from 7.4 TVR, taking fourth place across all GEC 's and second among Zee TV shows behind the channel leader Jodha Akbar. One week later, it jumped from 415 GVMs to 453 GVMs. In the February 2015 ratings, Kumkum Bhagya entered the # 1 position with Diya Aur Baati in # 2. 21 August 2014 ratings showed that the channel 's four shows ' Kumkum Bhagya ', ' Jodha Akbar ', ' Qubool Hai ' and ' Doli Armaanon Ki ' did exceptionally well that week. Three of them appeared inside the Top 10 as the most watched shows in India. In August 2014, BARC ratings stated that ZEE TV was next adding 38 GVMs. It was up from 415 GVMs to 453 GVMs that week. The channel 's four shows ' Kumkum Bhagya ', ' Jodha Akbar ', ' Qubool Hai ' and ' Doli Armaanon Ki ' did exceptionally well this week. Three of them appeared inside the Top 10 as the most watched shows in India. On 12 September 2014, BARC stated that ' Kumkum Bhagya ' topped the ratings in India for the first time scoring 9.4, while ' Saathiya ' on Star Plus and ' Jodha Akbar ' on ZEE TV both recorded 8.8 and ' Diya Aur Baati Hum ' was next with 7.6. In March 2015, it was declared that the series bought highest ratings to the channel with new year, the channel scored 442 GVMs As of 17 March 2015, Barc stated that Zee TV was scored with 403GVMs As of April 2015, Kumkum Bhagya became India 's most watched Hindi entertainment show with 9.5 TVT In July, the top three Shows based on Ratings were Saath Nibhana Saathiya, Kumkum Bhagya and Yeh Hai Mohabbatein series scored 5537 TVTs According to BARC ratings of September 2015, It was announced that Zee TV 's two series were placed in Top 10 most watched shows list. ' Jodha Akbar ' and ' Kumkum Bhagya ' topped the ratings overall with 8.9 and 8.6 TVMs. According to BARC Ratings of August 2015, Star Plus ' show Saath Nibhaana Saathiya and ZEE TV 's Kumkum Bhagya tie at the first slot with 3.8 TRPs. while on 6 August 2015 Kumkum Bhagya ranked with 5351 TVTs. According to Barc, show had dominated second position in November and dominated third position in December 2015 with 13.8 and 15.9 TVM respectively. On 11 December 2015, BARC ratings showed that the TV series Naagin (produced by same production) rejuvenated the channel 's weekend slot while Star Plus) series Saath Nibhana Saathiya was at No. 2 with 17.2 TVM, while ' Kumkum Bhagya ' on ZEE TV was in third with 13.8 TVM. While on 17 December 2015, similar listing took place where most watched show on Indian television remained Naagin on Colors with 17819TVM (last week 19576TVM), followed by Saath Nibhana Saathiya on Star Plus with 15344 (last week 17293), ' Kumkum Bhagya ' on ZEE TV was at third position with 13811TVM In the second week in 2016, ratings showed that the series has now dominated 4th Rank For the whole of January, Kumkum Bhagya was the second most watched series in India after Colors 's Balaji Production TV Series Naagin. According to 14 January 2016 ratings it was seen that Kumkum Bhagya had jumped to the 2nd Rank once again, the top 2 shows were Naagin and Kumkum Bhagya, Naagin pulled 19824 viewers (last week 19847), followed by Kumkum Bhagya ' with 13692 viewers. Again on 21 January 2016, the top 2 Indian TV Shows were Naagin and Kumkum Bhagya. Naagin with 18125 viewers (previous week 19824), fand ' Kumkum Bhagya ' with 14852 viewers (previous week 13692). Next week, it was again announced that Kumkum Bhagya, the No # 2 Positioned show gained 14,244 viewers while Naagin was on Top with 17,199 viewers. With the entire month, Kumkum Bhagya was viewers second choice. In February 2016, the top two positions were again taken by ' Naagin ' (with 19133 viewers), and Kumkum Bhagya (with 15554 viewers). With February 's second week, Kumkum bhagya became the third most choice with 14.2 viewers Next week, It was shown that the series took Third position lead interns of viewers due to T20 matches, It had a viewer range of 15.7 Million viewers. In The last week of February, Series registered 14.1 Million viewers In March, three most watched series were Naagin, Kumkum Bhagya and Yeh hai mohabatein respectively. Star plus series Yeh Hai Mohabatein dominated the 3rd Position with 11.8 million viewers, Kumkum Bhagya registered 14.4 million viewers. In second week of March it registered 12.5 million viewers. In second and third weeks it registered a viewership of 12.07 million and 13.1 million impressions. The entire month Kumkum Bhagya dominated the second spot on Top ten shows of 2016. The Next month Ye Hai Mohabbatein dominated the second spot, Kumkum Bhagya took the third place scoring viewership of 10.6 million impressions followed by 11.0 million. With last of July, the viewership raised to 11.5 million impressions (urban + rural), next month the series further raised to 13.5 million impressions (urban + rural) when the production decided to introduce Tannu 's DNA report storyline. Later in the month of August, makers introduced Abhi 's memory loss storyline and dominated the first spot till October. In the month of October, Naagin 2 took the first spot, pushed Kumkum Bhagya to second spot. Recently in the month of May 2017, kumkum Bhagya backed to its first spot continuously for past three week, dethroning the mega success of 2017 Naagin 2. On October 2015, it was also shown in Ghana - Africa as Kumkum Bhagya and it has been translated in the Akan Language. It won an award for the Best Foreign TV Series at the 2016 Ghana Movie Awards.

what does esquire mean at the end of a person's name

Esquire - Wikipedia Esquire (/ ɪˈskwaɪər /, US also / ˈɛskwaɪər /; abbreviated Esq.) is usually a courtesy title. In the United Kingdom, Esquire historically was a title of respect accorded to men of higher social rank, particularly members of the landed gentry above the rank of gentleman and below the rank of knight. In 1826, William Blackstone reiterated that, "the title should be limited to those only who bear an office of trust under the Crown and who are styled esquires by the king in their commissions and appointments; and all, I conceive, who are once honoured by the king with the title of esquire have a right to that distinction for life. '' By the early 20th century, it came to be used as a general courtesy title for any man in a formal setting, usually as a suffix to his name, as in "Todd Smith, Esq. '', with no precise significance. In the United Kingdom today, it is still occasionally used as a written style of address in formal or professional correspondence. In certain formal contexts, it remains an indication of a social status that is recognised in the formal Order of Precedence. In the United States, Esquire is mostly used to denote a lawyer, in a departure from traditional use, and is irrespective of gender. In letters, a lawyer is customarily addressed by adding the suffix Esquire (abbreviated Esq.), preceded by a comma, after the lawyer 's full name. Chief Justice Coke (1552 -- 1634) defined "gentlemen '' as those who bear coat armour. From the 16th century such families were defined by the inclusion of their pedigrees within their county 's Heraldic Visitations, which necessitated their submitting a return of their pedigree to the visiting herald at the specified location, generally one of the chief towns of the county. The 1623 Heraldic Visitation for Gloucestershire, for example, includes a section at the back headed: "A note of such as were disclaymed to be no gentilmen within the county and city of Gloucester '', the list being headed by "Edward Hill, Customer, of Gloucester, neither gentilman of bloud, ancestry nor armes ''. The list thus identifies those persons whose returns were not accepted, perhaps because fabricated or insufficiently evidenced in some way. Sir John Fearn in "Glory of Generositie '' spoke of esquires by creation, birth, dignity and office, specifying several circumstances that customarily conferred the title. Coke followed Sir William Camden, Clarenceux King of Arms (1551 -- 1623), who defined esquires as: John Weever (d. 1632) identified five categories of esquires: According to one typical definition, esquires in English law included: Charles Boutell (1812 -- 1877) defined the term as Esquire -- A rank next below that of Knight. Besides those Esquires who are personal attendants of Knights of Orders of Knighthood, this title is held by all attendants on the person of the Sovereign, and all persons holding the Sovereign 's commission being of military rank not below Captain; also, by general concession, by Barristers at Law, Masters of Arts and Bachelors of Law and Physic. James Parker supplied the following definition: Esquire, (lat. armiger, fr. escuyer): a title of a gentleman of the rank immediately below a knight. It was originally a military office, an esquire being (as the name escuyer, from escu, a shield, implies) a knight 's attendant and shield bearer. Esquires may be theoretically divided into five classes: Oxford Dictionaries currently provides for the following definition of Esquire: By the end of the 16th century, the pretentious use of the title, especially in its Latin form, Armiger, was being mocked by Shakespeare in his character Robert Shallow, esquire, a Justice of the Peace: ... a gentleman born, master parson; who writes himself "Armigero, '' in any bill, warrant, quittance, or obligation, "Armigero. '' To which Shallow directly replies: Ay, that I do; and have done any time these three hundred years. Nineteenth century tables of precedence further distinguished between "esquires by birth '' and "esquires by office '' (and likewise for "gentleman ''). Today the term "gentleman '' is still found in official tables of precedence, and it invariably means a person who is an armiger with no higher rank or a descendant of someone who has borne arms. An English use of the term is to distinguish between men of the upper and lower gentry, who are "esquires '' and "gentlemen '' respectively, which still applies in terms of the official Order of Precedence. Examples of this may be found in the Parish Tithe Map Schedules made under the Tithe Commutation Act 1836. Later examples appear in the list of subscribers to The History of Elton, by the Rev. Rose Fuller Whistler, published in 1892, which distinguishes between subscribers designated Mr (another way of indicating gentlemen) and those allowed Esquire. But formal definitions like these were proposed because there was, in reality, no fixed criterion distinguishing those designated esquire: it was essentially a matter of impression as to whether a person qualified for this status. William Segar, Garter King of Arms (the senior officer of arms at the College of Arms), wrote in 1602: "And who so can make proofe, that his Ancestors or himselfe, have had Armes, or can procure them by purchase, may be called Armiger or Esquier. '' Honor military, and civill (1602; lib. 4, cap. 15, p. 228). (By Armes he referred to a coat of arms; it is not clear from this quotation whether Segar made a distinction between esquires and gentlemen.) For example, Lords of the Manor hold the rank of esquire by prescription. Although esquire is the English translation of the French écuyer, the latter indicated legal membership in the nobilities of ancien régime France and contemporaneous Belgium, whereas an esquire belongs to the British gentry rather than to its nobility, albeit that "gentry '' in England means untitled nobility. Écuyer in French (11th to 14th century) means "shield - bearer '', a knight in training, age 14 to 21. In the later stages of the Middle Ages, the cost of the adoubement or accolade became too high for many noblemen to bear. They stayed écuyers all their lives, making that title synonymous with "nobleman '' or "gentleman ''. The most common occurrence of term "esquire '' today is in the addition of the suffix "Esq. '' in order to pay an informal compliment to a male recipient by way of implying gentle birth. There remain respected protocols for identifying those to whom it is thought most proper that the suffix should be given, especially in very formal or in official circumstances. The breadth of Esquire (as Esq.) had become universal in the United Kingdom by the mid 20th century, with no distinction in status being perceived between Mr and Esquire. Esquire was used generally as the default title for all men who did not have a grander title when addressing correspondence, with letters addressed using the name in initial format (e.g., K.S. Smith, Esq.) but Mr being used as the form of address (e.g. Dear Mr Smith). In the 1970s, the use of Esq. started to decline, and by the end of the 20th century most people had stopped using it and changed to using Mr instead. Esq. is generally considered to be old - fashioned but is still used by some traditional individuals and organisations such as Christie 's and Berry Bros. & Rudd. British men invited to Buckingham Palace receive their invitations in an envelope with the suffix Esq. after their names, while men of foreign nationalities instead have the prefix Mr (women are addressed as Miss, Ms, or Mrs). The same practice applies for other post from the palace (e.g., to employees). Esquire is historically a feudal designation in Scotland. Today, the title of esquire is defined as a social dignity that refers to people of the Scottish gentry, who hold the next position in the Order of Precedence above Gentlemen. It is also used as a common courtesy in correspondence. Traditionally, this was one who was classified as a ' cadet for knighthood '. Today, the title of esquire is not bestowed on gentlemen, although certain positions carry with them the degree of esquire, such as that of advocate or Justice of the Peace. Whether an armiger is a gentleman, an esquire, or of a higher rank can be told by the type of helm depicted on the Letters Patent granting or matriculating the arms. In Scots Heraldry, Sir Thomas Innes of Learney makes clear that a gentleman 's helm is a closed pot helm, in plain steel, with no gold, whereas an esquire 's helm can be a steel pot helm garnished in gold or a helmet with a closed visor garnished in gold. The Court of the Lord Lyon will display the helm appropriate to their "degree '', or social rank, in the illustration on the Letters Patent. The definition of Esquire today includes: There is some confusion over the fact that the Lord Lyon King of Arms addresses correspondents by their name followed by "Esq. '' in correspondence, namely on letters. Some people erroneously believe that this makes them an Esquire, however this is a common courtesy in Scotland, as in the rest of Britain, and does not constitute official recognition in the degree of an Esquire. The Scottish courts have confirmed that the base degree in which an Armiger is recognised is the dignity of Gentleman, not Esquire. In feudal times an Esquire was an Armour - Bearer, attendant upon a Knight, but bearing his own unique armorial device. Similarly, an Armiger in contemporary terms is well - defined within the jurisdiction of Scotland as someone who is an Armour - Bearer. These two senses of "Armour - Bearer '' are different: An Esquire in feudal times was an "Armour - Bearer '' in the sense of being the person who carried their knight 's armour for them; whereas in the contemporary sense the term "Armour - Bearer '' is being used to mean the bearer of a Coat of Arms, an Armiger. The two are not the same thing, although the feudal Esquire would also most likely have been an Armiger. For centuries the title of Esquire has not been bestowed on a Knight 's Attendee (since knights no longer need to train for battle). Attendants on Knights, however, were not the only bearers of arms, and similarly not all Armigers were Esquires. Today, being an Armiger is synonymous with the title of Gentleman within the Order of Precedence in Scotland, and is a social dignity. The Letters Patent of Scottish Armigers will never include the title of Gentleman, because the Letters Patent themselves evidence the individual is an Armour - Bearer, or Gentleman by the strictest sense of the definition. A Scottish Armiger is a Gentleman or Gentlewoman unless they hold a higher rank. Scottish Armigers are those individuals with a hereditary right, grant or matriculation of Arms so entitling them to use personal Arms by the Court of the Lord Lyon (Ref. Scottish Heraldry). The bearing of duly registered Arms is an indication of nobility (either peerage or non-peerage in rank). All Scottish Armigers are recognised as members of the nobility in the broader sense through their grant or matriculation of Arms awarded by the Crown or Sovereign through the Court of the Lord Lyon, and by issuance of a Warrant from the Lord Lyon King of Arms is so entered in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland and through later official "Ensigns of Nobility ''. Without such legal Arms it is practically impossible to prove one 's nobiliary status. "Technically, a grant of arms from the Lord Lyon is a patent of nobility (also referred to a ' Diploma of Nobility '); the Grantee is thereby ' enrolled with all nobles in the noblesse of Scotland. ', however the term "nobility '' today is little used in this context, as in common parlance in Britain the term is widely associated with the Peerage. Instead the French term of Noblesse has been used by the Court of the Lord Lyon as this term not only includes Peers but also the non-Peerage minor - nobility, which includes Baronets, Knights, feudal Barons, Armigers with Territorial Designations, Esquires, and Gentlemen. In the U.S., the title Esquire is commonly encountered among members of the legal profession. The term is used for both male and female lawyers. The title is not allocated by the law of any state to any profession, class, or station in society. However, some states may protect the use of the term Esquire, and have held that use of the term connotes licensure in the jurisdiction. Similarly, when addressing social correspondence to a commissioned officer of the United States Foreign Service, Esquire may be used as a complimentary title. While the abbreviated Esq. is correct, Esquire is typically written in full when addressing a diplomat. If any other titles are used on the same line, Esquire is omitted. Some fraternal groups use the Esquire title. One appendant body in Freemasonry also uses Esquire as a degree title. Honorifics are not used with courtesy titles, so John Smith, Esq. or Mr John Smith would be correct, but Mr John Smith, Esq. would be incorrect. When addressing a person who has an academic degree or other post-nominal professional designation, such as a Certified Public Accountant, a writer should use either the post-nominal designation (usually abbreviated) or the Esq., but not both; as Esquire is a courtesy title, it should not be used with post-nominals. Before 1947, the term esquire was used by senior officers of the Indian Civil Service and other members of the government. In keeping with the criteria established centuries earlier, the title was mostly used by government officials who studied or trained in England, especially in the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, or London or other professional organisations managed by the government. Barristers were especially included in the order of the esquires. Members of the armed forces as well as those who were inducted in to it from other services, temporarily or permanently, were also called esquires.

where are the houses from full house located

Alamo Square, San Francisco - wikipedia Alamo Square is a residential neighborhood and park in San Francisco, California, in the Western Addition. Its boundaries are not well - defined, but are generally considered to be Webster Street on the east, Golden Gate Avenue on the north, Divisadero Street on the west, and Fell Street on the south. Alamo Square Park, the neighborhood 's focal point and namesake, consists of four city blocks at the top of a hill overlooking much of downtown San Francisco, with a number of large and architecturally distinctive mansions along the perimeter, including the "Painted Ladies '', a well - known postcard motif. The park is bordered by Hayes Street to the south, Steiner Street to the east, Fulton Street to the north, and Scott Street to the west. Named after the lone cottonwood tree ("alamo '' in Spanish), Alamo Hill, was a watering hole on the horseback trail from Mission Dolores to the Presidio in the 1800s. In 1856, Mayor James Van Ness created a 12.7 acre park surrounding the watering hole, creating "Alamo Square ''. Alamo Square Park includes a playground and a tennis court, and is frequented by neighbors, tourists, and dog owners. On a clear day, the Transamerica Pyramid building and the tops of the Golden Gate Bridge and Bay Bridge can be seen from the park 's center. The San Francisco City Hall can be seen directly down Fulton Street. The area is part of the city 's fifth Supervisorial district and is served by several Muni bus lines, including the 5, 21, 22, and 24. In 2016 it was closed for a $4.3 million renovation lasting seven months. The Alamo Square neighborhood is characterized by Victorian architecture that was left largely untouched by the urban renewal projects in other parts of the Western Addition. The Alamo Square area contains the second largest concentration of homes over 10,000 square feet (930 m) in San Francisco, after the Pacific Heights neighborhood. A row of Victorian houses facing the park on Steiner Street, known as the "Painted Ladies '', are often shown in the foreground of panoramic pictures of the city 's downtown area. A number of movies, television shows and commercials have been filmed in or around Alamo Square. The park features heavily in the 1978 horror film The Invasion of the Body Snatchers, and the romantic comedy The Five - Year Engagement. The opening sequence of the American sitcom Full House (1987 - 1995) features a romp in Alamo Square Park with the famous row of Victorians in the background. There are many architecturally significant mansions on the perimeter of the park, including the William Westerfeld House, the Archbishop 's Mansion, the residences of the Russian and German Imperial consuls in the early 1900s, and the mansions on the block diagonally across from the Painted Ladies. In 1984, the Alamo Square Historic District was created by the Board of Supervisors, stating: The Alamo Square Historic District is significant as a continuum of distinguished residential architecture by distinguished architects spanning the period from the 1870 's to the 1920 's. The towered Westerfield House, the renowned "Postcard Row '' with its background of the downtown skyline, and the neighboring streetscapes are as identified worldwide with San Francisco as the cable cars and Coit Tower. With a variety of architectural styles, the District is unified in its residential character, relatively small scale, construction type, materials (principally wood), intense ornamentation (especially at entry and cornice), and use of basements and retaining walls to adjust for hillside sites... With a high degree of integrity to its original designs, the District clearly serves as a visual reminder of how businessmen lived two to four generations ago. The demographics of the neighborhood are characteristic of other urban neighborhoods that have undergone gentrification: many young people and upper - middle - class homeowners, in addition to a diverse older population. Divisadero Street, which divides Alamo Square from North Panhandle, is home to a number of small businesses including a growing collection of hip and popular restaurants and bars, catering to the young tech professionals who are contributing to the booming San Francisco startup economy, and who value Alamo Square 's weather, conveniently central location and easy access to transportation options. Efforts on the part of Alamo Square and North Panhandle residents and merchants have led to restrictions on chain stores on the corridor. The Harding Theater on Divisadero, closed for many years, is a local symbol of the power of a number of non-profit groups to stymie development, in spite of efforts to put forward a variety of proposals to use this potentially valuable piece of property. Neighborhood groups include the Alamo Square Neighborhood Association and the Haight - Divisadero Neighborhood Merchants Association. Author Alice Walker lived in one of the "Painted Lady '' Victorians across from Alamo Square park up to the mid-1990s.

where was indian national army established in 1943

Indian National Army - Wikipedia World War II The Indian National Army (INA; Azad Hind Fauj / ˈɑːzɑːð ˈhinð ˈfɔːdʒ /; lit.: Free Indian Army) was an armed force formed by Indian nationalists in 1942 in Southeast Asia during World War II. Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British rule. It formed an alliance with Imperial Japan in the latter 's campaign in the Southeast Asian theatre of WWII. The army was first formed in 1942 under Mohan Singh, by Indian PoWs of the British - Indian Army captured by Japan in the Malayan campaign and at Singapore. This first INA collapsed and was disbanded in December that year after differences between the INA leadership and the Japanese military over its role in Japan 's war in Asia. It was revived under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose after his arrival in Southeast Asia in 1943. The army was declared to be the army of Bose 's Arzi Hukumat - e-Azad Hind (the Provisional Government of Free India). Under Bose 's leadership, the INA drew ex-prisoners and thousands of civilian volunteers from the Indian expatriate population in Malaya (present - day Malaysia) and Burma. This second INA fought along with the Imperial Japanese Army against the British and Commonwealth forces in the campaigns in Burma, in Imphal and at Kohima, and later against the successful Burma Campaign of the Allies. After the INA 's initial formation in 1942, there was concern in the British - Indian Army that further Indian troops would defect. This led to a reporting ban and a propaganda campaign called "Jiffs '' to preserve the loyalty of the Sepoy. Historians like Peter W. Fay who have written about the army, however, consider the INA not to have had significant influence on the war. The end of the war saw a large number of the troops repatriated to India where some faced trials for treason. These trials became a galvanising point in the Indian Independence movement. The Bombay mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy and other mutinies in 1946 are thought to have been caused by the nationalist feelings that were caused by the INA trials. Historians like Sumit Sarkar, Peter Cohen, Fay and others suggest that these events played a crucial role in hastening the end of British rule. A number of people associated with the INA during the war later went on to hold important roles in public life in India as well as in other countries in Southeast Asia, most notably Lakshmi Sehgal in India, and John Thivy and Janaki Athinahappan in Malaya. The legacy of the INA is controversial. It was associated with Imperial Japan and the other Axis powers, and accusations were levelled against INA troops of being involved and complicit in Japanese war crimes. The INA 's members were viewed as Axis collaborators by British soldiers and Indian PoWs who did not join the army, but after the war they were seen as patriots by many Indians. Although they were widely commemorated by the Indian National Congress in the immediate aftermath of Indian independence, members of the INA were denied freedom fighter status by the Government of India, unlike those in the Gandhian movement. Nevertheless, the army remains a popular and passionate topic in Indian culture and politics. Before the start of World War II, Japan and South - East Asia were major refuges for exiled Indian nationalists. Meanwhile, Japan had sent intelligence missions, notably under Maj. Iwaichi Fujiwara, into South Asia to gather support from the Malayan sultans, overseas Chinese, the Burmese resistance and the Indian independence movement. The Minami Kikan successfully recruited Burmese nationalists, while the F Kikan was successful in establishing contacts with Indian nationalists in exile in Thailand and Malaya. Fujiwara, later self - described as "Lawrence of the Indian National Army '' (after Lawrence of Arabia) is said to have been a man committed to the values which his office was supposed to convey to the expatriate nationalist leaders, and found acceptance among them. His initial contact was with Giani Pritam Singh and the Thai - Bharat Cultural Lodge. At the outbreak of World War II in South - East Asia, 70,000 Indian troops (mostly Sikhs) were stationed in Malaya. In Japan 's spectacular Malayan Campaign a large number of Indian prisoners - of - war were captured, including nearly 45,000 after the fall of Singapore alone. The conditions of service within the British - Indian Army and the social conditions in Malaya had led to dissension among these troops. From these prisoners, the First Indian National Army was formed under Mohan Singh. Singh was an officer in the British - Indian Army who was captured early in the Malayan campaign. His nationalist sympathies found an ally in Fujiwara and he received considerable Japanese aid and support. Ethnic Indians in Southeast Asia also supported the cause of Indian independence and had formed local leagues in Malaya before the war. These came together with encouragement from Japan after the occupation, forming the Indian Independence League (IIL). Although there were a number of prominent local Indians working in the IIL, the overall leadership came to rest with Rash Behari Bose, an Indian revolutionary who had lived in self - exile in Japan since World War I. The League and INA leadership decided that the INA was to be subordinate to the IIL. A working council -- composed of prominent members of the League and the INA leaders -- was to decide on decisions to send the INA to war. The Indian leaders feared that they would appear to be Japanese puppets, so a decision was taken that the INA would go to battle only when the Indian National Congress called it to do so. Assurances of non-interference -- later termed the Bidadary resolutions -- were demanded of Japan; these would have amounted to a treaty with an independent government. In this time, F kikan had been replaced by the Iwakuro Kikan (or I Kikan) headed by Hideo Iwakuro. Iwakuro 's working relationship with the league was more tenuous. Japan did not immediately agree to the demands arising from the Bidadary resolutions. Differences also existed between Rash Behari and the League, not least because Rash Behari had lived in Japan for considerable time and had a Japanese wife and a son in the Imperial Japanese Army. On the other hand, Mohan Singh expected military strategy and decisions to be autonomous decisions for the INA, independent of the league. In November and December 1942, concern about Japan 's intentions towards the INA led to disagreement between the INA and the League on the one hand and the Japanese on the other. The INA leadership resigned along with that of the League (except Rash Behari). The unit was dissolved by Mohan Singh in December 1942, and he ordered the troops of the INA to return to PoW camps. Mohan Singh was expected to be shot. Between December 1942 and February 1943, Rash Behari struggled to hold the INA together. On 15 February 1943, the army itself was put under the command of Lt. Col. M.Z. Kiani. A policy forming body was formed with Lt. Col Lt. Col J.R. Bhonsle (Director of the Military Bureau) in charge and clearly placed under the authority of the IIL. Under Bhonsle served Lt. Col. Shah Nawaz Khan as Chief of General Staff, Major P.K. Sahgal as Military Secretary, Major Habib ur Rahman as commandant of the Officers ' Training School and Lt. Col. A.C. Chatterji (later Major A.D. Jahangir) as head of enlightenment and culture. Suggestions that Subhash Chandra Bose was the ideal person to lead a rebel army into India came from the very beginning of F Kikan 's work with captured Indian soldiers. Mohan Singh himself, soon after his first meeting with Fujiwara, had suggested that Bose was the right leader of a nationalist Indian army. A number of the officers and troops -- including some who now returned to prisoner - of - war camps and some who had not volunteered in the first place -- made it known that they would be willing to join the INA only if it was led by Subhas Bose. Bose was a hard - line radical nationalist. He had joined the Gandhian movement after resigning from a prestigious post in the Indian Civil Service in 1922, quickly rising in the Congress and being incarcerated repeatedly by the Raj. By late 1920s he and Nehru were considered the future leaders of the Congress. In the late 1920s, he was amongst the first Congress leaders to call for complete independence from Britain (Purna Swaraj), rather than the previous Congress objective of India becoming a British dominion. In Bengal, he was repeatedly accused by Raj officials of working with the revolutionary movement. Under his leadership, the Congress youth group in Bengal was organised into a quasi-military organisation called the Bengal Volunteers. Bose deplored Gandhi 's pacifism; Gandhi disagreed with Bose 's confrontations with the Raj. The Congress 's working committee, including Nehru, was predominantly loyal to Gandhi. While openly disagreeing with Gandhi, Bose won the presidency of Indian National Congress twice in the 1930s. His second victory came despite opposition from Gandhi. He defeated Gandhi 's favoured candidate, Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya, in the popular vote, but the entire working committee resigned and refused to work with Bose. Bose resigned from the Congress presidency and founded his own faction, the All India Forward Bloc. At the start of World War II, Bose was placed under house - arrest by the Raj. He escaped in disguise and made his way through Afghanistan and Central - Asia. He came first to the Soviet Union and then to Germany, reaching Berlin on 2 April 1941. There he - sought to raise an army of Indian soldiers from prisoners of war captured by Germany, forming the Free India Legion and the Azad Hind Radio. The Japanese ambassador, Oshima Hiroshi, kept Tokyo informed of these developments. From the very start of the war, the Japanese intelligence services noted from speaking to captured Indian soldiers that Bose was held in extremely high regard as a nationalist and was considered by Indian soldiers to be the right person to be leading a rebel army. In a series of meetings between the INA leaders and the Japanese in 1943, it was decided to cede the leadership of the IIL and the INA to Bose. In January 1943, the Japanese invited Bose to lead the Indian nationalist movement in East Asia. He accepted and left Germany on 8 February. After a three - month journey by submarine and a short stop in Singapore, he reached Tokyo on 11 May 1943. In Tokyo, he met Hideki Tojo, the Japanese prime minister, and the Japanese High Command. He then arrived in Singapore in July 1943, where he made a number of radio broadcasts to Indians in Southeast Asia exhorting them to join in the fight for India 's independence. On 4 July 1943, two days after reaching Singapore, Bose assumed the leadership of the IIL and the INA in a ceremony at Cathay Building. Bose 's influence was notable. His appeal re-invigorated the INA, which had previously consisted mainly of prisoners of war: it also attracted Indian expatriates in South Asia. He famously proclaimed: Give me blood! I will give you freedom... "Local civilians joined the INA, doubling its strength. They included barristers, traders and plantation workers, as well as Khudabadi Sindhi Swarankars who were working as shop keepers; many had no military experience. '' Carl Vadivella Belle estimates under Bose 's dynamic appeal, membership of the IIL peaked at 350,000, while almost 100,000 local Indians in South - east Asia volunteered to join the INA, with the army ultimately reaching a force of 50,000. Hugh Toye -- a British Intelligence officer and author of a 1959 history of the army called The Springing Tiger -- and American historian Peter Fay (author of a 1993 history called The Forgotten Army) have reached similar estimates of troop strength. The first INA is considered to have comprised about 40,000 troops, of whom about 4,000 withdrew when it was disbanded in December 1942. The Second INA started with 12,000 troops. Further recruitment of former Indian Army personnel added about 8,000 -- 10,000. About 18,000 Indian civilians also enlisted during this time. Belle estimates almost 20,000 were local Malayan Indians, while another 20,000 were ex-British - Indian Army members who volunteered for the INA. The exact organisation of the INA and its precise troop strength is not known, since its records were destroyed by the withdrawing Azad Hind Government before Rangoon was recaptured by Commonwealth forces in 1945. The order of battle described by Fay (constructed from discussions with INA - veterans), nonetheless, is similar to that described of the first INA by Toye in The Springing Tiger. The 1st Division, under M.Z. Kiani, drew a large number of ex-Indian army prisoners of war who had joined Mohan Singh 's first INA. It also drew prisoners of war who had not joined in 1942. It consisted of the 2nd Guerrilla Regiment (the Gandhi Brigade) consisting of two battalions under Col. Inayat Kiani; the 3rd Guerrilla Regiment (the Azad Brigade) with three battalions under Col. Gulzara Singh; and the 4th Guerrilla Regiment (or Nehru Brigade) commanded by the end of the war by Lt. Col Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon. The 1st Guerrilla Regiment -- the Subhas Brigade -- under Col. Shah Nawaz Khan was an independent unit, consisting of three infantry battalions. A special operations group was also to be set up called the Bahadur group (Valiant), to operate behind enemy lines. A training school for INA officers, led by Habib ur Rahman, and the Azad School for the civilian volunteers were set up to provide training to the recruits. A youth wing of the INA, composed of 45 young Indians personally chosen by Bose and known as the Tokyo Boys, was also sent to Japan 's Imperial Military Academy, where its members trained as fighter pilots. A separate all - female unit was also created under Lakshmi Sahgal. This unit was intended to have combat - commitments. Named Jhansi ki Rani ("Jhansi Queens '') Regiment (after the legendary rebel Queen Lakshmibai of the 1857 rebellion), it drew female civilian volunteers from Malaya and Burma. The 1st Division was lightly armed. Each battalion was composed of five companies of infantry. The individual companies were armed with six antitank rifles, six Bren guns and six Vickers machine guns. Some NCOs carried hand grenades, while senior officers of the Bahadur groups attached to each unit issued hand grenades (of captured British stock) to men going forward on duty. The 2nd Division was organised under Colonel Abdul Aziz Tajik It was formed largely after the Imphal offensive had started and drew large remnants of what remained of the Hindustan Field Force of the First INA. The 2nd Division consisted of the 1st Infantry Regiment, which later merged with the 5th Guerrilla Regiment to form the INA 's 2nd Infantry Regiment under Col Prem Sahgal. The 1st Infantry Regiment drew a large number of civilian volunteers from Burma and Malaya and was equipped with largest share of the heavy armament that the INA possessed. An additional 3rd Division of the INA was composed chiefly of local volunteers in Malaya and Singapore. This unit disbanded before Japan surrendered. A motor transport division was also created, but it was severely limited by lack of resources. In 1945, at the end of the INA, it consisted of about 40,000 soldiers. Unlike Mohan Singh, whose assumption of the rank of general had generated opposition, Bose refused to take a rank. Both the soldiers of the INA and civilians addressed Bose as Netaji ("Dear leader ''), a term first used in Berlin by members of the Free India Legion. In October 1943, Bose proclaimed the formation of the Arzi Hukumat - e-Azad Hind, or the Provisional Government of Free India (also known as Azad Hind or Free India). The INA was declared to be the army of Azad Hind. On 23 October 1943, Azad Hind declared war against Britain and the United States. Its first formal commitment came with the opening of the Japanese offensive towards Manipur, code named U-Go. In the initial plans for invasion of India, Field Marshall Terauschi had been reluctant to confer any responsibilities to the INA beyond espionage and propaganda. Bose rejected this as the role of Fifth - columnists, and insisted that INA should contribute substantially in troops to form a distinct identity of an Indian - liberation army. He secured from Japanese army Chief of Staff, General Sugiyama, the agreement that INA would rank as an allied army in the offensive. The advanced headquarters of Azad Hind was moved to Rangoon in anticipation of success. The INA 's own strategy was to avoid set - piece battles, for which it lacked armament as well as manpower. Initially it sought to obtain arms and increase its ranks by inducing British - Indian soldiers to defect. The latter were expected to defect in large numbers. Col Prem Sahgal, once military secretary to Subhas Bose and later tried in the first Red Fort trials, explained the INA strategy to Peter Fay -- although the war itself hung in balance and nobody was sure if the Japanese would win, initiating a popular revolution with grass - roots support within India would ensure that even if Japan ultimately lost the war, Britain would not be in a position to re-assert its colonial authority. It was planned that, once Japanese forces had broken through British defences at Imphal, the INA would cross the hills of North - East India into the Gangetic plain, where it would work as a guerrilla army. This army was expected to live off the land, with captured British supplies, support, and personnel from the local population. The plans chosen by Bose and Masakazu Kawabe, chief of Burma area army, envisaged the INA being assigned an independent sector in the U-Go offensive. No INA units were to operate at less than battalion strength. For operational purposes, the Subhas Brigade was placed under the command of the Japanese General Headquarters in Burma. Advance parties of the Bahadur Group also went forward with advanced Japanese units. As the offensive opened, the INA 's 1st Division, consisting of four guerrilla regiments, was divided between U Go and the diversionary Ha - Go offensive in Arakan. One battalion reached as far as Mowdok in Chittagong after breaking through the British West African Division. A Bahadur Group unit, led by Col. Shaukat Malik, took the border enclave of Moirang in early April. The main body of the 1st Division was however committed to the U-Go, directed towards Manipur. Led by Shah Nawaz Khan, it successfully protected the Japanese flanks against Chin and Kashin guerrillas as Renya Mutaguchi 's three divisions crossed the Chindwin river and the Naga Hills, and participated in the main offensive through Tamu in the direction of Imphal and Kohima. The 2nd Division, under M.Z. Kiani, was placed to the right flank of the 33rd Division attacking Kohima. However, by the time Khan 's forces left Tamu, the offensive had been held, and Khan 's troops were redirected to Kohima. After reaching Ukhrul, near Kohima, they found Japanese forces had begun their withdrawal from the area. The INA 's forces suffered the same fate as Mutaguchi 's army when the siege of Imphal was broken. With little or nothing in the way of supplies, and with additional difficulties caused by the monsoon, Allied air dominance, and Burmese irregular forces, the 1st and 2nd divisions began withdrawing alongside the 15th Army and Burma Area Army. During the withdrawal through Manipur, a weakened Gandhi regiment held its position against the advancing Maratha Light Infantry on the Burma -- India road while the general withdrawal was prepared. The 2nd and 3rd INA regiments protected the flanks of the Yamamoto force successfully at the most critical time during this withdrawal, but wounded and diseased men succumbed to starvation along the route. Commonwealth troops following the Japanese forces found INA dead along with Japanese troops who had died of starvation. The INA lost a substantial number of men and amount of materiel in this retreat. A number of units were disbanded or used to feed into new divisions. As the Allied Burma campaign began the following year, the INA remained committed to the defence of Burma and was a part of the Japanese defensive deployments. The Second Division was tasked with the defence of Irrawaddy and the adjoining areas around Nangyu, and offered opposition to Messervy 's 7th Indian Division when it attempted to cross the river at Pagan and Nyangyu during Irrawaddy operations. Later, during the Battles of Meiktila and Mandalay, the forces under Prem Sahgal were tasked with defending the area around Mount Popa from the British 17th Division, which would have exposed the flank of Heitarō Kimura 's forces attempting to retake Meiktila and Nyangyu. The division was obliterated, at times fighting tanks with hand grenades and bottles of petrol. Many INA soldiers realised that they were in a hopeless position. Many surrendered to pursuing Commonwealth forces. Isolated, losing men to exhaustion and to desertion, low on ammunition and food, and pursued by Commonwealth forces, the surviving units of the second division began an attempt to withdraw towards Rangoon. They broke through encircling Commonwealth lines a number of times before finally surrendering at various places in early April 1945. As the Japanese situation became precarious, the Azad Hind government withdrew from Rangoon to Singapore, along with the remnants of the 1st Division and the Rani of Jhansi Regiment. Nearly 6,000 troops of the surviving units of the INA remained in Rangoon under A.D. Loganathan. They surrendered as Rangoon fell and helped keep order until the Allied forces entered the city. As the Japanese withdrawal from Burma progressed, other remnants of the INA began a long march over land and on foot towards Bangkok. In what has been called an "epic retreat to safety '', Bose walked with his troops, refusing to leave them despite Japanese soldiers finding him transport. The withdrawing forces regularly suffered casualties from Allied planes strafing them and in clashes with Aung San 's Burmese resistance, as well as from Chinese guerrillas who harassed the Japanese troops. Bose returned to Singapore in August to what remained of the INA and Azad Hind. He wished to stay with his government at Singapore to surrender to the British, reasoning that a trial in India and possible execution would ignite the country, serving the independence movement. He was convinced not to do so by the Azad Hind cabinet. At the time of Japan 's surrender in September 1945, Bose left for Dalian near the Soviet border in Japanese - occupied China to attempt to contact the advancing Soviet troops, and was reported to have died in an air crash near Taiwan. The remaining INA troops surrendered under the command of M.Z. Kiani to British - Indian forces at Singapore. Even before the end of the war in South Asia, the INA prisoners who were falling into Allied hands were being evaluated by forward intelligence units for potential trials. Almost fifteen hundred had been captured in the battles of Imphal and Kohima and the subsequent withdrawal, while larger numbers surrendered or were captured during the 14th Army 's Burma Campaign. A total of 16,000 of the INA 's 43,000 recruits were captured, of whom around 11,000 were interrogated by the Combined Services Directorate of Investigation Corps (CSDIC). The number of prisoners necessitated this selective policy which anticipated trials of those with the strongest commitment to Bose 's ideologies. Those with lesser commitment or other extenuating circumstances would be dealt with more leniently, with the punishment proportional to their commitment or war crimes. For this purpose, the field intelligence units designated the captured troops as Blacks with strongest commitment to Azad Hind; Greys with varying commitment but also with enticing circumstances that led them to join the INA; and Whites, those who were pressured into joining the INA under the circumstances but with no commitment to Azad Hind, INA, or Bose. By July 1945, a large number had been shipped back to India. At the time of the fall of Japan, the remaining captured troops were transported to India via Rangoon. Large numbers of local Malay and Burmese volunteers, including the recruits to the Rani of Jhansi regiment, returned to civilian life and were not identified. Those repatriated passed through transit camps in Chittagong and Calcutta to be held at detention camps all over India including Jhingergacha and Nilganj near Calcutta, Kirkee outside Pune, Attock, Multan and at Bahadurgarh near Delhi. Bahadurgarh also held prisoners of the Free India Legion. By November, around 12,000 INA prisoners were held in these camps; they were released according to the "colours ''. By December, around 600 whites were released per week. The process to select those to face trial started. The British - Indian Army intended to implement appropriate internal disciplinary action against its soldiers who had joined the INA, whilst putting to trial a selected group in order to preserve discipline in the Indian Army and to award punishment for criminal acts where these had occurred. As news of the army spread within India, it began to draw widespread sympathy support and admiration from Indians. Newspaper reports around November 1945 reported executions of INA troops, which worsened the already volatile situation. Increasingly violent confrontations broke out between the police and protesters at the mass rallies being held all over India, culminating in public riotings in support of the INA men. This public outcry defied traditional communal barriers of the subcontinent, representing a departure from the divisions between Hindus and Muslims seen elsewhere in the independence movement and campaign for Pakistan. Between November 1945 and May 1946, approximately ten courts - martial were held in public at the Red Fort in Delhi. Claude Auchinleck, the Commander - in - Chief of the British - Indian army, hoped that by holding public trials in the Red Fort, public opinion would turn against the INA if the media reported stories of torture and collaborationsim, helping him settle a political as well as military question. Those to stand trials were accused variously of murder, torture and "waging war against the King - Emperor ''. However, the first and most celebrated joint courts - martial -- those of Prem Sahgal, Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan -- were not the story of torture and murder Auchinleck had hoped to tell the Indian press and people. The accusations against them included alleged murder of their comrades - in - arms in the INA whilst in Burma. Peter Fay highlights in his book The Forgotten Army that the murders alleged were in fact courts - martial of captured deserters the defendents had presided over. If it was accepted that the three were part of a genuine combatant army (as the legal defence team later argued), they had followed due process of written INA law and of the normal process of conduct of war in execution of the sentences. Indians rapidly came to view the soldiers who enlisted as patriots and not enemy - collaborators. Philip Mason, then Secretary of the War Department, later wrote that "in a matter of weeks... in a wave of nationalist emotion, the INA were acclaimed heroes who fought for the freedom of India. '' The three accused were from the three major religions of India: Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism. Indians felt the INA represented a true, secular, national army when judged against the British - Indian Army, where caste and religious differences were preserved amongst ranks. The opening of the first trial saw violence and a series of riots in a scale later described as "sensational ''. The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League both made the release of the INA prisoners an important political issue during the campaign for independence in 1945 -- 1946. Lahore in Diwali 1946 remained dark as the traditional earthen lamps lit on Diwali were not lit by families in support of prisoners. In addition to civilian campaigns of non-cooperation and non-violent protest, protest spread to include mutinies within the British - Indian Army and sympathy within the British - Indian forces. Support for the INA crossed communal barriers to the extent that it was the last major campaign in which the Congress and the Muslim League aligned together; the Congress tricolour and the green flag of the League were flown together at protests. The Congress quickly came forward to defend soldiers of the INA who were to be court - martialled. The INA Defence Committee was formed by the Indian Congress and included prominent Indian legal figures, among whom were Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Kailashnath Katju and Asaf Ali. The trials covered arguments based on military law, constitutional law, international law, and politics. Much of the initial defence was based on the argument that they should be treated as prisoners of war as they were not paid mercenaries but bona fide soldiers of a legal government -- Bose 's Arzi Hukumat - e-Azad Hind. Nehru argued that "however misinformed or otherwise they had been in their notion of patriotic duty towards their country '', they recognized the free Indian state as their sovereign and not the British sovereign. Peter Fay points out that at least one INA prisoner -- Burhan - ud - Din a brother of the ruler of Chitral -- may have deserved to be accused of torture, but his trial had been deferred on administrative grounds. Those charged after the first celebrated courts - martial only faced trial for torture and murder or abetment of murder. Charges of treason were dropped for fear of inflaming public opinion. In spite of aggressive and widespread opposition to continuation of the court martial, it was completed. All three defendants were found guilty in many of the charges and sentenced to deportation for life. The sentence however was never carried out. Immense public pressure, demonstrations, and riots forced Claude Auchinleck to release all three defendants. Within three months, 11,000 soldiers of the INA were released after cashiering and forfeiture of pay and allowance. On the recommendation of Lord Mountbatten and with the agreement of Jawaharlal Nehru, former soldiers of the INA were not allowed to join the new Indian Armed Forces as a condition for independence. Within India, the INA continues to be an emotive and celebrated subject of discussion. It continued to have a strong hold over the public psyche and the sentiments of the armed forces until as late as 1947. It has been suggested that Shah Nawaz Khan was tasked with organising INA troops to train Congress volunteers at Jawaharlal Nehru 's request in late 1946 and early 1947. After 1947, several members of the INA who were closely associated with Subhas Bose and with the INA trials were prominent in public life. A number of them held important positions in independent India, serving as ambassadors immediately after independence: Abid Hasan in Egypt and Denmark, A.C.N. Nambiar in the Federal Republic of Germany, Mehboob Hasan in Canada, Cyril John Stracey in the Netherlands, and N. Raghavan in Switzerland. Mohan Singh was elected to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament. He worked for the recognition of the members of Indian National Army as "freedom fighters '' in the cause of the nation 's independence in and out of Parliament. Shah Nawaz Khan served as Minister of State for Rail in the first Indian cabinet. Lakshmi Sahgal, Minister for Women 's Affairs in the Azad Hind government, was a well known and widely respected public figure in India. In 1971, she joined the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and was later elected the leader of the All India Democratic Women 's Association. Joyce Lebra, an American historian, wrote that the rejuvenation of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, then a fledgling Tamil political party in southern India, would not have been possible without participation of INA members. Some accounts suggest that the INA veterans were involved in training civilian resistance forces against the Nizam 's Razakars prior to the execution of Operation Polo and annexation of Hyderabad. There are also suggestions that some INA veterans led Pakistani irregulars during the First Kashmir war. Mohammed Zaman Kiani served as Pakistan 's political agent to Gilgit in late 1950s. Of the very few ex-INA members who joined the Indian Armed Forces after 1947 R.S. Benegal, a member of the Tokyo Boys, joined the Indian Air Force in 1952 and later rose to be an air commodore. Benegal saw action in both 1965 and Indo - Pakistani War of 1971, earning a Maha Vir Chakra, India 's second highest award for valour. Among other prominent members of the INA, Ram Singh Thakur, composer of a number of songs including the INA 's regimental march Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja, has been credited by some for the modern tune of the Indian national anthem. Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Lakshmi Sahgal were later awarded theIndian civilian honours of Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan respectively by the Indian Government in the 1990s. Lakshmi Sahgal was nominated for the Indian presidential election by communist parties in 2002. She was the sole opponent of A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, who emerged victorious. Subhas Bose himself was posthumously awarded Bharat Ratna in 1992, but this was later withdrawn over the controversy over the circumstances of his death. Former INA recruits in diasporic Singapore however faced a different situation. In Singapore, Indians -- particularly those who were associated with the INA -- were treated with disdain as they were "stigmatized as fascists and Japanese collaborators ''. Some within this diaspora later emerged as notable political and social leaders. The consolidation of trade unions in the form of National Union of Plantation Workers was led by ex-INA leaders. In Malaya, notable members of the INA were involved in founding the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) in 1946; John Thivy was the founding president. Janaky Athi Nahappan, second - in - command of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, was also a founding member of the MIC and later became a noted welfare activist and a distinguished senator in the Dewan Negara of the Malaysian Parliament. Rasammah Bhupalan, also of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, later became a well - known welfare - activist and a widely respected champion for women 's rights in Malaysia. The army 's relationship to the Japanese was an uncomfortable one. Officers in the INA distrusted the Japanese. Leaders of the first INA sought formal assurances from Japan before committing to war. When these did not arrive, Mohan Singh resigned after ordering his army to disband; he expected to be sentenced to death. After Bose established Azad Hind, he tried to establish his political independence from the regime that supported him. (He had led protests against the Japanese expansion into China, and supported Chiang Kai - shek during the 1930s) Azad Hind depended on Japan for arms and materiel but sought to be as financially independent as possible, levying taxes and raising donations from Indians in Southeast Asia ". On the Japanese side, members of the high command had been personally impressed by Bose and were willing to grant him some latitude; more importantly, the Japanese were interested in maintaining the support of a man who had been able to mobilise large numbers of Indian expatriates -- including, most importantly, 40 -, 000 of the 45,000 Indians captured by the Japanese at Singapore. However, Faye notes that interactions between soldiers in the field was different. Attempts to use Shah Nawaz 's troops in road building and as porters angered the troops, forcing Bose to intervene with Mutaguchi. After the withdrawal from Imphal, the relations between both junior non-commissioned officers and between senior officers had deteriorated. INA officers accused the Japanese Army high command of trying to deceive INA troops into fighting for Japan. Conversely, Japanese soldiers often expressed disdain for INA soldiers for having changed their oath of loyalty. This mutual dislike was especially strong after the withdrawal from Imphal began; Japanese soldiers, suspicious that INA defectors had been responsible for their defeat, addressed INA soldiers as "shameless one '' instead of "comrade '' as previously had been the case. Azad Hind officials in Burma reported difficulties with the Japanese military administration in arranging supply for troops and transport for wounded men as the armies withdrew. Toye notes that local IIL members and Azad Hind Dal (local Azad Hind administrative teams) organised relief supplies from Indians in Burma at this time. As the situation in Burma became hopeless for the Japanese, Bose refused requests to use INA troops against Aung San 's Burma National Army, which had turned against Japan and was now allied with Commonwealth forces. The first interaction of the INA with the British - Indian forces was during the months during the First Arakan offensive, between December 1942 and March 1943. The morale of Sepoys during this time was low and knowledge about the INA was minimal. The INA 's special services agents led a successful operation during this time in encouraging the Indian troops to defect to the INA. By the end of March 1945, however, the Sepoys in the British - Indian Army were reinvigorated and perceived the men of the INA to be savage turncoats and cowards. Senior British officers in the Indian Army considered them "rabble ''. Historians Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper mention that sepoys in field units shot captured or wounded INA men, relieving their British officers of the complex task of formulating a formal plan for captured men. After Singapore was retaken, Mountbatten ordered the INA 's war memorial to its fallen soldiers to be blown up. As the story of the INA unfolded in post-war India, the view of Indian soldiers on the INA -- and on their own position during the war -- also changed. The Raj observed with increasing disquiet and unease the spread of pro-INA sympathies within the troops of the British - Indian forces. In February 1946, while the trials were still going on, a general strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy rapidly deteriorated into a mutiny incorporating ships and shore establishments of the RIN throughout India. The mutineers raised slogans invoking Subhas Bose and the INA, demanding and end to the trials. The mutiny received widespread public support. In some places in the British - Indian Army, non-commissioned Officers started ignoring orders from British superiors. In Madras and Pune British garrisons faced revolts from within the ranks of the British - Indian Army. These were suppressed by force. At the conclusion of the first trial, when the sentences of deportation were commuted, Fay records Claude Auchinleck as having sent a "personal and secret '' letter to all senior British officers, explaining: ... practically all are sure that any attempt to enforce the sentence would have led to chaos in the country at large, and probably to mutiny and dissension in the Army, culminating in its dissolution. Fay concludes that the INA was not significant enough to beat the British - Indian Army by military strength. He also writes that the INA was aware of this and formulated its own strategy of avoiding set - piece battles, gathering local and popular support within India and instigating revolt within the British - Indian Army to overthrow the Raj. Moreover, the Forward Bloc underground movement within India had been crushed well before the offensives opened in the Burma -- Manipur theatre, depriving the army of any organised internal support. However, despite its small numerical strength and lack of heavy weapons, its special services group played a significant part in halting the First Arakan Offensive while still under Mohan Singh 's command. The propaganda threat of the INA and lack of concrete intelligence on the unit early after the fall of Singapore made it a threat to Allied war plans in Southeast Asia, since it threatened to destroy the Sepoys ' loyalty to a British - Indian Army that was demoralised from continuing defeats. There were reports of INA operatives successfully infiltrating Commonwealth lines during the Offensive. This caused British intelligence to begin the "Jiffs '' propaganda campaign and to create "Josh '' groups to improve the morale and preserve the loyalty of the sepoys as consolidation began to prepare for the defence of Manipur. These measures included imposing a complete news ban on Bose and the INA that was not lifted until four days after the fall of Rangoon two years later. During the Japanese U-Go offensive towards Manipur in 1944, the INA played a crucial (and successful) role in diversionary attacks in Arakan and in the Manipur Basin itself, where it fought alongside Mutaguchi 's 15th Army. INA forces protected the flanks of the assaulting Yamamoto force at a critical time as the latter attempted to take Imphal. During the Commonwealth Burma Campaign, the INA troops fought in the battles of Irrawaddy and Meiktilla, supporting the Japanese offensive and tying down Commonwealth troops. The first INA trial, which was held in public, became a rallying point for the independence movement from the autumn of 1945. The release of INA prisoners and the suspension of the trials came to be the dominant political campaign, superseding the campaign for independence. Christopher Bayly notes that the "INA was to become a much more powerful enemy of the British empire in defeat than it had been during its ill - fated triumphal march on Delhi. '' The Viceroy 's journal describes the autumn and winter of 1945 -- 1946 as "The Edge of a Volcano ''. The setting of the trial at Red Fort was taken by Indian public as a deliberate taunt by the British Raj over the vanquished INA, recalling the INA 's battle cries of unfurling the Indian tricolour over the Red Fort. Many compared the trials to that of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor tried in the same place after the failed 1857 uprising. Support for the INA grew rapidly and their continued detention and news of impending trials was seen an affront to the movement for independence and to Indian identity itself. It was further feared that the Congress would exploit the INA to gain mass support against the Raj and possibly start an armed struggle with weapons smuggled from Burma. Nehru was suspected of using INA men to train Congress volunteers. The political effects of the INA trials were enormous and were felt around India as late as 1948, much to the chagrin of the Congress government in independent India, which feared that pro-INA sympathies could help alternative sources of power. Historians like Sumit Sarkar, Sugata Bose, Ayesha Jalal conclude that the INA trials and its after - effects brought a decisive shift in British policy towards independence Indian. Particularly disturbing was the overt and public support for the INA by the soldiers of the Indian Army and the mutinies. The Congress 's rhetoric preceding the 1946 elections gave the Raj reasons to fear a revival of the Quit India Movement of 1942. It was soon realised that the Indian Army could not be used to suppress such a movement as it had in 1942, principally because of nationalistic and political consciousness in the forces which was ascribed to the INA. Gandhi noted: ... the whole nation has been roused, even the regular forces have been stirred into a new political consciousness and begun to think in terms of independence... Facing problems in the British mainland and unable to muster enough forces of collaboration or coercion, the Cabinet mission of 1946 was sent to negotiate the transfer of power. Some historians cite Auchinleck 's own assessment of the situation to suggest this shortened the Raj by at least fifteen to twenty years. Clement Attlee, the British prime minister, reflecting on the factors that guided the British decision to relinquish the Raj in India, is said to have cited the effects of the INA and Bose 's activities on the British - Indian Army and the Bombay Mutiny as being the most important. After the war ended, the story of the INA and the Indian Legion was seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings across its empire, the British Government forbade the BBC from broadcasting their story. The use of Indian troops for the restoration of Dutch and French rule in Vietnam and Indonesia fed into the already growing resentment within the forces. Indian troops sent to suppress Sukarno 's agitations in Indonesia in 1946 rapidly identified with the nationalist sentiments in the previous Dutch colony. The South East Asia Command reported growing sympathy for the INA and dislike of the Dutch. There were similar pro-nationalist sentiments among Indian troops sent to Vietnam, Thailand and Burma. This led to the realisation by 1946 that the British - Indian Army, the bulwark of the policing force in the British colonies, could not be used as an instrument of British power. INA - inspired strikes emerged throughout Britain 's colonies in Southeast Asia. In January 1946, protests started at Royal Air Force bases in Karachi and spread rapidly to Singapore. This was followed by a full - scale mutiny by a British Army unit in Singapore. In British Malaya, men of the Parachute Regiment refused to obey orders from their officers. Authors like Nilanjana Sengupta attribute these to a combination of dissatisfaction over pay and work conditions and conflicts of comradeship over the INA trials. Former INA members in Malaya identified closely with the left - wing organisations in opposing British colonial authority. The majority of prominent left - wing union leaders in Malaya after the war were members of the INA. The activities of the trade unions in the newly established Tamil schools were particularly influential, leading to the establishment of an inspector system by the British to supervise the curriculum and teaching in these schools. Joyce Lebra notes that the INA had a particularly strong unifying influence over ethnic Indians residing in Malaya. Lebra concludes that the experience of the INA was useful in challenging British authority in the post-war period in Malaya, and in improving the socio - economic conditions of the Indian community. British and Commonwealth troops viewed the recruits as traitors and Axis collaborators. Almost 40,000 Indian soldiers in Malaya did not join the army and remained as PoWs. Many were sent to work in the Death Railway, suffered hardships and nearly 11,000 died under Japanese internment. Many of them cited the oath of allegiance they had taken to the King among reasons not to join a Japanese - supported organisation, and regarded the recruits of the INA as traitors for having forsaken their oath. Commanders in the British - Indian Army like Wavell later highlighted the hardships this group of soldiers suffered, contrasting them with the troops of the INA. Many British soldiers held the same opinion., Hugh Toye and Peter Fay point out that the First INA consisted of a mix of recruits joining for various reasons, such as nationalistic leanings, Mohan Singh 's appeals, personal ambition or to protect men under their own command from harm. Fay notes some officers like Shah Nawaz Khan were opposed to Mohan Singh 's ideas and tried to hinder what they considered a collaborationist organisation. However, both historians note that Indian civilians and former INA soldiers all cite the tremendous influence of Subhas Bose and his appeal to patriotism in rejuvenating the INA. Fay discusses the topic of loyalty of the INA soldiers, and highlights that in Shah Nawaz Khan 's trial it was noted that officers of the INA warned their men the possibility of having to fight the Japanese after having fought the British, to prevent Japan exploiting post-war India. Carl Vadivella Belle suggested in 2014 that among the local Indians and ex-British - Indian Army volunteers in Malaya, there was a proportion who joined due to the threat of conscription as Japanese labour troops. Recruitment also offered local Indian labourers security from continual semi-starvation of the estates and served as a barrier against Japanese tyranny. INA troops were alleged to engage in or be complicit in torture of Allied and Indian prisoners of war. Fay in his 1993 history analyses war - time press releases and field counter-intelligence directed at Sepoys. He concludes that the Jiffs campaign promoted the view that INA recruits were weak - willed and traitorous Axis collaborators, motivated by selfish interests of greed and personal gain. He concludes that the allegations of torture were largely products of the Jiffs campaign. He supports his conclusion by noting that isolated cases of torture had occurred, but allegations of widespread practice of torture were not substantiated in the charges against defendants in the Red Fort trials. Published memoirs of several veterans, including that of William Slim, portray the INA troops as incapable fighters and as untrustworthy. Toye noted in 1959 that individual desertions occurred in the withdrawal from Imphal. Fay concluded that stories of INA desertions during the battle and the initial retreat into Burma were largely exaggerated. The majority of desertions occurred much later, according to Fay, around the battles at Irrawaddy and later around Popa. Fay specifically discusses Slim 's portrayal of the INA, pointing out what he concludes to be inconsistencies in Slim 's accounts. Fay also discusses memoirs of Shah Nawaz, where Khan claims INA troops were never defeated in battle. Fay criticises this too as exaggerated. He concludes the opinions held by Commonwealth war veterans such as Slim were an inaccurate portrayal of the unit, as were those of INA soldiers themselves. Harkirat Singh notes that British officers ' personal dislike for Subhas Chandra Bose may have prejudiced their judgement of the INA itself. In independent India, the treatment of former INA soldiers by government and omission of the INA and the Red Fort trials from historical records of the period leading up to Indian independence in 1947 have come in from criticisms. Indian activists like Samar Guha, historians like Kapil Kumar, as well as Indian parliamentarians allege that official histories of the independence movement largely omit events surrounding the INA -- especially the Red Fort trials and the Bombay Mutiny -- and ignore their significance in rejuvenating the independence movement and guiding British decisions to relinquish the Raj. A history of the army and of Azad Hind, written by Indian historian Pratul Chandra Gupta in 1950s at the request of the Indian Government, was subsequently classified and not released until 2006. Further criticisms have been made in recent years over the denial till 1980s of the "freedom fighter 's pension '' awarded to those in the Gandhian movement, and over the general hardships and apathy surrounding the conditions of former INA soldiers. This includes, for example, the circumstances surrounding the death and funeral of Ram Singh Thakuri, the composer of the INA 's anthem Quami tarana, kadam kadam badaye ja. These have been compounded by a number of conspiracy - theories and news reports in the past on agreements between the Indian political leadership to hand over its leader Subhas Chandra Bose as a war criminal if he was found to be alive. The Indian government refused to declassify secret documents on Bose and the INA held in Indian archives for almost sixty years citing concerns of India 's relations with foreign countries. This decision was revisited in October 2015 by Narendra Modi government. However, some files are said to have been destroyed altogether. Later historians have argued that, given the political aim and nature of the entire Azad Hind movement and especially the Indian National Army, Nehru 's aim may have been to prevent politicisation of the army and assert civilian authority over the military. More recent controversies have risen from limited declassified Indian documents that revealed that the Nehru government kept Subhas Bose 's family under strict surveillance for more than twenty years after Indian independence. Further controversy relates to the fate of the Azad Hind fortune Bose is said to have been travelling with it during in his last known journey. The treasure, a considerable amount of gold ornaments and gems, is said to have been recovered from Bose 's belongings following the fatal plane crash in Formosa that reportedly killed him. Despite repeated warnings from Indian diplomats in Tokyo, Nehru is said to have disregarded allegations that men previously associated with Azad Hind misappropriated the funds for personal benefit. Some of these are said to have travelled to Japan repeatedly with the approval of Nehru government and were later given government roles implementing Nehru 's political and economic agenda. A very small portion of the alleged treasure was repatriated to India in the 1950s. The INA is memorialised in the Swatantrata Sainani Smarak, which is located at the Salimgarh Fort in Delhi, adjacent to the Red Fort. Its exhibits include the Indian National Army uniform worn by Colonel Prem Sahgal, riding boots and coat buttons of Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon and photographs of Subhas Chandra Bose. A separate gallery holds material and photographs from excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India inside the fort in 1995. The Indian National Army Memorial at Moirang, Manipur, commemorates the place where the flag of Azad Hind was raised by Col. Shaukat Hayat Malik. Moirang was the first Indian territory captured by the INA. The INA War Memorial at Singapore commemorating the "Unknown Warrior '' of the INA was unveiled by Bose in July 1945. Situated at the Esplanade Park, it was destroyed on Mountbatten 's orders when Allied troops reoccupied the city. In 1995, the National Heritage Board of Singapore, with financial donations from the Indian community in Singapore, erected the Former Indian National Army Monument at the site where the old memorial stood. The site is now officially one of the historical sites of Singapore. The INA 's battle cry, Jai Hind, was declared the "national greeting '' of India by Nehru and remains a popular nationalist greeting. Today it is used by all Indian prime ministers to conclude their Independence Day speeches. The cry became independent India 's first commemorative post mark on 15 August 1947. The first postage stamps issued by Independent India are called the Jai Hind series of stamps, showing the Indian flag with the letters Jai Hind in the top right hand corner. These were a part of the series issued on 15 August 1947. Commemorative postage stamps were also issued by the Indian government in 1968 and 1993 respectively to commemorate the 25th and the 50th anniversaries of the establishment of Azad Hind at Singapore. The Department of Posts also includes the six unused Azad Hind stamps in its commemorative book India 's Freedom Struggle through India Postage Stamps. The Azad Hind Fauj Marg (Azad Hind Fauj Road) in New Delhi is named after the INA and houses the Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology. The Indian National Army remains a significant topic of discussion in the popular history of India; it is an emotive topic which has been the subject of numerous works of literature, art, and visual media within India and outside. Some of the earliest works in print media were created at the time of the INA trials. These include works of fiction like Jai Hind: The Diary of a Rebel Daughter of India published in 1945 by Amritlal Seth. The book, a work of fiction narrating the story of a recruit of the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, is believed to be loosely based on the story of Lakshmi Sahgal. In later decades works by authors like Amitav Ghosh, such as his book The Glass Palace, have used the backdrop of the Azad Hind and the Japanese occupation of Burma for the narrative of the story. The Day of the Scorpion and The Towers of Silence, the second and third books in Paul Scott 's Raj Quartet, mention Jiffs in the political and social context in which the term found use in the Eastern Army during the war. The 1984 British TV series The Jewel in the Crown, based on Scott 's quartet, also includes the role of the INA as part of the political backdrop of the story. In visual media, the INA has been the subject of a number of documentaries. The War of The Springing Tiger made by Granada Television for Channel 4 in 1984 examined the role of the Indian National Army in the Second World War, the motivation of its soldiers and explored its role in the independence movement. In 1999 Film India released a documentary, The Forgotten Army. Directed by Kabir Khan and produced by Akhil Bakshi, it followed what was called the Azad Hind Expedition between 1994 and 1995, retracing the route taken by the INA from Singapore to Imphal, before ending at Red Fort. Amongst the members of expedition team were Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon, Lakshmi Sahgal and Captain S.S. Yadava, an INA veteran and once the general secretary of the All India INA Committee. The documentary went on to win the Grand Jury Prize at the Film South Asia festival in 1999. The National Archives of Singapore digitised its available resources in 2007 as Historical Journey of the Indian National Army. In 2004, the Indian Legion in Europe was the subject of a BBC magazine article authored by Mike Thomson, but it did not attempt to distinguish the differences between the Legion and the INA. The Hindustan Times, a large broadsheet in India, dedicates a part of its website to INA resources as Indian National Army in East Asia. Indian cinema has also seen a number of films in many different Indian languages, where the INA is a significant part of the narrative. These include Pahla Admi by Bimal Roy and Samadhi by Ramesh Saigal, both produced in 1950 based on fictional INA veterans. More recently, Indian, a 1996 Tamil film directed by S. Shankar, incorporates a lead character in its story who is a veteran of the INA. Shyam Benegal produced Netaji: The Forgotten Hero in 2004, which traces the last five years of Subhas Chandra Bose. Benegal describes the story of the INA in small details in his film whilst focusing on its leader. The film was also widely noted for A.R. Rahman 's music. The INA 's marching song, Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja, has since become a famous patriotic song in India. Today it is in use as the regimental quick march of the Indian Parachute regiment. More recently, a 2017 Hindi movie Rangoon, starring Kangna Ranaut, Saif Ali Khan, Shahid Kapoor is based against the backdrop of the INA presence in Rangoon, with the movie centered around the protagonists trying to get across a jeweled sword to the INA

are all sides of a right triangle equal

Right triangle - wikipedia A right triangle (American English) or right - angled triangle (British English) is a triangle in which one angle is a right angle (that is, a 90 - degree angle). The relation between the sides and angles of a right triangle is the basis for trigonometry. The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse (side c in the figure). The sides adjacent to the right angle are called legs (or catheti, singular: cathetus). Side a may be identified as the side adjacent to angle B and opposed to (or opposite) angle A, while side b is the side adjacent to angle A and opposed to angle B. If the lengths of all three sides of a right triangle are integers, the triangle is said to be a Pythagorean triangle and its side lengths are collectively known as a Pythagorean triple. As with any triangle, the area is equal to one half the base multiplied by the corresponding height. In a right triangle, if one leg is taken as the base then the other is height, so the area of a right triangle is one half the product of the two legs. As a formula the area T is where a and b are the legs of the triangle. If the incircle is tangent to the hypotenuse AB at point P, then denoting the semi-perimeter (a + b + c) / 2 as s, we have PA = s − a and PB = s − b, and the area is given by This formula only applies to right triangles. If an altitude is drawn from the vertex with the right angle to the hypotenuse then the triangle is divided into two smaller triangles which are both similar to the original and therefore similar to each other. From this: In equations, where a, b, c, d, e, f are as shown in the diagram. Thus Moreover, the altitude to the hypotenuse is related to the legs of the right triangle by For solutions of this equation in integer values of a, b, f, and c, see here. The altitude from either leg coincides with the other leg. Since these intersect at the right - angled vertex, the right triangle 's orthocenter -- the intersection of its three altitudes -- coincides with the right - angled vertex. The Pythagorean theorem states that: In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle). This can be stated in equation form as where c is the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b are the lengths of the remaining two sides. Pythagorean triples are integer values of a, b, c satisfying this equation. The radius of the incircle of a right triangle with legs a and b and hypotenuse c is The radius of the circumcircle is half the length of the hypotenuse, Thus the sum of the circumradius and the inradius is half the sum of the legs: One of the legs can be expressed in terms of the inradius and the other leg as A triangle ABC with sides a ≤ b < c (\ displaystyle a \ leq b < c), semiperimeter s, area T, altitude h opposite the longest side, circumradius R, inradius r, exradii r, r, r (tangent to a, b, c respectively), and medians m, m, m is a right triangle if and only if any one of the statements in the following six categories is true. All of them are of course also properties of a right triangle, since characterizations are equivalences. The trigonometric functions for acute angles can be defined as ratios of the sides of a right triangle. For a given angle, a right triangle may be constructed with this angle, and the sides labeled opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse with reference to this angle according to the definitions above. These ratios of the sides do not depend on the particular right triangle chosen, but only on the given angle, since all triangles constructed this way are similar. If, for a given angle α, the opposite side, adjacent side and hypotenuse are labeled O, A and H respectively, then the trigonometric functions are For the expression of hyperbolic functions as ratio of the sides of a right triangle, see the hyperbolic triangle of a hyperbolic sector. The values of the trigonometric functions can be evaluated exactly for certain angles using right triangles with special angles. These include the 30 - 60 - 90 triangle which can be used to evaluate the trigonometric functions for any multiple of π / 6, and the 45 - 45 - 90 triangle which can be used to evaluate the trigonometric functions for any multiple of π / 4. Let H, G, and A be the harmonic mean, the geometric mean, and the arithmetic mean of two positive numbers a and b with a > b. If a right triangle has legs H and G and hypotenuse A, then and where φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) is the golden ratio 1 + 5 2. (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (1 + (\ sqrt (5))) (2)). \,) Since the sides of this right triangle are in geometric progression, this is the Kepler triangle. Thales ' theorem states that if A is any point of the circle with diameter BC (except B or C themselves) ABC is a right triangle where A is the right angle. The converse states that if a right triangle is inscribed in a circle then the hypotenuse will be a diameter of the circle. A corollary is that the length of the hypotenuse is twice the distance from the right angle vertex to the midpoint of the hypotenuse. Also, the center of the circle that circumscribes a right triangle is the midpoint of the hypotenuse and its radius is one half the length of the hypotenuse. The following formulas hold for the medians of a right triangle: The median on the hypotenuse of a right triangle divides the triangle into two isosceles triangles, because the median equals one - half the hypotenuse. The medians m and m from the legs satisfy In a right triangle, the Euler line contains the median on the hypotenuse -- that is, it goes through both the right - angled vertex and the midpoint of the side opposite that vertex. This is because the right triangle 's orthocenter, the intersection of its altitudes, falls on the right - angled vertex while its circumcenter, the intersection of its perpendicular bisectors of sides, falls on the midpoint of the hypotenuse. In any right triangle the diameter of the incircle is less than half the hypotenuse, and more strongly it is less than or equal to the hypotenuse times (2 − 1). (\ displaystyle ((\ sqrt (2)) - 1).) In a right triangle with legs a, b and hypotenuse c, with equality only in the isosceles case. If the altitude from the hypotenuse is denoted h, then with equality only in the isosceles case. If segments of lengths p and q emanating from vertex C trisect the hypotenuse into segments of length c / 3, then The right triangle is the only triangle having two, rather than one or three, distinct inscribed squares. Let h and k (h > k) be the sides of the two inscribed squares in a right triangle with hypotenuse c. Then These sides and the incircle radius r are related by a similar formula: The perimeter of a right triangle equals the sum of the radii of the incircle and the three excircles:

any five cities in india facing scarcity of water

Water scarcity in India - wikipedia Water scarcity involves water stress, water shortage or deficits, and water crisis. This may be due to both nature and humans. Main factors that contribute to this issue include poor management of resources, lack of government regulation, and man made waste. 18 percent of the world 's population which resides in India only has access to 4 percent of usable water sources. Official data in the past decade depicts how annual per capita availability of water in the country has plummeted significantly with 163 million Indians lacking access to safe drinking water. The water sources are contaminated with both bio and chemical pollutants. 21 % of the country 's diseases are water - related with only 33 % of the country having access to traditional sanitation. Excessive use of groundwater for agriculture has also caused a strain in the resource. As India is one of the top agriculture producers in the world, the consumption of water for land and crops is also one the highest. The results of the widespread use of ineffective techniques used for irrigation aligned with mismanagement are few of the reasons for the water deficit. A significant portion of water used for industrial and domestic purposes is waste when returned to the streams. The demand for freshwater is increasing with the growing population, but the decreasing amount of supply fails to meet the needs of the people. The increased amount of solid wastes in water systems such as lakes and rivers also heavily pollute the water. To combat this problem, the government issued the Ganga Action Plan issued in 1984 to clean up the Ganges River. However, much of the river remains polluted with a high coli form count at many places. This is largely due to lack of maintenance of the facilities as well inadequate fees for service. Due to this issue, urgent need for safe drinking water is 70.1 % of the households in urban areas. 18.7 % in rural received organized pipe water supply and others have to depend on surface and ground water which is untreated. Along with the strain on surface water, the country is also facing great stress with freshwater. Lack of strict state regulation on ground water development has caused a strain on the amount of freshwater available. Indifference from bureaucratic powers and constant neglect has caused the problem to intensify. In hand with the lack of government interference and continued industrial waste deposited into major rivers, most freshwater entering the bodies of water is defiled. The approximation of the untreated water entering the water sources such as rivers and lakes is 90 percent and only furthers the problem. In 2016, the city of Latur experienced a great water shortage. Much of the farming industry came to a halt and created both food insecurity and massive unemployment. Much of the local economy and farming regions nearly collapsed with the citizens having no choice but to use the polluted water. The acute water shortage prevailing in the forest areas of Tamil Nadu 's districts of Madurai and Dindigul has led to the deaths of Indian gaurs found in the forest of the region, as they come in search of water are killed falling into the wells. With support from government and UNICEF, villagers in Palve Budruk, located in the drought - prone Parner Block in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra, developed a catchment plan covering 1,435 hectors -- over 80 % of the land available. The system has three check dams, 20 canal bunds, two small percolation tanks linked to the main tank and 19 village ponds. Water stored in the percolation tank, is strictly meant for domestic use only. Piped water is supplied for an hour a day in the morning, during which time families fill up water for drinking and cooking. SIS Seoul International School is Fundraising to bring water to India, and can be found in South Korea, or siskorea. They have also started building a strong community for the water crisis in india The Canadian start - up Decode Global has developed the mobile game Get Water!, a game for social change focusing on the water scarcity in India and the effect it has on girls ' education. The game 's primary goal is to raise awareness of the water crisis, by educating children as well as adult gamers. To put more focus on children 'd learning, the company has published a 6 - part lesson plan for 4 - 6 grade teachers, available for download as a pdf from the game 's website. The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) has notified 82 areas (Districts, Blocks, Mandals, Talukas, Municipalities) for regulation of ground water development. In these areas, installation of new ground water abstraction structures is not permitted without prior specific approval of the Authority / Authorized officer. Moreover, proposals for setting up / expansion of ground water based industries including bottled water manufacturing units are forwarded by State Pollution Control Boards and Bureau of Indian Standards to CGWA for seeking No Objection Certificate (NOC) for ground water withdrawal. NOC is not accorded to such industries including bottled water manufacturing units p eas notified by the Authority. In non-notified areas, NOC is issued with mandatory pre-conditions of adoption of rain water harvesting system, monitoring of ground water abstraction as well as monitoring of ground water level and quality etc. by the industry. For enforcement of the regulatory directions issued under Section 5 of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, concerned Deputy Commissioners / District Collectors have been authorized to take necessary action in case of violations of directives of CGWA in the notified areas. According to Indian government report, warns that 21 cities will run out a groundwater by years of 2020.

what is a traditional first wedding anniversary gift

Wedding anniversary - wikipedia A wedding anniversary is the anniversary of the date a wedding took place. Traditional names exist for some of them: for instance, fifty years of marriage is called a "golden wedding anniversary '' or simply a "golden anniversary '' or "golden wedding ''. The historic origins of wedding anniversaries date back to the Holy Roman Empire, when husbands crowned their wives with a silver wreath on their twenty - fifth anniversary, and a gold wreath on the fiftieth. Later, principally in the twentieth century, commercialism led to the addition of more anniversaries being represented by a named gift. In the Commonwealth realms, one can receive a message from the monarch for 60th, 65th, and 70th wedding anniversaries, and any wedding anniversary after that. This is done by applying to Buckingham Palace in the United Kingdom, or to the Governor - General 's office in the other Commonwealth realms. In Australia, where one can receive a letter of congratulations from the Governor - General on the 50th and all subsequent wedding anniversaries; the Prime Minister, the federal Opposition leader, local members of both state and federal parliaments, and state Governors may also send salutations for the same anniversaries. In Canada, one can also receive a message from the Governor - General for the 50th anniversary, and every fifth anniversary after that. In the United States, a couple can receive a greeting from the President for any wedding anniversary on or after the 50th. Roman Catholics may apply for a Papal blessing through their local diocese for wedding anniversaries of a special nature (25th, 50th, 60th, etc.). The names of some anniversaries provide guidance for appropriate or traditional gifts for the spouses to give each other; if there is a party these can be brought by the guests or influence the theme or decoration. These gifts vary in different countries, but some years have well - established connections now common to most nations: 5th Wood, 10th Tin, 15th Crystal, 20th China, 25th Silver, 30th Pearl, 35th Jade, 40th Ruby, 45th Sapphire, 50th Gold, 60th Diamond, and 70th Platinum. In English speaking countries the first, wooden, gift was cut on the day of celebration and then presented to the wife as a finished article before the next two quarter days had passed. The modern tradition may have originated in medieval Germany where, if a married couple lived to celebrate the 25th anniversary of their wedding, the wife was presented by her friends and neighbours with a silver wreath to congratulate them for the good fortune that had prolonged the lives of the couple for so many years. On celebration of the 50th, the wife received a wreath of gold. Over time the number of symbols expanded and the German tradition came to assign gifts that had direct connections with each stage of married life. The symbols have changed over time. For example, in the United Kingdom, diamond was a well known symbol for the 75th anniversary, but this changed to the now more common 60th anniversary after Queen Victoria 's 60 years on the throne was widely marked as her Diamond Jubilee. The origins of the current gift conventions date to 1937. Before that, only the 1st, 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th, 25th, 50th, and 75th anniversaries had an associated gift. In 1937, the American National Retail Jeweler Association (now known as Jewelers of America as a result of an organizational merger) introduced an expanded list of gifts. The revamped list gave a gift for each year up to the 25th, and then for every fifth anniversary after that. Lists of wedding anniversary gifts vary by country. The traditional and modern U.S. versions were compiled by librarians at the Chicago Public Library.

where is the sheet # found on a map

Mind map - wikipedia A mind map is a diagram used to visually organize information. A mind map is hierarchical and shows relationships among pieces of the whole. It is often created around a single concept, drawn as an image in the center of a blank page, to which associated representations of ideas such as images, words and parts of words are added. Major ideas are connected directly to the central concept, and other ideas branch out from those. Mind maps can be drawn by hand, either as "rough notes '' during a lecture, meeting or planning session, for example, or as higher quality pictures when more time is available. Mind maps are considered to be a type of spider diagram. A similar concept in the 1970s was "idea sun bursting ''. Although the term "mind map '' was first popularized by British popular psychology author and television personality Tony Buzan, the use of diagrams that visually "map '' information using branching and radial maps traces back centuries. These pictorial methods record knowledge and model systems, and have a long history in learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking, and problem solving by educators, engineers, psychologists, and others. Some of the earliest examples of such graphical records were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235 -- 1315) also used such techniques. The semantic network was developed in the late 1950s as a theory to understand human learning and developed further by Allan M. Collins and M. Ross Quillian during the early 1960s. Mind maps are similar in radial structure to concept maps, developed by learning experts in the 1970s, but differ in that the former are simplified by focusing around a single central key concept. Buzan 's specific approach, and the introduction of the term "mind map '' arose during a 1974 BBC TV series he hosted, called Use Your Head. In this show, and companion book series, Buzan promoted his conception of radial tree, diagramming key words in a colorful, radiant, tree - like structure. Buzan says the idea was inspired by Alfred Korzybski 's general semantics as popularized in science fiction novels, such as those of Robert A. Heinlein and A.E. van Vogt. He argues that while "traditional '' outlines force readers to scan left to right and top to bottom, readers actually tend to scan the entire page in a non-linear fashion. Buzan 's treatment also uses then - popular assumptions about the functions of cerebral hemispheres in order to explain the claimed increased effectiveness of mind mapping over other forms of note making. Buzan suggests the following guidelines for creating mind maps: As with other diagramming tools, mind maps can be used to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas, and as an aid to studying and organizing information, solving problems, making decisions, and writing. Mind maps have many applications in personal, family, educational, and business situations, including notetaking, brainstorming (wherein ideas are inserted into the map radially around the center node, without the implicit prioritization that comes from hierarchy or sequential arrangements, and wherein grouping and organizing is reserved for later stages), summarizing, as a mnemonic technique, or to sort out a complicated idea. Mind maps are also promoted as a way to collaborate in color pen creativity sessions. In addition to these direct use cases, data retrieved from mind maps can be used to enhance several other applications; for instance expert search systems, search engines and search and tag query recommender. To do so, mind maps can be analysed with classic methods of information retrieval to classify a mind map 's author or documents that are linked from within the mind map. Cunningham (2005) conducted a user study in which 80 % of the students thought "mindmapping helped them understand concepts and ideas in science ''. Other studies also report some subjective positive effects on the use of mind maps. Positive opinions on their effectiveness, however, were much more prominent among students of art and design than in students of computer and information technology, with 62.5 % vs 34 % (respectively) agreeing that they were able to understand concepts better with mind mapping software. Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that spider diagrams (similar to concept maps) had limited, but significant, impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10 % increase over baseline for a 600 - word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a 6 % increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the diagram group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects ' preferred methods of note taking. A meta study about concept mapping concluded that concept mapping is more effective than "reading text passages, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions ''. The same study also concluded that concept mapping is slightly more effective "than other constructive activities such as writing summaries and outlines ''. However, results were inconsistent, with the authors noting "significant heterogeneity was found in most subsets ''. In addition, they concluded that low - ability students may benefit more from mind mapping than high - ability students. Beel & Langer (2011) conducted a comprehensive analysis of the content of mind maps. They analysed 19,379 mind maps from 11,179 users of the mind mapping applications SciPlore MindMapping (now Docear) and MindMeister. Results include that average users create only a few mind maps (mean = 2.7), average mind maps are rather small (31 nodes) with each node containing about 3 words (median). However, there were exceptions. One user created more than 200 mind maps, the largest mind map consisted of more than 50,000 nodes and the largest node contained ~ 7500 words. The study also showed that between different mind mapping applications (Docear vs MindMeister) significant differences exist related to how users create mind maps. There have been some attempts to create mind maps automatically. Brucks & Schommer created mind maps automatically from full - text streams. Rothenberger et al. extracted the main story of a text and presented it as mind map. And there is a patent about automatically creating sub-topics in mind maps. Mind - mapping software can be used to organize large amounts of information, combining spatial organization, dynamic hierarchical structuring and node folding. Software packages can extend the concept of mind - mapping by allowing individuals to map more than thoughts and ideas with information on their computers and the Internet, like spreadsheets, documents, Internet sites and images. It has been suggested that mind - mapping can improve learning / study efficiency up to 15 % over conventional note - taking.

meaning of lyrics happiness is a warm gun

Happiness is a Warm gun - wikipedia "Happiness Is a Warm Gun '' is a song by the Beatles, featured on the double album The Beatles (also known as the "White Album ''), which was released on 22 November 1968. Although credited to Lennon -- McCartney, it was written by John Lennon. According to Lennon, the title came from a magazine cover that producer George Martin showed him: "I think he showed me a cover of a magazine that said ' Happiness Is a Warm Gun. ' It was a gun magazine. I just thought it was a fantastic, insane thing to say. A warm gun means you just shot something. '' The gun magazine derived the phrase from the bestselling book by Peanuts cartoonist Charles M. Schulz, Happiness is a Warm Puppy. Lennon said he "put together three sections of different songs... it seemed to run through all the different kinds of rock music. '' This results in a three - part through - composed structure. The song begins with surreal imagery allegedly taken from an acid trip that Lennon and Derek Taylor experienced, with Taylor contributing the opening lines. "Happiness Is a Warm Gun '' reportedly is Paul McCartney 's and was George Harrison 's favourite song on the White Album. Although tensions were high among the band during the album 's recording sessions, they reportedly collaborated as a close unit to work out the song 's challenging rhythmic and metre issues. Recording of the song began at 7 pm in Studio Two at EMI Studios in London on 23 September 1968, continued over the following two nights, with daytime breaks, and was completed at 5 am on 26 September. Piano, electronic organ and tuba parts in this recording are unattributed; the tuba was all but removed through mixing. George Martin was on holiday while this song was recorded, and had left a note asking Chris Thomas to take over as producer. According to Ian MacDonald: Many different interpretations of the song have been offered. Some writers have suggested that the "warm gun '' could refer to Lennon 's sexual desire for Yoko Ono. In his 1980 Playboy interview Lennon admitted to the double meaning of guns and sexuality but denied that the song had anything to do with drugs: "that was the beginning of my relationship with Yoko and I was very sexually oriented then. '' American and British censors were unhappy with the song, and it was banned by the BBC.

when was civil rights act passed in usa

Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations. Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment. The legislation had been proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but opposed by filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward, which in its final form was passed in the U.S. Congress by a Senate vote of 73 -- 27 and House vote of 289 -- 126. The Act was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House. The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '' -- as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech in the aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963. Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders, including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits. On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly - owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights. Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963 and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely. The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. '' Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate. When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. '' Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. '' After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation. On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964. Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format: The original House version: Cloture in the Senate: The Senate version: The Senate version, voted on by the House: Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states. The original House version: The Senate version: Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment. Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' '' One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing. The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s. Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight. (The full text of the Act is available online.) Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements. Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship. Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''. Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin. Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act. Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures. Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding. General This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means. Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act. Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990). In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)). Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950. There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)). In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. This case filed by plaintiff Mechelle Vinson was the first in the history of the court to recognize sexual harassment as actionable. Following 1986, court cases in which the plaintiff suffers no economic loss can potentially argue for a violation of Title VII if the discrimination resulted in a hostile work environment. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998). In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees. In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. '' On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied. Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights. Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts. Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities. Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination. Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months. There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims. Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision. Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done. In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act. The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality. In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause. After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law. In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only. '' In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them. In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue. In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements. On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation. Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.

if body cells have too few receptors for insulin

Insulin resistance - wikipedia Insulin resistance (IR) is a pathological condition in which cells fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin. To prevent hyperglycemia and noticeable organ damage over time, the body produces insulin when glucose starts to be released into the bloodstream from the digestion of carbohydrates (primarily) in the diet. Under normal conditions of insulin reactivity, this insulin response triggers glucose being taken into body cells, to be used for energy, and inhibits the body from using fat for energy, thereby causing the concentration of glucose in the blood to decrease as a result, staying within the normal range even when a large amount of carbohydrates is consumed. A habitually high intake of carbohydrates, simple sugars, and particularly fructose, e.g. with sweetened beverages, contributes to insulin resistance and has been linked to weight gain and obesity. If high and excess blood sugar from the digestion of primarily carbohydrates in the diet is not sufficiently absorbed by cells even in the presence of insulin, the increase in the level of blood sugar can result in the classic hyperglycemic triad of polyphagia (increased appetite), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyuria (increased urination). Avoiding carbohydrates and sugars, a no - carbohydrate diet or fasting can reverse insulin resistance. When the body produces insulin under conditions of insulin resistance, the cells are resistant to the insulin and are unable to use it as effectively, leading to high blood sugar. Beta cells in the pancreas subsequently increase their production of insulin, further contributing to a high blood insulin level. This often remains undetected and can contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes, obesity or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. Although this type of chronic insulin resistance is harmful, during acute illness it is actually a well - evolved protective mechanism. Recent investigations have revealed that insulin resistance helps to conserve the brain 's glucose supply by preventing muscles from taking up excessive glucose. In theory, insulin resistance should even be strengthened under harsh metabolic conditions such as pregnancy, during which the expanding fetal brain demands more glucose. People who develop type 2 diabetes usually pass through earlier stages of insulin resistance and prediabetes, although those often go undiagnosed. Insulin resistance is a syndrome (a set of signs and symptoms) resulting from reduced insulin activity; it is also part of a larger constellation of symptoms called the metabolic syndrome. Insulin resistance may also develop in patients who have recently experienced abdominal or bariatric procedures. This acute form of insulin resistance that may result post-operatively tends to increase over the short term, with sensitivity to insulin typically returning to patients after about five days. These depend on poorly understood variations in individual biology and consequently may not be found with all people diagnosed with insulin resistance. Several associated risk factors include the following: Insulin resistance implies that the body 's cells (primarily muscle) lose sensitivity to insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas to promote glucose utilization. At the molecular level, a cell senses insulin through insulin receptors, with the signal propagating through a cascade of molecules collectively known as PI3K / Akt / mTOR signaling pathway. Recent studies suggested that the pathway may operate as a bistable switch under physiologic conditions for certain types of cells, and insulin response may well be a threshold phenomenon. The pathway 's sensitivity to insulin may be blunted by many factors such as free fatty acids, causing insulin resistance. From a broader perspective, however, sensitivity tuning (including sensitivity reduction) is a common practice for an organism to adapt to the changing environment or metabolic conditions. Pregnancy, for example, is a prominent change of metabolic conditions, under which the mother has to reduce her muscles ' insulin sensitivity to spare more glucose for the brains (the mother 's brain and the fetal brain). This can be achieved through raising the response threshold (i.e., postponing the onset of sensitivity) by secreting placental growth factor to interfere with the interaction between insulin receptor substrate (IRS) and PI3K, which is the essence of the so - called adjustable threshold hypothesis of insulin resistance. It is well known that insulin regulates the conversion of carbohydrates into fats (triglycerides) by promoting the absorption of, especially, glucose from the blood into fat cells. The intake of simple sugars, and particularly fructose, is a factor that contributes to insulin resistance. Fructose is metabolized by the liver into triglycerides, and, as mentioned above, tends to raise their levels in the blood stream. High levels of fructose or sucrose (table sugar) induce insulin resistance in rats, and this insulin resistance is alleviated by fish oil supplementation. Once established, insulin resistance would result in increased circulating levels of insulin. Since insulin is the primary hormonal signal for energy storage into fat cells, which tend to retain their sensitivity in the face of hepatic and skeletal muscle resistance, IR stimulates the formation of new fatty tissue and accelerates weight gain. Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes are associated with excess body weight. A possible explanation is that both insulin resistance and obesity often have the same cause, systematic overeating, which has the potential to lead to insulin resistance and obesity due to repeated administration of excess levels of glucose, which stimulate insulin secretion; excess levels of fructose, which raise triglyceride levels in the bloodstream; and fats, which may be absorbed easily by the adipose cells, and tend to end up as fatty tissue in a hypercaloric diet. Some scholars go as far as to claim that neither insulin resistance, nor obesity really are metabolic disorders per se, but simply adaptive responses to sustained caloric surplus, intended to protect bodily organs from lipotoxicity (unsafe levels of lipids in the bloodstream and tissues): "Obesity should therefore not be regarded as a pathology or disease, but rather as the normal, physiologic response to sustained caloric surplus... As a consequence of the high level of lipid accumulation in insulin target tissues including skeletal muscle and liver, it has been suggested that exclusion of glucose from lipid - laden cells is a compensatory defense against further accumulation of lipogenic substrate. '' Fast food meals combined with drinks containing sugar typically possess several characteristics, all of which have independently been linked to IR: they are sugar rich, palatable, and cheap, increasing risk of overeating and leptin resistance; simultaneously, they are high in dietary fat and fructose, and low in omega - 3 and fiber; and they usually have high glycemic indices. Overconsumption of cheap sugar rich meals and beverages have been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the metabolic syndrome epidemic and all its constituents. An American study has shown that glucosamine (often prescribed for joint problems) may cause insulin resistance. Other studies, however, could not confirm a significant effect on blood glucose or insulin resistance. Vitamin D deficiency also is associated with insulin resistance. Elevated levels of free fatty acids and triglycerides in the blood stream and tissues also have been found in many studies to occur in states of insulin resistance. Triglyceride levels are driven by a variety of dietary factors. In studies on animals caloric intake that is far in excess of animals ' energy needs results in rapid weight gain and significant insulin resistance after just three weeks (in rats). Sedentary lifestyle increases the likelihood of development of insulin resistance. It has been estimated that each 500 kcal / week increment in physical activity related energy expenditure, reduces the lifetime risk of type 2 diabetes by 9 %. A different study found that vigorous exercise at least once a week reduced the risk of type 2 diabetes in women by 33 %. Protease inhibitors found in HIV drugs are linked to insulin resistance. At the cellular level, much of the variance in insulin sensitivity between untrained, non-diabetic humans may be explained by two mechanisms: differences in phospholipid profiles of skeletal muscle cell membranes, and in intramyocellular lipid (ICML) stores within these cells. High levels of lipids in the bloodstream have the potential to result in accumulation of triglycerides and their derivatives within muscle cells, which activate proteins Kinase C - ε and C - θ, ultimately reducing the glucose uptake at any given level of insulin. This mechanism is quite fast - acting and may induce insulin resistance within days or even hours in response to a large lipid influx. Draining the intracellular reserves, on the other hand, is more challenging: moderate caloric restriction alone, even over a period of several months, appears to be ineffective, and it must be combined with physical exercise to have any effect. In the long term, diet has the potential to change the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated phospholipids in cell membranes, correspondingly changing cell membrane fluidity; full impact of such changes is not fully understood, but it is known that the percentage of polyunsaturated phospholipids is strongly inversely correlated with insulin resistance. It is hypothesized that increasing cell membrane fluidity by increasing PUFA concentration might result in an enhanced number of insulin receptors, an increased affinity of insulin to its receptors, and a reduced insulin resistance, and vice versa. Many stressing factors may lead to increased cortisol in the bloodstream. Cortisol counteracts insulin, contributes to hyperglycemia - causing hepatic gluconeogenesis, and inhibits the peripheral utilization of glucose, which eventually leads to insulin resistance. It does this by decreasing the translocation of glucose transporters (especially GLUT4) to the cell membrane. Inflammation by itself also seems to be implicated in causing insulin resistance. Mice without JNK1 - signaling do not develop insulin resistance under dietary conditions that normally produce it. Recent study have found out the specific role of the MLK family of protein in the activation of JNK during obesity and insulin resistance. Rare type 2 diabetes cases sometimes use high levels of exogenous insulin. As short - term overdosing of insulin causes short - term insulin resistance, it has been hypothesized that chronic high dosing contributes to more permanent insulin resistance. At a molecular level, insulin resistance has been proposed to be a reaction to excess nutrition by superoxide dismutase in cell mitochondria that acts as an antioxidant defense mechanism. This link seems to exist under diverse causes of insulin resistance. It also is based on the finding that insulin resistance may be reversed rapidly by exposing cells to mitochondrial uncouplers, electron transport chain inhibitors, or mitochondrial superoxide dismutase mimetics. Recent research and experimentation has uncovered a non-obesity related connection to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. It has long been observed that patients who have had some kinds of bariatric surgery have increased insulin sensitivity and even remission of type 2 diabetes. It was discovered that diabetic / insulin resistant non-obese rats whose duodenum has been removed surgically, also experienced increased insulin sensitivity and remission of type 2 diabetes. This suggested similar surgery in humans, and early reports in prominent medical journals are that the same effect is seen in humans, at least the small number who have participated in the experimental surgical program. The speculation is, that some substance is produced in the mucosa of that initial portion of the small intestine that signals body cells to become insulin resistant. If the producing tissue is removed, the signal ceases and body cells revert to normal insulin sensitivity. No such substance has been found as yet, and the existence of such a substance remains speculative. Insulin resistance is associated with PCOS. Hepatitis C also makes people three to four times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. In addition, "people with Hepatitis C who develop diabetes probably have susceptible insulin - producing cells, and probably would get it anyway, but much later in life. The extra insulin resistance caused by Hepatitis C apparently brings on diabetes at age 35 or 40, instead of 65 or 70. '' One of insulin 's functions is to regulate delivery of glucose into cells to provide them with energy. Insulin resistant cells can not take in glucose, amino acids and fatty acids. Thus, glucose, fatty acids and amino acids ' leak ' out of the cells. A decrease in insulin / glucagon ratio inhibits glycolysis which in turn decreases energy production. The resulting increase in blood glucose may raise levels outside the normal range and cause adverse health effects, depending on dietary conditions. Certain cell types such as fat and muscle cells require insulin to absorb glucose. When these cells fail to respond adequately to circulating insulin, blood glucose levels rise. The liver helps regulate glucose levels by reducing its secretion of glucose in the presence of insulin. This normal reduction in the liver 's glucose production may not occur in people with insulin resistance. Insulin resistance in muscle and fat cells reduces glucose uptake (and also local storage of glucose as glycogen and triglycerides, respectively), whereas insulin resistance in liver cells results in reduced glycogen synthesis and storage and also a failure to suppress glucose production and release into the blood. Insulin resistance normally refers to reduced glucose - lowering effects of insulin. However, other functions of insulin can also be affected. For example, insulin resistance in fat cells reduces the normal effects of insulin on lipids and results in reduced uptake of circulating lipids and increased hydrolysis of stored triglycerides. Increased mobilization of stored lipids in these cells elevates free fatty acids in the blood plasma. Elevated blood fatty - acid concentrations (associated with insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus Type 2), reduced muscle glucose uptake, and increased liver glucose production all contribute to elevated blood glucose levels. High plasma levels of insulin and glucose due to insulin resistance are a major component of the metabolic syndrome. If insulin resistance exists, more insulin needs to be secreted by the pancreas. If this compensatory increase does not occur, blood glucose concentrations increase and type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults occurs. Any food or drink containing glucose (or the digestible carbohydrates that contain it, such as sucrose, starch, etc.) causes blood glucose levels to increase. In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose level instructs beta (β) cells in the Islets of Langerhans, located in the pancreas, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin, in turn, makes insulin - sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal muscle cells, adipose tissue, and liver) absorb glucose, and thereby lower the blood glucose level. The beta cells reduce insulin output as the blood glucose level falls, allowing blood glucose to settle at a constant of approximately 5 mmol / L (mM) (90 mg / dL). In an insulin - resistant person, normal levels of insulin do not have the same effect in controlling blood glucose levels. During the compensated phase on insulin resistance, insulin levels are higher, and blood glucose levels are still maintained. If compensatory insulin secretion fails, then either fasting (impaired fasting glucose) or postprandial (impaired glucose tolerance) glucose concentrations increase. Eventually, type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes occurs when glucose levels become higher throughout the day as the resistance increases and compensatory insulin secretion fails. The elevated insulin levels also have additional effects (see insulin) that cause further abnormal biological effects throughout the body. The most common type of insulin resistance is associated with overweight and obesity in a condition known as the metabolic syndrome. Insulin resistance often progresses to full Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. This often is seen when hyperglycemia develops after a meal, when pancreatic β - cells are unable to produce sufficient insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels (euglycemia) in the face of insulin resistance. The inability of the β - cells to produce sufficient insulin in a condition of hyperglycemia is what characterizes the transition from insulin resistance to T2DM. Various disease states make body tissues more resistant to the actions of insulin. Examples include infection (mediated by the cytokine TNFα) and acidosis. Recent research is investigating the roles of adipokines (the cytokines produced by adipose tissue) in insulin resistance. Certain drugs also may be associated with insulin resistance (e.g., glucocorticoids). The presence of insulin leads to a kind of insulin resistance; every time a cell is exposed to insulin, the production of GLUT4 (Glucose transporter type 4) on the membrane of the cell decreases somewhat. In the presence of a higher than usual level of insulin (generally caused by insulin resistance), this down - regulation acts as a kind of positive feedback, increasing the need for insulin. Exercise reverses this process in muscle tissue, but if it is left unchecked, it may contribute to insulin resistance. Elevated blood levels of glucose -- regardless of cause -- lead to increased glycation of proteins with changes, only a few of which are understood in any detail, in protein function throughout the body. Insulin resistance often is found in people with visceral adiposity (i.e., a high degree of fatty tissue within the abdomen -- as distinct from subcutaneous adiposity or fat between the skin and the muscle wall, especially elsewhere on the body, such as hips or thighs), hypertension, hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia involving elevated triglycerides, small dense low - density lipoprotein (sdLDL) particles, and decreased HDL cholesterol levels. With respect to visceral adiposity, a great deal of evidence suggests two strong links with insulin resistance. First, unlike subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral adipose cells produce significant amounts of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor - alpha (TNF - a), and Interleukins - 1 and − 6, etc. In numerous experimental models, these proinflammatory cytokines disrupt normal insulin action in fat and muscle cells, and may be a major factor in causing the whole - body insulin resistance observed in patients with visceral adiposity. Much of the attention on production of proinflammatory cytokines has focused on the IKK - beta / NF - kappa - B pathway, a protein network that enhances transcription of inflammatory markers and mediators that may cause insulin resistance. Second, visceral adiposity is related to an accumulation of fat in the liver, a condition known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The result of NAFLD is an excessive release of free fatty acids into the bloodstream (due to increased lipolysis), and an increase in hepatic glycogenolysis and hepatic glucose production, both of which have the effect of exacerbating peripheral insulin resistance and increasing the likelihood of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Also, insulin resistance often is associated with a hypercoagulable state (impaired fibrinolysis) and increased inflammatory cytokine levels. A fasting serum insulin level greater than 25 mIU / L or 174 pmol / L is considered insulin resistance. The same levels apply three hours after the last meal. During a glucose tolerance test (GTT), which may be used to diagnose diabetes mellitus, a fasting patient takes a 75 gram oral dose of glucose. Then blood glucose levels are measured over the following two hours. Interpretation is based on WHO guidelines. After two hours a glycemia less than 7.8 mmol / L (140 mg / dL) is considered normal, a glycemia of between 7.8 and 11.0 mmol / L (140 to 197 mg / dL) is considered as impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), and a glycemia of greater than or equal to 11.1 mmol / L (200 mg / dL) is considered diabetes mellitus. An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) may be normal or mildly abnormal in simple insulin resistance. Often, there are raised glucose levels in the early measurements, reflecting the loss of a postprandial peak (after the meal) in insulin production. Extension of the testing (for several more hours) may reveal a hypoglycemic "dip, '' that is a result of an overshoot in insulin production after the failure of the physiologic postprandial insulin response. The gold standard for investigating and quantifying insulin resistance is the "hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, '' so - called because it measures the amount of glucose necessary to compensate for an increased insulin level without causing hypoglycemia. It is a type of glucose clamp technique. The test is rarely performed in clinical care, but is used in medical research, for example, to assess the effects of different medications. The rate of glucose infusion commonly is referred to in diabetes literature as the GINF value. The procedure takes about two hours. Through a peripheral vein, insulin is infused at 10 -- 120 mU per m per minute. In order to compensate for the insulin infusion, glucose 20 % is infused to maintain blood sugar levels between 5 and 5.5 mmol / L. The rate of glucose infusion is determined by checking the blood sugar levels every five to ten minutes. The rate of glucose infusion during the last thirty minutes of the test determines insulin sensitivity. If high levels (7.5 mg / min or higher) are required, the patient is insulin - sensitive. Very low levels (4.0 mg / min or lower) indicate that the body is resistant to insulin action. Levels between 4.0 and 7.5 mg / min are not definitive, and suggest "impaired glucose tolerance, '' an early sign of insulin resistance. This basic technique may be enhanced significantly by the use of glucose tracers. Glucose may be labeled with either stable or radioactive atoms. Commonly used tracers are 3 - H glucose (radioactive), 6, 6 H - glucose (stable) and 1 - C Glucose (stable). Prior to beginning the hyperinsulinemic period, a 3h tracer infusion enables one to determine the basal rate of glucose production. During the clamp, the plasma tracer concentrations enable the calculation of whole - body insulin - stimulated glucose metabolism, as well as the production of glucose by the body (i.e., endogenous glucose production). Another measure of insulin resistance is the modified insulin suppression test developed by Gerald Reaven at Stanford University. The test correlates well with the euglycemic clamp, with less operator - dependent error. This test has been used to advance the large body of research relating to the metabolic syndrome. Patients initially receive 25 μg of octreotide (Sandostatin) in 5 mL of normal saline over 3 to 5 minutes via intravenous infusion (IV) as an initial bolus, and then, are infused continuously with an intravenous infusion of somatostatin (0.27 μg / m / min) to suppress endogenous insulin and glucose secretion. Next, insulin and 20 % glucose are infused at rates of 32 and 267 mg / m / min, respectively. Blood glucose is checked at zero, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes, and thereafter, every 10 minutes for the last half - hour of the test. These last four values are averaged to determine the steady - state plasma glucose level (SSPG). Subjects with an SSPG greater than 150 mg / dL are considered to be insulin - resistant. Given the complicated nature of the "clamp '' technique (and the potential dangers of hypoglycemia in some patients), alternatives have been sought to simplify the measurement of insulin resistance. The first was the Homeostatic Model Assessment (HOMA), and a more recent method is the Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI). Both employ fasting insulin and glucose levels to calculate insulin resistance, and both correlate reasonably with the results of clamping studies. Wallace et al. point out that QUICKI is the logarithm of the value from one of the HOMA equations. The primary treatment for insulin resistance is exercise and weight loss. Research shows that a low - carbohydrate diet may help. Both metformin and thiazolidinediones improve insulin resistance, but only are approved therapies for type 2 diabetes, not for insulin resistance. By contrast, growth hormone replacement therapy may be associated with increased insulin resistance. Metformin has become one of the more commonly prescribed medications for insulin resistance. Unfortunately, Metformin also masks Vitamin B12 deficiency, so accompanying sub-lingual Vitamin B12 tablets are recommended. Insulin resistance is often associated with abnormalities in lipids particularly high blood triglycerides and low high density lipoprotein. The Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) showed that exercise and diet were nearly twice as effective as metformin at reducing the risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes. However, the participants in the DPP trial regained about 40 % of the weight that they had lost at the end of 2.8 years, resulting in a similar incidence of diabetes development in both the lifestyle intervention and the control arms of the trial. One 2009 study found that carbohydrate deficit after exercise, but not energy deficit, contributed to insulin sensitivity increase. Resistant starch from high - amylose corn, amylomaize, has been shown to reduce insulin resistance in healthy individuals, in individuals with insulin resistance, and in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Animal studies demonstrate that it can not reverse damage already done by high glucose levels, but that it reduces insulin resistance and reduces the development of further damage. Some types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega - 3) may moderate the progression of insulin resistance into type 2 diabetes, however, omega - 3 fatty acids appear to have limited ability to reverse insulin resistance, and they cease to be efficacious once type 2 diabetes is established. Caffeine intake limits insulin action, but not enough to increase blood - sugar levels in healthy persons. People who already have type 2 diabetes may see a small increase in levels if they take 2 or 2 - 1 / 2 cups of coffee per day. The concept that insulin resistance may be the underlying cause of diabetes mellitus type 2 was first advanced by Professor Wilhelm Falta and published in Vienna in 1931, and confirmed as contributory by Sir Harold Percival Himsworth of the University College Hospital Medical Centre in London in 1936, however, type 2 diabetes does not occur unless there is concurrent failure of compensatory insulin secretion.

what is the sims 3 second expansion pack

The Sims 3 - wikipedia The Sims 3 is the third major title in the life simulation video game developed by The Sims Studio (Maxis) and published by Electronic Arts. It is the sequel to the best - selling computer game, The Sims 2. It was first announced that it was in development for PlayStation 3 and Wii in November 2006, and later announced for OS X and Microsoft Windows. It was first released on June 2, 2009 simultaneously for OS X and Microsoft Windows -- both versions on the same disc. Smartphone versions were also released on June 2, 2009. Consoles versions were released for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Nintendo DS in October 2010 and a month later for the Wii. The Windows Phone version was made available on the Windows Phone Store on October 15, 2010. A Nintendo 3DS version, released on March 27, 2011, was one of its launch titles. The Sims 3 was a commercial success, selling 1.4 million copies in its first week. Critics issued mostly positive reviews, with a 86 / 100 score from aggregator Metacritic. The game has sold over ten million copies worldwide since its 2009 release, making it one of the best - selling PC games of all time. The last of eleven expansion packs, Into the Future, was released in October 2013. A sequel, The Sims 4, was released in September 2014. The Sims 3 is built upon the same concept as its predecessors. Players control their own Sims ' activities and relationships in a manner similar to real life. The game play is open - ended and does not have a defined goal. Challenges occur randomly based on aspects of each Sim 's lifestyle, such as relationships, skills and job. Career opportunities such as working overtime or completing special tasks can yield a pay raise, cash bonus, or relationship boost. Skill opportunities are requests by neighbors or community members for Sims to solve problems using their acquired skills for cash or relationship rewards. If the opportunity is connected to a Sim 's school, the reward may be increased school performance. The new reward system Wishes replaces the Wants And Fears system in its predecessor The Sims 2. Fulfilling a Sim 's wish contributes to the Sim 's Lifetime Happiness score, allowing players to purchase lifetime rewards for the cost of those Lifetime Happiness points. The game includes an optional feature called "Story Progression '' which allows all Sims in the neighborhood to autonomously continue free will without the player ever controlling those sims. Sims live for a set duration of time that is adjustable by the player and advance through several life stages (baby, toddler, child, teen, young adult, adult, and elder). Sims can die of old age or they can die prematurely from causes such as fire, starvation, drowning, electrocution. Further causes of death were added in the games expansion packs. The Sims 3 introduces many more character customization options than its predecessor The Sims 2. The player has a larger selection of body types for Sims as muscle and body weight sliders have been introduced. However, toddlers do not have the option to have their weight customized. The Late Night expansion pack also added sliders for breast size and muscle definition that are also included in the base game. Expanded skin tone options have also been added. Each skin tone can be further customized with a light to dark slider. The player is able to pick their Sim 's shoes, a feature previously limited to console versions of The Sims and The Sims 2. There are a total of 22 hairstyles for female Sims and 17 hairstyles for male Sims with more available through either expansion packs, stuff packs, The Sims 3 Store or third - party custom content. Hats and accessories may be applied and may also have their colors and textures altered. Each Sim 's hair color can be chosen from one of eight basic colors, or the hair color can be customized using a color wheel to choose the base hair color, roots, highlights or tips. The Sims 3 offers many more character customization options than its predecessors. With the addition of "Advanced Mode '', players can focus on single features on a characters body to modify, allowing for detailed customization. Players also have the option of giving freckles, beauty marks, and tattoos to their Sims. There are several skill - dependent abilities, such as more social interactions available from high charisma, special songs for guitar players, and appliance upgrades (self - cleaning, more TV channels, etc.) for high handiness. Sims can begin building skills as early as their toddler days. While skills do not show up in the meter right away, using skill building objects is rewarded once the toddler grows into a child. The basic skills include Logic, Cooking, Painting, Gardening, Writing, Guitar, Athletic, Handiness, Charisma and Fishing. New skills were later added in expansion packs. When Sims reach level 10 of a skill, they will get a certificate in the mail. Each skill has a tab in the skill journal detailing the level of the skill, statistics, what the challenges are, and sometimes other special information. Various challenges are also available in the skill journal. When a challenge is completed, Sims can earn rewards. All of these rewards earn some kind of benefit, such as quicker completion, better results, etc. With the Ambitions expansion pack, the skill journal also shows hidden skills that a Sim has learned. Many of the careers from The Sims 2, and The Sims, such as the Law Enforcement and Athletic tracks, are in The Sims 3. The careers in the core game are Business, Culinary, Criminal, Journalism, Law Enforcement, Medical, Military, Music, Political, Science, and Professional Sports. Professions in the Ambitions expansion pack include Firefighter, Ghost Hunter, Investigator, Architectural Designer, and Stylist. The part - time jobs available include such positions as a Bookstore Clerk, Grocery Store Clerk, Spa Receptionist, Spa Specialist and a Mausoleum Gravedigger. Part - time jobs have a lower pay than full - time jobs and do not give career opportunities. Part - time jobs are also available for teen Sims. The Ambitions expansion pack also introduced professions, careers that allow the player direct control over their Sims ' work and how they spend their days, and the ability for Sims to register at City Hall as self - employed in a skill career. Sims can look for these jobs in the newspaper, the computer, or apply at the "rabbit hole '' building where they would like to work. Sims are also able to make a living at home through their skills such as selling their own paintings, writing novels, playing guitar for tips, or growing fruit and vegetables. Jobs such as nectar making is also a profession with the Sims 3 World Adventures. Sims can also buy out businesses and receive a percentage of the profits they earn. Advancing in a career still depends on mood and skills, but with the addition that relationships with colleagues / boss and even certain goals that have to be fulfilled. Players now have more control as to their Sims work, with the option to "Work Hard '', "Take It Easy '', "Suck Up To Boss '', etc. Depending upon which of these the Sim is directed affects the performance bar. If the performance bar is maxed out, this will help to increase a Sims chances of being promoted. A new feature The Sims 3 offers is branching careers, which allows Sims to choose a certain path in their career (such as a Sim in the Music career can eventually choose to specialize in Symphonic music or Rock). These branches are generally offered around level 6 of a career, depending on which career the Sim is working. Neighborhoods are now being officially referred to as ' worlds ', or, when moving, towns, possibly due to Electronic Arts ' use of the Create a World tool and the neighborhoods scale. Worlds are now ' seamless ', open to exploration between lots and are affected by a new game mechanic called story progression. The primary world in the game is Sunset Valley, while an additional world called Riverview can be obtained for free. All expansion packs to date (except Generations and Seasons) have included a world, and additional worlds can be bought at The Sims 3 Store for sim points. The Create a World tool allows players to make their own neighborhoods with custom terrains similar to Sim City 4. A game patch, released in conjunction with the release of Ambitions, also allows players to manipulate pre-made neighborhoods to a limited degree, such as adding or removing lots and scenery. As of Late Night, worlds are divided into "Sims 3 Towns and "Late Night Towns ''. There seem to be important differences between the two, like the sims they can spawn, etc. Up to now, Bridgeport is the only pre-made world to be cataloged as a city. The rest, including the exotic destinations from World Adventures, are considered suburbs. On March 19, 2008, EA revealed open world, a new feature, for The Sims 3. Players can explore the world outside their Sims ' homes without having to face strenuous loading times. Every house lot is now synchronized with the main neighborhood time. In previous Sims games, the time of day was separate and different for each house lot. Players can interact with every building and amenity in a city. Although players are unable to see inside of certain commercial buildings often called rabbitholes (grocery, bookstore, theater, police station, school, etc.), they are able to enter and retain limited control over their Sims ' actions while in these locations. The player has complete control in some other commercial buildings -- such as the gym, library and the beach house. All occupied residential buildings can be entered in the same manner as a Sims ' home, provided that the buildings are not empty or it is not too late at night. The build and buy modes have received their own makeover. The square tile outlines that appeared on the ground in previous Sims games ' build and buy modes are now a quarter of their original size to give the player more liberty to place objects where they want. Alternatively, it is possible to place objects freely without square tiles, an option that was missing in previous Sims games. Players can re-color and re-pattern the furniture and other items to specific shades and patterns with the new Create - a-Style and make houses with five levels (basements of up to four floors deep). Build mode is one of three modes in The Sims 3. It is used mainly for construction and architectural work. Some items that would be considered to be in build mode, such as counters and lights, are actually in the buy mode section. Build mode can be used to do many things including adding walls, paint / cover walls, add doors and windows, lay down flooring, create foundations and raised decks, create basements by using either foundations or the Basement tool, add columns and supports, create pools, raise and lower land, create ponds, build gardens and landscape a lot, add fireplaces, add additional floors / stories to a building, add stairs, and add a roof. Some expansion packs released after The Sims 3 add extra build mode features such as ceiling construction and designing the terrain, Players can not build or place objects outside the limits of the lot. Walls and foundations can not be placed within one tile of the outer limit of the lot. Fences can be placed all the way up to the edge of the lot and all structures built by the players are limited to five above - ground stories as well as four basement levels. Buildings can be modified to appear to be taller than five stories, either using shells (introduced in Late Night) or by use of the constrainfloorelevation false cheat, which disables the requirement for above - ground floors to be uniform in height and level. There will, however, still be only a maximum of five usable above - ground floors. The height of a section of wall is equal to the length of 3 - floor squares. This is most noticeable while placing a 45 ° roof. It is possible that the length of a game tile is 1 meter, and that the height of a section of wall would then be 3 meters. In some situations, Build mode, as well as Buy mode, may become disabled, such as during a fire, burglary, or other major event. This is done to prevent modifications to the lot that may impact or prevent a game event from occurring. After the event has ended, Build and Buy modes will be re-activated. This feature has been an annoyance to many players and is disabled in many mods. Depreciation of objects is visible in The Sims 3. All objects depreciate 10 % as soon as the player exits build mode. This adds realism to the game and gives the player limited tries at building before the costs of building use up too much of the funds intended for furnishing and living expenses. When in build mode, players can return items for full value by using the undo tool. In Buy mode, the player may purchase items from the catalog, sell objects that are on the current lot, and arrange objects on the current lot. Construction - related elements such as doors, windows, fences, and stairs are not associated with buy mode, but are in build mode. Buy mode largely focuses on furniture and appliances. The descriptions of many of the objects available for purchase in the game (namely the least expensive ones) involve humor, sarcasm, insults towards the player, and wit, and serves as comic relief in the game. For example, one of the cheapest cars available in The Sims 3, the "Big Lemon '', notes that although the car 's doors are jammed and its ignition is faulty, it is still worth buying. Another example is the outdoor entertainment item "Foot - and - Hand Ball '' used to train the athletic skill, which references and pokes fun at American football, which, despite its name, rarely involves contact with the ball via the feet. A feature that was introduced in The Sims 2 and stays present currently is the eyedropper tool. When the eyedropper tool is pointed at a wall covering, floor covering, or most objects, will show the name of what it 's pointed at. Clicking on a wall or floor covering will switch to the appropriate area of build mode and select that covering so it can be applied. Clicking on an object will make an exact duplicate of it, and will focus the catalog on that object. The family inventory is a space where objects that are too large to be held in a Sim 's personal inventory are kept. Certain opportunities may make an object available in the Family Inventory. When a Sim family moves, if "pack furniture '' is selected, all objects in the household will be placed in the Family inventory, to be moved and rearranged in the new house. Introduced in patch 42, blueprint mode (a subset of the build mode), allows players to choose from pre-made rooms. A player can place down blueprints anywhere furniture can go, and after "realizing '' them, have the blueprints automatically laid out. On October 29, 2009, Electronic Arts announced "Create a World '' (CAW), which is a game world editor that allows players to create their own custom cities from scratch for use within the game. Players can customize lots, choose terrain patterns and add roads, vegetation and neighborhood accents (such as water towers and lighthouses). CAW also allows players to import designs from PNG files for use in their worlds. Users can upload their worlds to The Sims 3 Exchange for download by other players. The editor tool is offered to players as a separate download (156MB), and was released on December 16, 2009 as a beta version. EA will offer technical support and updates. Players are able to share their neighborhoods as with other content. The Create A World tool is currently only available for Windows - based PCs. Electronic Arts first announced The Sims 3 on March 19, 2008. The game was developed at The Sims Studio located in Redwood Shores, California. On January 15, 2009, EA invited "some of the best '' custom content creators to their campus at Redwood Shores where they were hosting a Creator 's Camp. Creators have been invited to spend the week exploring and creating content like Sims, houses and customized content. The Creators ' work is used to pre-populate The Sims 3 Exchange. In the seventh expansion pack for The Sims 2, The Sims 2: FreeTime, an event occurs in which a Sim - version of Rod Humble, the head of The Sims franchise, gives the player 's Sim family an unopened gift box. When opened, the family gets a computer with The Sims 3 on it. The Sims 3 game can not be bought in the catalog. Sims can then play The Sims 3 on their computers or console systems. Like all the other games that Sims can play in The Sims 2, The Sims 3 is a looping gameplay video shown on the player 's Sim 's computer screens when played by a Sim. On July 15, 2008 the first video preview of The Sims 3 appeared on the official website as did seven new screenshots and five Create - A-Sim screens. Four screenshots that appeared on the website and were then taken down soon after, leaked onto the Internet by a member of the community. Copies of the video game Spore also came packaged with fliers advertising the game, with information stating whole - neighborhood accessibility and endless possibilities on character creation. On October 31, 2008, two teaser trailers were released by Electronic Arts featuring a comical view on the 2008 presidential election in the United States. Candidates John McCain and Barack Obama were included along with respective running mates Sarah Palin and Joe Biden. In the eighth expansion pack of The Sims 2, The Sims 2: Apartment Life, new objects were added including logo posters and framed screenshots. The game was shipped with a code and an Internet address, where the player could download clothing with The Sims 3 logo on it. Another developer walk through was released on November 6, 2008, featuring in - depth previews of the neighborhood and Create - A-Sim. On May 8, 2009, EA announced that The Sims 3 had gone gold meaning that the game had finished beta testing stage and was off for manufacturing ahead of its June 2009 release. On May 15, 2009 EA released some online interactive teaser experiences on The Sims 3 Website, including ' SimFriend ', which allows users to choose a virtual Sim Friend who would email them throughout the day. ' SimSocial ', which allows users to create their own Sim online, and have an adventure with them. ' SimSidekick ', which allows users to surf the web with a sim. Two weeks before the game was scheduled to be released, an unauthorized copy of the digital distribution version of the game leaked onto the Internet. EA later commented the leak was a "buggy, pre-final '' version. EA claims that more than half of the game is missing and is susceptible to crashes or worse. Reportedly, the title has seen higher copyright infringement rates than that of the most torrented game of 2008, Spore. In April 2009, Electronic Arts began to post billboards in many areas in advertisement for the game. Many of the billboards covered skyscrapers in densely populated areas, most notably Times Square in New York City. The costs of these billboards was estimated to be $10 million a month. This marketing campaign proved successful, as The Sims 3 sold 1.4 million copies in its first week, breaking the record for all EA games. On March 23, 2009, the look and feel of The Sims 3 was threaded throughout the storyline of an episode of The CW series One Tree Hill. On screen, the episode opens in an idealized Sims version of One Tree Hill and then transitions into the real Tree Hill. As this episode plays out, Sims versions of popular One Tree Hill characters are introduced and then morph into the real - life characters, including Dan (Paul Johansson), Lucas (Chad Michael Murray) and Peyton (Hilarie Burton). The Sims 3 versions of the characters are available for download via CW 's official website. On April 19, 2009, Target exclusively released a promotional disc of The Sims 3 that features a Ladytron band poster, The Sims 3 theme song music download, and a $5 off coupon. The main menu includes screensaver downloads, videos, Create - A-Sim, Create - A-House, and much more. There is no actual gameplay involved, but it describes what playing feels like. On July 14, 2010, Ford Motor began a promotion at The Sims 3 Store by allowing players to download their newest car at the time, the Ford Fiesta Mark VII. The car also came with a collection of street signs. On October 27, 2010, the download was updated to include the Fiesta Hatchback. The 2012 Ford Focus was made available to download on June 8, 2011. The car included one male Ford T - shirt, one female Ford T - shirt, a stereo, and a set of neon lights, all for use in - game. The Focus pack was available to download on Mac, PC, Xbox, and PlayStation platforms. Music for The Sims 3 was composed by Steve Jablonsky. Scores were recorded with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at Newman Scoring Stage at 20th Century Fox. Music for the game 's stereo and guitar objects was produced by others, including Darrell Brown, Rebeca Mauleon, and Peppino D'Agostino. Additional music was produced by APM Music. Two soundtracks have been released for The Sims 3 base game, The Sims 3 Soundtrack and The Sims 3 -- Stereo Jams. The soundtrack includes theme music and the Stereo Jams album includes music from stereos in game. All songs on Stereo Jams are in Simlish. Some of EA 's other PC titles from the same time period, such as Spore and Dead Space, used a SecuROM copy restriction scheme that requires online and offline authentication and limits the number of times a user can install the game to five. While it was speculated that The Sims 3 would use the same system, on March 26, 2009, executive producer Rod Humble revealed that The Sims 3 uses traditional disk - based copy protection as Sims 2 did and does not require online authentication to install. A product key is also required. However, SecuROM based restriction is still present within the digital version of the title, limiting users to a total of 5 authorizations for 5 different machines via online activation, each of which can be de-authorized online at any time. A legitimate serial key is required to download custom objects and Sims from the official website. This includes custom designs created by other Sims 3 players as well as additional content from EA. On February 3, 2009, it was announced that the release date of The Sims 3 would be delayed from February 20, 2009 to June 2, 2009 in the US, and June 5, 2009 in the UK. John Riccitiello, CEO of Electronic Arts, said "In the case of (The Sims 3), we 're moving this title to June 2 to give us additional time to build the worldwide marketing campaign a title like this deserves ''. Grant Rodiek, Associate Producer of The Sims 3 said: The Sims 3 June launch gives more time for tuning and polish and the ability to launch the game on PC and Mac platforms simultaneously. This is a key EA franchise and title and it deserves a bigger bet on the best Sims game EA has made. These last few months will give us a little more time to tune, tweak, and polish the game. Our players have been waiting for something awesome and that 's exactly what we intend to give them. EA Singapore launched The Sims 3 with a large launch party which was held on June 2, 2009 at the new shopping mall Iluma in Singapore. At the event, The Sims 3 T - shirts were available for purchase. In Sydney, Australia on June 4, 2009 a fashion event to show off the freedom and self - expression in The Sims 3 was held by Electronic Arts Australia, and included a performance by Jessica Mauboy. The game was released as both a standard edition and a Collector 's Edition. Both the collector 's edition and the standard edition of the game comes with a coupon for 1000 Sim Points to spend at The Sims 3 Store. The standard edition contains the first release of the core game, while the Collector 's Edition includes the Sims 3 core game, a 2GB The Sims Plumbob USB flash drive (preloaded with wallpapers and screensavers of the game, and the main theme as an MP3 file) with matching Green Carabiner, an exclusive European - styled Sports Car download, a Prima Tips and Hints Guide (not the actual Sims 3 Prima Guide), and Plumbob stickers. Those that pre-ordered the game also got a Vintage Sports Car download, The Sims 3 Neighborhood Poster, and a quick start reference guide. A preview CD with more information about The Sims 3, such as music samples, family descriptions, and career information, was also released. A version of The Sims 3 was released on iOS, Android, Bada, Symbian, BlackBerry OS and Windows Phone on June 2, 2009. The iPhone game works similar to that of the PC version. In Create - a-Sim, instead of Lifetime Wishes, there are personas. Personas decide which lifetime wishes your sim will have, as a persona is the largest factor in a Sim 's personality. Sims start out with a small house. The house can be expanded every five sim days if the player can afford it. There are four careers in the town: biology, politics, business, and culinary. As in the PC version, Sims can also learn skills. There are nearly 75 wishes in the game. When all of them are fulfilled, sims unlock the criminal career and have the ability to purchase a car. In some events, such as appliances breaking down, the player must play a minigame to solve or do the action. The game was updated on November 30, 2010, to add support for the Retina display of newer devices. An expansion pack for the iOS version, World Adventures, was released on April 2, 2010. Unlike expansion packs for the PC, this is a standalone application. World Adventures adds tombs, new challenges, personas, and careers, new places to explore (Egypt, China and France), clothes and new furniture. A second expansion pack, Ambitions, was released on September 16, 2010. As with World Adventures, the game was a standalone application. Ambitions added new skills (firefighting, painting, parenting and sports), new community buildings, and the ability to have children. On November 6, 2009, EA announced the release of a vampire theme pack for the iPhone. The pack included Live it or Wear it Sets with Vampires and Werewolves, Castle and Campus Life themes. "Live it '' sets contain car, furniture, decoration, wallpaper, and flooring. "Wear it '' sets contain clothing, new CAS options, and hair styles. The Sims 3 was released to game consoles on October 26, 2010, for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Nintendo DS and the Wii platform on November 15, 2010. The game was released for Nintendo 3DS on March 25, 2011. The game allows the player to take on up to three friends in the Life Moments Game on the Wii, upload and download content on Xbox Live and PlayStation Network, including furnishings, houses, and player creations or experience a full life simulation on a handheld with Nintendo DS. Reviews for the game ranged from average to moderately positive. Sims can age and die, but life cycles can be disabled optionally as well. The Sims 3 features a new Karma system (similar to the influence system in The Sims 2). Sims can interact with child Sims around the neighborhood, or have children of their own. Unlike the PC version of the game, the console versions have loading times when moving from one area to another, and when accessing build / buy modes. The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions received mostly positive reviews. On Metacritic, it currently holds an average score of 77 and 76 out of 100 on the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions, respectively. Game Informer gave the 360 and PS3 versions a 9 / 10, praising the new Karma system and The Exchange. GameSpot gave the game a 7 / 10, noting that "the game lacks fluidity, but is fun in its own right. '' In a positive review, IGN praised the game for its controls on consoles, but said they were disappointed by the fact that there is only one town in the game, as well as bugs, including a glitch where the game will not save once a certain week has been reached. The Sims 3 expansion packs provide additional game features and items: Features: quests, tomb exploration at three new destinations, photography, new build functions including the basement tool, nectar, fireworks, shops, vacation homes. New vacation worlds: Champs Les Sims (France), Al Simhara (Egypt), Shang Simla (China) Features: control within work (professions and selected careers), laundry, tattoo system, skill - based self - employment. New world: Twinbrook Features: bars, night clubs, penthouse suites, hot tubs, subway portholes, elevators, breast and muscle definition sliders, Group, Band, Butler, zodiac signs, new swimming pool design tools, height adjustment for wall objects, fountain tool. New world: Bridgeport Features: Pranks, body hair for males, new types of celebrations (i.e. birthday / teen / bachelor parties, weddings, slumber), memories, graduation ceremonies, prom, imaginative play, potions, spiral staircases, water slides, boarding schools, pillow fights, strollers, canes for elders. Additions: New pets, new animal and sim traits, Create - A-Pet, new lifetime wishes and rewards, new interactions, new items, new venues and community locations, new pet and sim skills. Features: Controllable animals (cats, dogs, horses) and non-playable creatures (see NPC section), pet contests. New world: Appaloosa Plains Additions: New stage performance careers (singer, acrobat, magician), new objects (pool table, golfing), new sim traits / lifetime wishes; Katy Perry only: downloadable stage venue, fruit - themed clothing, items, and stage props. Features: Social features, stage decoration, singing, gigs, new ' Achievement System ', Simport which allows importing and exporting of celebrity Sims. New world: Starlight Shores Additions: New items (alchemy station, rocking chair), new clothing options including wings, new traits. Features: Supernatural life states including witches, werewolves, fairies, vampires, and zombies; creation of supernatural Sims directly in Create - A-Sim. New world: Moonlight Falls Additions: New skills (soccer / snowboard), new traits, seasonal celebrations. Features: Weather, seasons, new outerwear clothing category, new festivals & holidays, swimming in the ocean. Additions: New skills (Bowling, Science, Photography, Social Networking & Street Arts), new traits, social groups, college sub-neighborhood, a smart phone, a new university world you enter when you enroll, and weather. New university world: Sims University Additions & Features: Houseboats, resort management, island discovery, new modes of transportation on water (e.g. boating, water skiing, windsurfing). New world: Isla Paradiso New world: Oasis Landing Stuff Packs only include new items e.g. furniture, clothing, hairstyles. They do not add any new functionality to the game. Stuff Packs are compatible with both Windows and OS X as with the main game and expansion packs. The Sims 3 Store is an online store where players of The Sims 3 can purchase and download content for their game online for additional fees. To date, unlike its counterpart for The Sims 2, The Sims 3 Store only offers exclusive objects, clothing, skins, and hairstyles not found through any other medium. The Store also offers variants of special objects found in expansions (such as laundry and hot - tubs), which offer their features for players who have n't purchased those expansions. The store is updated with new items for purchase every month. Premium content, such as the foot massage chair and wind chimes, add new gameplay or animations. The update of August 2014 is the last. The store uses a point system in which players can purchase additional SimPoints using a credit card or Points Card, which may be purchased at retail stores or via the Origin online store. It was launched on June 4, 2009 to coincide with the launch of the game. Players can download purchased items using the game launcher or the Store Mode interface found within the game itself. When a user purchases additional SimPoints, they obtain an object in the game for buying SimPoints. Several worlds and towns for players to play in have been published on The Sims 3 Store: This is a departure from both the first and second generation of the franchise, in which new items were obtained primarily through expansion packs, stuff packs, and / or user - generation. EA reported that in its first week, The Sims 3 sold 1.4 million copies. According to EA, this was the most successful PC game launch the company had ever had to date. According to retail data trackers Gfk Australia The Sims 3 has been the top selling game in Australia from release until June 30, 2009. Response from critics and gamers alike were generally favorable, with Metacritic calculating a metascore of 86 / 100 based on 75 reviews. PC Gamer awarded The Sims 3 a 92 % and an Editor 's Choice badge, calling it "The best Sims game yet ''. IGN PC awarded The Sims 3 an 8.9 / 10, stating: This is simply a better playing Sims experience, and once you experience the freedom to hit the town without hitting a load screen you 'll be hard - pressed to go back to any of the earlier games. Blowing up the size of the game was certainly a risk, but it was a sensible and overdue one, and kudos to EA for recognizing that the decade - old formula needed some growth. And while there 's still plenty of room for more innovation, we 'll settle for The Sims 3 for now. It delivers a solid foundation for what should be many more years of Sims sales dominance. GameSpot awarded The Sims 3 a score of 9.0 / 10, the review praised the game: "The latest Sims game is also the greatest, striking a terrific balance between the fresh and the familiar. '' The game was ranked # 91 in IGN 's "Top 100 Modern Games ''. In a special edition of Edge magazine, listing their 100 top videogames of all - time, The Sims 3 was number 89 on the list. Currently over thirteen million people like The Sims 3 on Facebook. On May 6, 2013, EA confirmed The Sims 4 would be released in 2014. The game was released in North America on September 2, 2014.

when a citizen is returned to the state of the crime to stand trial

Extradition - Wikipedia Extradition is the act by one jurisdiction of delivering a person who has been accused of committing a crime in another jurisdiction or has been convicted of a crime in that other jurisdiction into the custody of a law enforcement agency of that other jurisdiction. It is a cooperative law enforcement process between the two jurisdictions and depends on the arrangements made between them. Besides the legal aspects of the process, extradition also involves the physical transfer of custody of the person being extradited to the legal authority of the requesting jurisdiction. Through the extradition process, one sovereign jurisdiction typically makes a formal request to another sovereign jurisdiction ("the requested state ''). If the fugitive is found within the territory of the requested state, then the requested state may arrest the fugitive and subject him or her to its extradition process. The extradition procedures to which the fugitive will be subjected are dependent on the law and practice of the requested state. Between countries, extradition is normally regulated by treaties. Where extradition is compelled by laws, such as among sub-national jurisdictions, the concept may be known more generally as rendition. It is an ancient mechanism, dating back to at least the 13th century BC, when an Egyptian Pharaoh, Ramesses II, negotiated an extradition treaty with Hittite King, Hattusili III. The consensus in international law is that a state does not have any obligation to surrender an alleged criminal to a foreign state, because one principle of sovereignty is that every state has legal authority over the people within its borders. Such absence of international obligation, and the desire for the right to demand such criminals from other countries, have caused a web of extradition treaties or agreements to evolve. When no applicable extradition agreement is in place, a sovereign may still request the expulsion or lawful return of an individual pursuant to the requested state 's domestic law. This can be accomplished through the immigration laws of the requested state or other facets of the requested state 's domestic law. Similarly, the codes of penal procedure in many countries contain provisions allowing for extradition to take place in the absence of an extradition agreement. Sovereigns may, therefore, still request the expulsion or lawful return of a fugitive from the territory of a requested state in the absence of an extradition treaty. No country in the world has an extradition treaty with all other countries; for example, the United States lacks extradition treaties with Russia, the People 's Republic of China, Namibia, the United Arab Emirates, North Korea, Bahrain, and many other countries. (See Extradition law in the United States.) By enacting laws or in concluding treaties or agreements, countries determine the conditions under which they may entertain or deny extradition requests. Observing fundamental human rights is also an important reason for denying some extradition requests. It is common for human rights exceptions to be specifically incorporated in bilateral treaties. Such bars can be invoked in relation to the treatment of the individual in the receiving country, including their trial and sentence. These bars may also extend to take account of the effect on family of the individual if extradition proceeds. Therefore, human rights recognised by international and regional agreements may be the basis for denying extradition requests. However, cases where extradition is denied should be treated as independent exceptions and will only occur in exceptional circumstances. Common bars to extradition include: Generally the act for which extradition is sought must constitute a crime punishable by some minimum penalty in both the requesting and the requested states. Many countries refuse to extradite suspects of political crimes. See political offence exception. Some countries refuse extradition on grounds that the person, if extradited, may receive capital punishment or face torture. A few go as far as to cover all punishments that they themselves would not administer. Jurisdiction over a crime can be invoked to refuse extradition. In particular, the fact that the person in question is a nation 's own citizen causes that country to have jurisdiction (see next point). Some countries, such as Austria, Brazil, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, the People 's Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), Russia, Switzerland and Syria forbid extradition of their own citizens. These countries often have laws in place that give them jurisdiction over crimes committed abroad by or against citizens. By virtue of such jurisdiction, they prosecute and try citizens accused of crimes committed abroad as if the crime had occurred within the country 's borders (see, e.g., trial of Xiao Zhen). In a limited number of cases Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights has been invoked to stop extradition from proceeding. Article 8 states that everyone has the right to the respect of their private and family life. This is achieved by way of balancing the potential harm to private life against the public interest in upholding the extradition arrangement. While this article is useful as it provide for a prohibition to extradition, the threshold required to meet this prohibition is high. Article 8 does explicitly provide that this right is subject to limits in the interests of national security and public safety, so these limits must be weighed in a balancing of priority against this right. Cases where extradition is sought usually involve serious crimes so while these limits are often justified there have been cases where extradition could not be justified in light of the individual 's family life. Cases to date have mostly involved dependant children where the extradition would be counter to the best interests of this child. In the case of FK v. Polish Judicial Authority the court held that it would violate article 8 for a mother of five young children to be extradited amidst charges of minor fraud which were committed number of years ago. This case is an example of how the gravity of the crime for which extradition was sought was not proportionate to protecting the interests of the individual 's family. However the court in this case noted that even in circumstances where extradition is refused a custodial sentence will be given to comply with the principles of international comity. In contrast the case of HH v Deputy Prosecutor of the Italian Republic, Genoa is an example of when the public interest for allowing extradition outweighed the best interests of the children. In this case both parents were being extradited to Italy for serious drug importation crimes. Article 8 does not only address the needs of children, but all family members yet the high threshold required to satisfy Article 8 means that the vulnerability of children is the most likely circumstance to meet this threshold. In the case of Norris v US (No 2) a man sought to argue that if extradited his health would be undermined and it would cause his wife depression. This claim was rejected by the Court which stated that a successful claim under Article 8 would require "exceptional '' circumstances. Suicide Risk: Cases where there is risk of the individual committing suicide have also invoked article 8 as the public interest of extraditing must be considered in light of the risk of suicide by the individual if extradited. In the case of Jason 's v Latvia extradition was refused on these grounds, as the crime for which the individual was sought was not enough of a threat to public interest to outweigh the high risk of suicide which had been assessed to exist for the individual if extradited. Consideration of the right to a fair trial is particularly complex in extradition cases. Its complexity arises from the fact that while the court deciding whether to surrender the individual must uphold these rights this same court must also be satisfied that any trial undertaken by the requesting state after extradition is granted also respects these rights. Article 14 of the ICCPR provides a number of criteria for fair trial standards. These standards have been reflected in courts who have shown that subjective considerations should be made in determining whether such trials would be ' unjust ' or ' oppressive ' by taking into account factors such as the duration of time since the alleged offences occurred, health of the individual, prison conditions in the requesting state and likelihood of conviction among other considerations. Yet exactly how the standards provided for in ICCPR are incorporated or recognised by domestic courts and decision makers is still unclear although it seems that these standards can at a minimum be used to inform the notions of such decision makers. If it is found that fair trial standards will not be satisfied in the requesting country this may be a sufficient bar to extradition. Article 6 of the ECHR also provides for fair trial standards, which must be observed by European countries when making an extradition request. This court in the Othman case, whom if extradited would face trial where evidence against him had been obtained by way of torture. This was held to be a violation of Article 6 ECHR as it presented a real risk of a ' flagrant denial of justice '. The court in Othman stressed that in order for a breach of Article 6 to occur the trial in the requesting country must constitute a flagrant denial of justice, going beyond merely an unfair trial. Evidence obtained by way of torture has been sufficient to satisfy the threshold of a flagrant denial of justice in a number of case. This is in part because torture evidence threatens the "integrity of the trial process and the rule of law itself. '' Human rights as a bar to extradition can be invoked in relation to the treatment of the individual in the receiving country, including their trial and sentence as well as the effect on family of the individual if extradition is granted. The repressive nature and the limitations of freedoms imposed on an individual is part of the extradition process and is the reason for these exceptions and the importance that human rights are observed in the extradition process. Therefore, human rights protected by international and regional agreements may be the basis for denying extradition requests, but only as independent exceptions. While human rights concerns can add to the complexity of extradition cases it is positive as it adds to the legitimacy and institutionalisation of the extradition system. Determining whether to allow extradition by the requested state is, among other considerations, a balancing exercise between the interests of the requesting state 's pursuit of justice over the accused individuals, the requested state 's interests in holding dominion over those presently in its territory, and the rights of the extraditable persons. Extradition raises human rights concerns in determining this balance in relation to the extraditable person. States make provision to recognise these rights both expressing in bilateral treaty agreements and also, potentially by way of state 's obligations under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of which the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is particularly relevant to extradition. Although regional, the European Convention of Human Rights has also been invoked as a bar to extradition in a number of cases falling within its jurisdiction and decisions from the European Court of Human Rights have been a useful source of development in this area. A concept related to extradition that has significant implications in transnational criminal law is that of aut dedere aut judicare. This maxim represents the principle that states must either surrender a criminal within their jurisdiction to a state that wishes to prosecute the criminal or prosecute the offender in its own courts. Many international agreements contain provisions for aut dedere aut judicare. These include all four 1949 Geneva Conventions, the U.N. Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, the U.N. Convention Against Corruption, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of an Armed Conflict, and the International Convention for the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. Some contemporary scholars hold the opinion that aut dedere aut judicare is not an obligation under customary international law but rather "a specific conventional clause relating to specific crimes '' and, accordingly, an obligation that only exists when a state has voluntarily assumed the obligation. Cherif Bassiouni, however, has posited that, at least with regard to international crimes, it is not only a rule of customary international law but a jus cogens principle. Professor Michael Kelly, citing Israeli and Austrian judicial decisions, has noted that "there is some supporting anecdotal evidence that judges within national systems are beginning to apply the doctrine on their own ''. The refusal of a country to extradite suspects or criminals to another may lead to international relations being strained. Often, the country to which extradition is refused will accuse the other country of refusing extradition for political reasons (regardless of whether or not this is justified). A case in point is that of Ira Einhorn, in which some US commentators pressured President Jacques Chirac of France, who does not intervene in legal cases, to permit extradition when the case was held up due to differences between French and American human rights law. Another long - standing example is Roman Polanski whose extradition was pursued by California for over 20 years. For a brief period he was placed under arrest in Switzerland, however subsequent legal appeals there prevented extradition. The questions involved are often complex when the country from which suspects are to be extradited is a democratic country with a rule of law. Typically, in such countries, the final decision to extradite lies with the national executive (prime minister, president or equivalent). However, such countries typically allow extradition defendants recourse to the law, with multiple appeals. These may significantly slow down procedures. On the one hand, this may lead to unwarranted international difficulties, as the public, politicians and journalists from the requesting country will ask their executive to put pressure on the executive of the country from which extradition is to take place, while that executive may not in fact have the authority to deport the suspect or criminal on their own. On the other hand, certain delays, or the unwillingness of the local prosecution authorities to present a good extradition case before the court on behalf of the requesting state, may possibly result from the unwillingness of the country 's executive to extradite. Even though the United States has an extradition treaty with Japan, most extraditions are not successful due to Japan 's domestic laws. In order for the United States to be successful, they must present their case for extradition to the Japanese authorities. However, certain evidence is barred from being in these proceedings such as the use of confessions, searches or electronic surveillance. In most cases involving international drug trafficking, this kind of evidence constitutes the bulk of evidence gathered in the investigation on a suspect for a drug - related charge. Therefore, this usually hinders the United States from moving forward with the extradition of a criminal. There is at present controversy in the United Kingdom about the Extradition Act 2003, which dispenses with the need for a prima facie case for extradition. This came to a head over the extradition of the Natwest Three from the UK to the U.S., for their alleged fraudulent conduct related to Enron. Several British political leaders were heavily critical of the British government 's handling of the issue. In 2013, the United States submitted extradition requests to many nations for former National Security Agency employee Edward Snowden. It criticized Hong Kong for allowing him to leave despite an extradition request. In some cases a state has abducted an alleged criminal from the territory of another state either after normal extradition procedures failed, or without attempting to use them. Notable cases are listed below: "Extraordinary rendition '' is an extrajudicial procedure in which criminal suspects, generally suspected terrorists or supporters of terrorist organisations, are transferred from one country to another. The procedure differs from extradition as the purpose of the rendition is to extract information from suspects, while extradition is used to return fugitives so that they can stand trial or fulfill their sentence. The United States ' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) allegedly operates a global extraordinary rendition programme, which from 2001 to 2005 captured an estimated 150 people and transported them around the world. The alleged US programme prompted several official investigations in Europe into alleged secret detentions and illegal international transfers involving Council of Europe member states. A June 2006 report from the Council of Europe estimated 100 people had been kidnapped by the CIA on EU territory (with the cooperation of Council of Europe members), and rendered to other countries, often after having transited through secret detention centres ("black sites '') utillised by the CIA, some of which could be located in Europe. According to the separate European Parliament report of February 2007, the CIA has conducted 1,245 flights, many of them to destinations where suspects could face torture, in violation of article 3 of the United Nations Convention Against Torture. A large majority of the European Union Parliament endorsed the report 's conclusion that many member states tolerated illegal actions by the CIA, and criticised such actions. Within days of his inauguration, President Obama signed an Executive Order opposing rendition torture and established a task force to provide recommendations about processes to prevent rendition torture. International: Individuals:

what does the union jack on the australian flag signify

Flag of Australia - Wikipedia The flag of Australia is a defaced Blue Ensign: a blue field with the Union Jack in the canton (upper hoist quarter), and a large white seven - pointed star known as the Commonwealth Star in the lower hoist quarter. The fly contains a representation of the Southern Cross constellation, made up of five white stars -- one small five - pointed star and four, larger, seven - pointed stars. There are other official flags representing Australia, its people and core functions of government. The flag 's original design (with a six - pointed Commonwealth Star) was chosen in 1901 from entries in a competition held following Federation, and was first flown in Melbourne on 3 September 1901, the date proclaimed as Australian National Flag Day. A slightly different design was approved by King Edward VII in 1903. The seven - pointed commonwealth star version was introduced by a proclamation dated 23 February 1908. The dimensions were formally gazetted in 1934, and in 1954 the flag became recognised by, and legally defined in, the Flags Act 1953, as the "Australian National Flag ''. Flags forming the Union Jack Southern Cross Commonwealth Star The Australian flag uses three prominent symbols: the Union Flag, the Commonwealth Star (also the Federation Star) and the Southern Cross (or Crux). In its original usage as the flag of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Union Flag combined three heraldic crosses which represent the constituent countries of the United Kingdom (as constituted in 1801): The Union Flag is thought to symbolise Australia 's history as six British colonies and the principles upon which the Australian Federation is based, although a more historic view sees its inclusion in the design as demonstrating loyalty to the British Empire. The Commonwealth Star, also known as the Federation Star, originally had six points, representing the six federating colonies. In 1908, a seventh point was added to symbolise the Papua and any future territories. Another rationale for the change was to match the star used on the Coat of Arms, which was created in the same year. The Commonwealth Star does not have any official relation to Beta Centauri, despite the latter 's brightness and location in the sky; however, the 1870 version of the flag of South Australia featured the "pointer '' stars, Alpha and Beta Centauri. The Southern Cross is one of the most distinctive constellations visible in the Southern Hemisphere, and has been used to represent Australia since the early days of British settlement. Ivor Evans, one of the flag 's designers, intended the Southern Cross to also refer to the four moral virtues ascribed to the four main stars by Dante: justice, prudence, temperance and fortitude. The number of points on the stars of the Southern Cross on the modern Australian flag differs from the original competition - winning design, in which they ranged between five and nine points each, representing their relative brightness in the night sky. The stars are named after the first five letters of the Greek alphabet, in decreasing order of brightness in the sky. In order to simplify manufacture, the British Admiralty standardised the four larger outer stars at seven points each, leaving the smaller, more central star with five points. This change was officially gazetted on 23 February 1903. A complete specification for the official design was published in the Commonwealth Gazette in 1934. Under the Flags Act, the Australian National Flag must meet the following specifications: The location of the stars is as follows: The outer diameter of the Commonwealth Star is ​ ⁄ of the flag 's width, while that of the stars in the Southern Cross is ​ ⁄ of the flag 's width, except for Epsilon, for which the fraction is ​ ⁄. Each star 's inner diameter is ​ ⁄ of the outer diameter. The flag 's width is the measurement of the hoist edge of the flag (the distance from top to bottom). The colours of the flag, although not specified by the Flags Act, have been given Pantone specifications by the Awards and Culture Branch of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Australian Government 's Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers also gives CMYK and RGB specifications for depicting the flag in print and on screen respectively. The blue shade also has a web - safe colour of # 000099, used for certain digital screens that may have trouble displaying the shade of blue in the table above. The flag may be reproduced in a single colour, with the colour being either black or one of the two colours of the flag, albeit blue is generally preferred for single - colour productions. Guidelines for flying the flag are laid out in the 1953 Flags Act and in a pamphlet entitled "The Australian National Flag '', which is published by the Australian Government on an infrequent basis. The guidelines say that the Australian National Flag is allowed to be flown on every day of the year, and that it "should be treated with respect and dignity it deserves as the nation 's most important national symbol ''. The National Flag must always be flown in a position superior to that of any other flag or ensign when flown in Australia or on Australian territory, and it should always be flown aloft and free. The flag must be flown in all government buildings and displayed in polling stations when there is a national election or referendum. Private pleasure craft can fly either the Red Ensign or the Australian National Flag. The British Blue Ensign can be flown on an Australian owned ship instead of the Australian Flag if the owner has a warrant valid under British law. The Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet also advises that the flag should only be flown during daylight hours, unless it is illuminated. Two flags should not be flown from the same flagpole. The flag should not be displayed upside down under any circumstances, not even to express a situation of distress. The flag is not to be placed or dropped on the ground, nor should it be used to cover an object in the lead - up to an unveiling ceremony, or to hide other material. Flags that have decayed or faded should not be displayed. According to a government publication, old or decayed flags should be disposed of in private "in a dignified way ''; a method given as an example is to cut the flag into small pieces before being placed in the waste. When the flag is flown at half - mast, it should be recognisably at half - mast, for example, a third of the way down from the top of the pole. The Australian Flag should never be flown half mast at night. Flags are flown at half - mast on government buildings: The Department provides a subscription - based email service called the Commonwealth Flag Network, which gives information on national occasions to fly the flag at half - mast as well as national days of commemoration and celebration of the flag. The Australian National Flag may be used for commercial or advertising purposes without formal permission as long as the flag is used in a dignified manner and reproduced completely and accurately; it should not be defaced by overprinting with words or illustrations, it should not be covered by other objects in displays, and all symbolic parts of the flag should be identifiable. It also must sit first (typically, left) where more than one flag is used. For this reason the Collingwood Football Club had to reverse its logo, which features the flag. There have been several attempts to make desecration of the Australian flag a crime. In 1953, during the second reading debate on the Flags Act, the leader of the Opposition, Arthur Calwell, unsuccessfully called for provisions to be added to the bill to criminalise desecration. Michael Cobb introduced private member 's bills in 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992 to ban desecration, but on each occasion the bill lapsed. In 2002, the leader of the National Party, John Anderson, proposed to introduce laws banning desecration of the Australian flag, a call that attracted support from some parliamentarians both in his own party and the senior Coalition partner, the Liberal Party. The Prime Minister, John Howard, rejected the calls stating that "... in the end I guess it 's part of the sort of free speech code that we have in this country ''. In 2003, the Australian Flags (Desecration of the Flag) Bill was tabled in Parliament by Trish Draper without support from Howard and subsequently lapsed. In 2006, following a flag - burning incident during the 2005 Cronulla riots and a burnt flag display by a Melbourne artist, Liberal MP Bronwyn Bishop introduced the Protection of the Australian National Flag (Desecration of the Flag) Bill 2006. This bill sought to make it "a criminal offence to wilfully destroy or otherwise mutilate the Flag in circumstances where a reasonable person would infer that the destruction or mutilation is intended publicly to express contempt or disrespect for the Flag or the Australian Nation. '' The bill received a second reading but subsequently lapsed and did not go to vote in the House of Representatives. Before 1901, what is now Australia was six separate British colonies. The Union Flag, as the flag of the British Empire, was first used on Australian soil on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay, and it was again used at the start of European settlement of the country on 26 January 1788. This was the original Union Flag introduced in 1606 that did not include the Saint Patrick 's Saltire, included from 1801 after the Acts of Union 1801. It is the second version post 1801 that is depicted on the Australian Flag. It was often used to represent them collectively, and each colony also had its own flag based on the Union Flag. During the nineteenth century several flag movements were formed and unofficial new flags came into common usage. Two attempts were made throughout the nineteenth century to design a national flag. The first such attempt was the National Colonial Flag created in 1823 -- 1824 by Captains John Nicholson and John Bingle. This flag consisted of a red cross on a white background, with an eight - point star on each of the four limbs of the cross, while incorporating a Union Flag in the canton. The most popular "national '' flag of the period was the 1831 Federation Flag, also designed by Nicholson. This flag was the same at the National Colonial Flag, except that the cross was blue instead of resembling that of St. George. Although the flag was designed by Nicholson in 1831, it did not become widely popular until the latter part of the century, as the movement towards federation progressed. These flags, and many others such as the Eureka Flag (which came into use at the Eureka Stockade in 1854), featured stars representing the Southern Cross. The oldest known flag to show the stars arranged as they are seen in the sky is the Anti-Transportation League Flag, which is similar in design to the present National Flag. The differences were that there was no Commonwealth Star, while the components of the Southern Cross are depicted with eight points and in gold. This flag was only briefly in usage, as two years after the formation of the Anti-Transportation League in 1851, the colonial authorities decided to stop the intake of convicts, so the ATL ceased its activities. The Eureka Flag is often viewed as the first "Australian '' flag as it was the first notable example of a design that had the Southern Cross while excluding the Union Flag. The Murray River Flag, popular since the 1850s, is still widely used by boats that traverse Australia 's main waterway. It is the same as the National Colonial Flag, except that the white background in the three quadrants other the canton were replaced with four alternating blue and white stripes, representing the four major rivers that run into the Murray River. As Federation approached, thoughts turned to an official federal flag. In 1900, the Melbourne Herald conducted a design competition with a prize of 25 Australian pounds (2017: A $3,700) in which entries were required to include the Union Flag and Southern Cross, resulting in a British Ensign style flag. The competition conducted by the Review of Reviews for Australasia -- a Melbourne - based publication -- later that year thought such a restriction seemed unwise, despite observing that designs without these emblems were unlikely to be successful; nonetheless, it suggested that entries incorporate the two elements in their design. After Federation on 1 January 1901 and following receipt of a request from the British government to design a new flag, the new Commonwealth Government held an official competition for a new federal flag in April. The competition attracted 32,823 entries, including those originally sent to the Review of Reviews. One of these was submitted by an unnamed governor of a colony. The two contests were merged after the Review of Reviews agreed to being integrated into the government initiative. The £ 75 prize money of each competition were combined and augmented by a further £ 50 donated by Havelock Tobacco Company. Each competitor was required to submit two coloured sketches, a red ensign for the merchant service and public use, and a blue ensign for naval and official use. The designs were judged on seven criteria: loyalty to the Empire, Federation, history, heraldry, distinctiveness, utility and cost of manufacture. The majority of designs incorporated the Union Flag and the Southern Cross, but native animals were also popular, including one that depicted a variety of indigenous animals playing cricket. The entries were put on display at the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne and the judges took six days to deliberate before reaching their conclusion. Five almost identical entries were chosen as the winning design, and the designers shared the £ 200 (2009: $25,000) prize money. They were Ivor Evans, a fourteen - year - old schoolboy from Melbourne; Leslie John Hawkins, a teenager apprenticed to an optician from Sydney; Egbert John Nuttall, an architect from Melbourne; Annie Dorrington, an artist from Perth; and William Stevens, a ship 's officer from Auckland, New Zealand. The five winners received £ 40 each. The differences to the current flag were the six - pointed Commonwealth Star, while the components stars in the Southern Cross had different numbers of points, with more if the real star was brighter. This led to five stars of nine, eight, seven, six and five points respectively. The flag 's initial reception was mixed. Readers of the Age newspaper were told that: "a huge Blue Ensign with the prize design of the Southern Cross and a six pointed star thereon was run up to the top of the flagstaff on the dome and breaking, streamed out on the heavy south - westerly breeze, a brave and inspiring picture. '' The report carried by the Argus newspaper was also celebratory in nature stating: "In years to come the flag which floated yesterday in the Exhibition building over Her Excellency the Countess of Hopetoun, who stood for Great Britain, and the Prime Minister (Mr Barton), who stood for Australia, will, in all human probability, become the emblem upon which the millions of the free people of the Commonwealth will gaze with a thrill of national pride. '' Alternatively the then republican magazine The Bulletin labelled the competition winning design: a staled réchauffé of the British flag, with no artistic virtue, no national significance... Minds move slowly: and Australia is still Britain 's little boy. What more natural than that he should accept his father 's cut - down garments, -- lacking the power to protest, and only dimly realising his will. That bastard flag is a true symbol of the bastard state of Australian opinion. As the design was basically the Victorian flag with a star added, many critics in both the Federal Government and the New South Wales government objected to the chosen flag for being "too Victorian ''. They wanted the Australian Federation Flag, and Prime Minister Barton, who had been promoting the Federation Flag, submitted this flag along with that chosen by the judges to the Admiralty for final approval. The Admiralty chose the Red for private vessels and Blue Ensigns for government ships. The Barton government regarded both the Blue and Red Ensigns as colonial maritime flags and "grudgingly '' agreed to fly it only on naval ships. Later governments, that of Chris Watson in 1904 and Andrew Fisher in 1910, were also unhappy with the design, wanting something "more distinctive '' and more "indicative of Australian unity. '' On 3 September 1901, the new Australian flag flew for the first time from the dome of the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne. The names of the joint winners of the design competition were announced by Hersey, Countess of Hopetoun (the wife of the Governor - General, the 7th Earl of Hopetoun) and she unfurled the flag for the first time. Since 1996 this date has been officially known as Australian National Flag Day. The competition - winning designs were submitted to the British Colonial Secretary in 1902. Prime Minister Edmund Barton announced in the Commonwealth Gazette that King Edward VII had officially approved the design as the flag of Australia on 11 February 1903. The published version made all the stars in the Southern Cross seven - pointed apart from the smallest, and is the same as the current design except the six - pointed Commonwealth Star. In the decades following federation the red ensign was the preeminent flag in use by private citizens on land. This was largely due to the Commonwealth government and flag suppliers restricting sales of the blue ensign to the general public. By traditional British understanding, the blue ensign was reserved for official government use although the red ensign was nevertheless still in military circulation until after the 1953 legislation, meaning the 1st and 2nd Australian Imperial Forces served under both the blue and red versions. State and local governments, private organisations and individuals were expected to use the Red Ensign. One of the most enduring debates in Australian vexillology concerns the so - called "parliament house puzzle '' and the official painting of the opening of Australia 's Parliament House in 1927, which shows Red Ensigns and Union Flags being flown. However a lithograph by an unknown artist featuring only Blue Ensigns has since emerged. According to Dr Elizabeth Kwan "the use of British as well as Australian flags was a last minute decision. A Federal Capital Commission sketch showing the position of the flags for the opening ceremony suggested only Australian blue ensigns accompanying the duke 's standard. The Royal Visit Cabinet Committee confirmed in March 1927 that the "Commonwealth flag '', not the Union Jack, would fly with the duke 's flag on Parliament House in the morning and at the armed forces review in the afternoon. '' Kwan theorises that the commissioned artist, Septimus Power, may have chosen the red ensign for dramatic effect or because it was the popular favourite with the Australian people. There was a black and white photograph taken at the opening that, based on the contrasts involved, appears to reveal a Blue Ensign hanging behind a Union Jack at the easternmost end of the building. However the correspondent for The West Australian attested to the presence of red ensigns in a report that stated: "The sunlight streamed through the crimson of drooping flags ''. Taken altogether this means there is a strong possibility that both ensigns were actually used on the day. Despite executive branch proclamations as to the respective roles of the two red, white and blue ensigns there remained confusion until the Flags Act 1953 declared the Blue Ensign to be the Australian National Flag. It has been claimed that this choice was made on the basis that the predominately red version carried too many communist overtones for the government of the day although no cabinet documents yet released to the public including the more detailed minutes have ever been adduced in support of this theory. Whatever the case it would be styled under the legislation as the Australian Red Ensign and retained for use by the Australian mercantile marine. The tradition of the red ensign being used in Anzac Day marches alongside other flags that the Australian military has used still continues. Technically, private non-commercial vessels were liable to a substantial fine if they did not fly the British Red Ensign. However, an Admiralty Warrant was issued on 5 December 1938, authorising these vessels to fly the Australian Red Ensign. The Shipping Registration Act 1981 reaffirmed that the Australian Red Ensign was the proper "colours '' for commercial ships over 24 metres (79 ft) in tonnage length. As a result of the declaration of 3 September as Merchant Navy Day in 2008, the red ensign can be flown on land alongside the Australian national flag on this occasion as a matter of protocol. The Blue Ensign replaced the Union Jack at the Olympic Games at St Louis in 1904. On 2 June 1904, due to lobbying by Richard Crouch MP, it had the same status as the Union Flag in the UK, when the House of Representatives proclaimed that the Blue Ensign "should be flown upon all forts, vessels, saluting places and public buildings of the Commonwealth upon all occasions when flags are used ''. The government agreed to fly the Blue Ensign on special flag days, but not if it meant additional expense, which undermined the motion. The Blue Ensign could only be flown on a state government building if a state flag was not available. Initially the Department of Defence resisted implementing the resolution, considering the blue ensign to be a marine ensign and favouring King 's Regulations that specified the use of the Union Jack. After being approached by the Department of Defence, Prime Minister Chris Watson stated in parliament that he was not satisfied with the design of the Australian flag and that implementation of the 1904 resolution could wait until consideration was given to "adopt another (flag) which in our opinion is more appropriate. '' In 1908, Australian Army Military Order, No 58 / 08 ordered the blue "Australian Ensign '' to replace the Union Flag at all military establishments. From 1911 it served as the saluting flag of the Australian army at all reviews and ceremonial parades (M.O. 135) with the Union Jack being reserved for "all occasions when a representative of His Majesty the King reviews the Commonwealth forces '' (M.O. 391). In the Australian War Memorial collection there is a photograph taken in the vicinity of Port Adelaide circa 1901 showing HMCS Protector, a gunboat in the South Australian navy which had served in China during the Boxer rebellion, flying the Australian flag from the stern during its earliest days after the Federal Flag Design Competition, before the formation of the Royal Australian Navy. When the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) was eventually promulgated on 5 October 1911, Naval Order 78 / 1911 directed all vessels to fly the British White Ensign on the stern and the flag of Australia on the Jackstaff. The Argus newspaper, edition of 29 July 1911, had notified readers that the "navy orders that the Australian flag is to be the saluting flag at all reviews and ceremonial parades on shore '', with it also being required that the Union Jack is flown at the saluting point "when representatives of His Majesty the King review the Commonwealth forces. '' Despite the government wanting to use the Blue Ensign on Australian warships, officers continued to fly the Union Flag, and it was not until 1913, following public protest in Fremantle after its use for the review of HMAS Melbourne, that the government "reminded '' them of the 1911 legislation. The British White Ensign was finally replaced by a distinctively Australian White Ensign on 1 March 1967. The Australian flag at war has been a much chronicled subject by military vexillologists, historians and war correspondents ever since the Federal Flag Design Competition in 1901. The Australian flag was associated with an act of war for the first recorded time as it flew above the fort at Queenscliff in Victoria which opened fire to prevent the German steamer, Pfalz, from leaving port on 6 August 1914. It was raised along with the Union Jack by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force on Kawieng, New Ireland in September 1914. It was a not unknown for RAN captains to fly the Australian flag from the foremast of single masted ships and the mainmast of two masted ships as the battle flag when at action stations instead of the Royal Navy white ensign as happened at the battle of the Cocos between HMAS Sydney and the German cruiser SMS Emden. There is photograph held by the Australian War Memorial of an Australian flag draped over a dugout at Gallipoli dated circa May 1915. On the western front the blue ensign and Union Jack were both displayed on 29 August 1917 when Field Marshal Douglas Haig reviewed the 5th Australian division at Ebblinghem. It was also flown over the headquarters of the Australian Corps during the fighting in 1918. General Birdwood dispatched an Australian flag to the 15th Infantry brigade with orders that it be flown over Harnonnieres an honour that the commander of the 59th battalion would bestow on the first man to reach the objective. The Australian flag also flew over Chaleroi in Belgium in 1918. As the 2nd Division entered the city the locals turned out to greet them waving Australian flags made out of brown paper bags. The children of Villers - Bretonneaux still maintain the tradition of raising the Australian flag in memory of the Australians who died in liberating the area in world war one. Also under preservation is the Australian flag carried by General Monash 's lance bearer in the 1919 London Victory Parade. Another Australian flag was also featured on a commemorative postcard of the occasion where an Australian soldier is seen using his rifle as a stave. Indicative of the place the Australian ensigns came to occupy in the Anzac tradition by the time of the second world war was an article which appeared in Sydney Sun, edition of 5 May 1941, where the author stated: "Today we do homage to it. It fluttered from the main - mast of the first HMAS Sydney as she went into action against the German raider Emden in the last war, and later from the mast of her namesake as she went into action against the Bartolomeo Colleoni. It has been carried into battle at Gallipoli, in Palestine, Egypt. Libya and Greece. '' There were a number of Australian flag raisings in the Pacific and Middle Eastern theatres during the second world war. The Australian flag was hoisted as the battle ensign of HMAS Hobart during the invasion of Guadalcanal in August 1942. It was flown over Kokoda in 1942 and Lae in 1943 where "The Australian flag was hoisted on the pole of the control tower on Lae airfield and American and Australian troops gave victory cheers as the flag floated in the breeze ''. There has since been a commemorative plaque laid at Lae with the inscription reading: "Here on 16th September 1943 the Australian National Flag was raised by Commander 25th Aust. Inf. Bde to mark the capture of this important base from the Japanese. '' There was a report in the Army News on 30 January 1943 that stated "A famous Australian flag now flies over Tripoli '' raised by an Australian fighter squadron who were the first 2nd AIF contingent to enter the city after it fell to the British 8th army. The Australian War Memorial holds a photograph of a flag raising ceremony at Gravesend airfield in Kent, England which is believed to have been taken on Anzac Day 1944. The flag was presented to the 464 RAAF squadron by a widow of a pilot killed in action while flying a mosquito warplane over Germany and may be the same one held by the Australian War Memorial which was also flown over Melsbrock, Belgium. On 24 February 1945 The Mail in Adelaide published a photograph under the heading "OUR FLAG ON THE PHILIPPINES '' of an Australian flag with the caption stating that: "The first Australian flag to reach the Philippines was draped in front of Australia House, residence of Australian war correspondents. They look very happy about it. '' During the invasion of Tarakan a photograph of Lieutenant K. McKitrick raising the Australian flag on Sadau Island appeared on the front page of Perth 's Sunday Times, edition of 20 May 1945, under the headline "OUR FLAG ON TARAKAN '' as he was being watched by the men of 2 / 4 commando squadron shortly after landing with the caption reading: "A.I.F. VETERANS of the 9th Division fly an Australian flag on Tarakan Island (Borneo) on which, today 's cables say, they have achieved their objectives. '' In the Australian War Memorial collection is a photograph of a flag raising ceremony that took place at Lingkas, Tarakan in the Netherlands East Indies on 1 May 1945 with the caption stating: "Happy soldiers of the 9th Australian Division raise the Australian flag on a bamboo pole on the first day of Operation Oboe One, the Division 's successful attack and landing on Tarakan Island then occupied by Japanese forces. '' It was also reported on 8 May 1945 in the Melbourne Argus under the headline "AUSTRALIANS CAPTURE TARAKAN AIRSTRIP: Victorian Battalion in Thick of Fight '' that, after using tanks as mobile artillery in a struggle that lasted over five days: "That night the troops who had won the air strip enjoyed their first night 's unbroken rest since they landed on the island at dawn on Tuesday. They forgot their weariness, their sweat - sodden clothes, and unshaven faces, in the cheer they gave as they watched the Australian flag and their own battalion emblem being hoisted over the strip. '' At the 1946 London Victory Parade there were Australian flags strung across the thoroughfare and carried by the Australian Contingent. It is featured along with the flags of allied nations in a portrait commissioned by the Australian War Memorial to mark the occasion. There was also a report of the Australian flag being flown over Japan in April 1946 along with other Commonwealth of Nations flags. In 1945 at the end of the war there were multiple reports of Australian flags being made in prisoner of war camps including one from Naoetsu that was hand sewn from pieces of coloured parachutes used to drop supplies to the Australians whilst still detained by the Japanese. The Canberra Times published a report dated 18 June 1945 from their correspondent on Labuan Island stating that after the Australians were liberated in the camp there were found "a few knapsacks, some old boots, and photographs, also an Australian flag. '' The first Australian flag to fly over Singapore after news of the imminent Japanese surrender was received in August 1945 is held by the Australian War Memorial. It was flown for several days over the X3 camp by captain Frederick Stahl and written in black ink on the headband are the words "Dear Stahl Good Luck. A very game action to fly this flag. F.G. Galleghan Lt Col A.I.F. (P.W.) Malaya 20 Aug 1945. '' According to an eyewitness statement also in August 1945 there was an Australian flag that had been concealed by an Australian prisoner "raised over a group of skeletal sick Australians in a Japanese POW camp in Thailand and all wept unashamedly '' which may be the same one featured in a photograph held by the Australian War Memorial taken at number 8 camp in Saigon. There is another photograph of ex-POWs displaying an Australian flag constructed while they were in captivity as published on the front page of the Argus, edition of 15 September 1945. Another Australian flag said to have originated in Changi is on display at the Heritage Lodge being unveiled at a ceremony in 2008 attended by ex-Changi prisoner Henry Cook who believes the specimen was constructed after his stay of several months in the camp and was quoted as saying "We suffered for that flag. '' The first Australian flag to fly over Pyongyang during the Korean war was hoisted by Lieutenant W.L. Brodie OC, of the Australian Visitors and Observers Section, over a dwelling that had previously been occupied by the Mongolian Embassy to North Korea. During the Vietnam war the headlines "Hill 323 Under Aust. Control '' and "Australian flag over base '' appeared in the Sydney Morning Herald on 23 March 1968, with the report stating: "LONG HAI, Friday. -- Task Force troops moved to the top of Long Hai hills today and wedged the Australian flag in a clump of rocks on Hill 323 in the middle of an abandoned Vietcong supply base. '' Shortly thereafter the battalion HQ received a request for ground clearance from a US warship lying off the shore to enable them to fire at a Viet Cong battle flag which had just been raised. In the Australian War Memorial collection is a photograph of Warrant Officer Class One Jim Geedrick, an Indigenous serviceman from Rockhampton who was an adviser with the 1st Battalion, 2nd Regiment of the South Vietnamese Army, raising the Australian flag on Anzac Day 1969, after missing the ceremony held at Da Nang held by the Australian Army Train Team, Vietnam. According to Geedrick such displays were rare as "every time I put the flag up they shoot holes through it. '' At the 1965 memorial for Kevin "Dasher '' Wheatley, after making his last stand in the Vietnam war that earned him a posthumously awarded Victoria Cross, a South Vietnamese officer would pin a valour medal to the Australian flag covering his casket upon which was placed a wreath. Despite the new Australian flag 's official use, from 1901 until the 1920s the Federation Flag remained a most popular Australian flag for public and even some official events. It was flown at the 1907 State Premiers conference in Melbourne and during the 1927 visit to Australia of the Duke and Duchess of York, the future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. In the 1920s there was debate over whether the Blue Ensign was reserved for Commonwealth buildings only, culminating in a 1924 agreement that the Union Flag should take precedence as the National Flag and that state and local governments were henceforth able to use the blue ensign. As the Union Flag was recognised as the National flag, it was considered disloyal to fly either ensign without the Union flag alongside, and it was the Union Flag that covered the coffins of Australia 's war dead. In 1940 the Victorian government passed legislation allowing schools to purchase blue ensigns. The following year prime minister Robert Menzies issued a media release recommending that the blue ensign be flown at schools, government buildings and by private citizens and continued use of the red ensign by merchant ships, providing it was done so respectfully. Prime Minister Ben Chifley issued a similar statement in 1947. On 4 December 1950, the Prime Minister Robert Menzies proclaimed the Blue ensign as the National flag and in 1951 King George VI approved the Government 's recommendation. When the Flags Bill was introduced into parliament on 20 November 1953, Menzies said: "This bill is very largely a formal measure which puts into legislative form what has become almost the established practice in Australia... The design adopted was submitted to His Majesty King Edward VII, and he was pleased to approve of it as the Australian flag in 1902. However, no legislative action has ever been taken to determine the precise form of the flag or the circumstances of its use, and this bill has been brought down to produce that result. '' This status was formalised on 14 February 1954, when Queen Elizabeth II gave Royal Assent to the Flags Act 1953, which had been passed two months earlier. The monarch 's Assent was timed to coincide with the Queen 's visit to the country and came after she had opened the new session of Parliament. The Act confers statutory powers on the Governor - General to appoint "flags and ensigns of Australia '' and authorise warrants and make rules as to use of flags. Section 8 ensures that the "right or privilege '' of a person to fly the Union Flag is not affected by the Act. South Australia chose to continue with the Union Flag as National flag until 1956, when schools were given the option of using either the Union or Australian flags. The Union Flag was still regarded as the National flag by many Australians well into the 1970s, which inspired Arthur Smout 's campaign from 1968 to 1982 to encourage Australians to give the Australian flag precedence. By the mid-1980s, the Commonwealth Government no longer reminded Australians they had the right to fly the Union Flag alongside the National Flag or provided illustrations of how to correctly display them together. In 1998, the Flags Act was amended to provide that any change to the national flag must be approved by a plebiscite which must offer the existing flag alongside any alternative designs. Neither the requirement for or outcome of such a plebiscite is binding on the Parliament, which would still need to amend the Flags Act by the required majorities and with royal assent to alter the design. In 1996, the Governor - General, Sir William Deane, issued a proclamation recognising the annual commemoration of Australian National Flag Day, to be held on 3 September. Flag Day celebrations had been occurring in Sydney since 1984. The inaugural event was held under the auspices of the New South Wales branch of the Australian National Flag Association to commemorate the anniversary of the flag being first flown in 1901. On Flag Day, ceremonies are held in schools, major centres, and the Governor - General, Governors and some politicians attend or release statements to the media. The Australian Defence Force marks the occasion by firing an artillery salute at a flag station, when directed by the Governor - General. Australian National Flag Day is not a public holiday. On the centenary of the first flying of the flag, 3 September 2001, the Australian National Flag Association presented the Prime Minister with a flag intended to replace the missing original flag. This flag was not a replica of the original flag, on which the Commonwealth Star had only six points, but is based on the dejure Australian National Flag design with a seven pointed Commonwealth Star. The flag has a special headband, including a cardinal red stripe and the inscription The Centenary Flag. Presented to the Hon John Howard MP, Prime Minister of Australia on behalf of the people of Australia by the Australian National Flag Association on 3 September 2001 at the Royal Exhibition Building, Melbourne to commemorate the first flying of the Australian National Flag on 3 September 1901 attended by the Rt Hon Sir Edmund Barton MHR, Prime Minister of Australia. A warrant authorising the use of the Centenary Flag under section 6 of the Flags Act was issued by the Governor - General and the flag is now used as the official flag of state on important occasions. These include the opening of new parliamentary terms and when visiting heads of state arrive. The flag has been transported across the country and flown in every state and territory. It was later used on Remembrance Day in 2003 for the opening of the Australian War Memorial in Hyde Park in London. The Parliament House centenary flag is the flag that flew over Parliament House, Canberra on 3 September 2001, the 100th anniversary of the day on which the first Australian flag was flown at the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne. On 18 September 2001 during the centenary of federation the federal member for Hinkler, Paul Neville, asked of the speaker that: "before it (the flag) becomes too faded or too tattered, (it) be taken down and perhaps offered to a museum or an art gallery as the seminal flag that flew over this building 100 years from the time the first flag was flown? '' The flag was subsequently entrusted to the Australian Flag Society and has been paraded at schools to mark Australian National Flag Day on a tour of the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Queensland. The first formal vice regal Australian flag raising ceremony took place in the presence of Lord Hopetoun at Flinders Street in Townsville on 16 September 1901. This historic specimen was provided by local flag and sail maker William McKenzie and subsequently donated to the Royal Australian Historical Society in 1922. It flew again at a reenactment in 1951 with a bronze commemorative plaque being placed outside the Townsville Municipal Chambers that was removed in 1977 and situated at the base of a flagpole in the city mall. However the Townsville flag was not available for the centennial Festival of the First Flag reenactment at Strand Park on 8 August 2001 where another plaque was unveiled as its whereabouts is currently unknown. A miniature Australian flag was taken to the moon and back on board the Command Module America during the Apollo 17 mission lasting from 7 -- 19 December 1972. Upon returning to earth it was framed and signed by all the Apollo astronauts, then given as a personal gift to prime minister Gough Whitlam in recognition of Australia 's contribution to the NASA space exploration program. It now resides in his prime ministerial collection at the University of Western Sydney. In the collection of the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences is a collection of seven flags comprising two Australian flags, two New Zealand flags, two Union Jacks and a Royal Air Force Ensign that accompanied pioneering aviators Sir Charles Kingsford - Smith and Charles Ulm aboard their aircraft The Southern Cross during the historic first Trans Tasman flight in 1928. The following year three of these flags accompanied Kingsford - Smith and Ulm on the first circumnavigation of the globe, crossing both hemispheres. There are a number of Gallipoli flags still under preservation including one held at the University of Queensland 's Emmanuel College which was taken to Gallipoli and France by Reverend E.N. Merrington. Following the armistice it was flown over the Australian General Headquarters. There is also an apparently bullet ridden Australian flag on display at the Geraldton RSL club that returned to Australia after being taken to Gallipoli and France. On 11 April 2000, there was a ceremony held at the Australian War Memorial where the last surviving Gallipoli veteran, Alec Campbell, symbolically handed over an Australian flag to a serving member of the Australian Defence Force. It now resides in Canberra for safe keeping and has been raised at Gallipoli every Anzac Day since. During 19 February 1942 Japanese bombing raid on Darwin the Australian flag that was flying outside the residence of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, Charles Abbott, became the first to be damaged by enemy fire on home soil. Abbott later arranged for it to be presented to the Australian War Memorial where it now remains on permanent display to the public. For the peace treaty ceremonies in 1946 it was displayed alongside the blue ensigns which had flown at Villers - Bretonneux in 1917 and onboard HMAS Sydney during her victory over the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni in 1940. Under Section 5 of the Flags Act 1953, the Governor - General may proclaim flags other than the National Flag and the Red Ensign as flags or ensigns of Australia. Five flags have been appointed in this manner. The first two were the Royal Australian Navy Ensign and the Royal Australian Air Force Ensign, the flags used by the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force. The Australian Army has no ensign of its own, but they are given the ceremonial task to be the defender of the National Flag. The Air Force and the Navy flew the appropriate British ensigns (the White Ensign and the Royal Air Force Ensign) until the adoption of similar ensigns based on the Australian National Flag in 1948 and 1967 respectively. The current Navy and Air Force Ensigns were officially appointed in 1967 and 1982 respectively. In 1995, the Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag were also appointed flags of Australia. While mainly seen as a gesture of reconciliation, this recognition caused a small amount of controversy at the time, with then opposition leader John Howard describing it as divisive. Some indigenous people, such as the flag 's designer Harold Thomas, felt that the government was appropriating their flag, saying it "does n't need any more recognition ''. The Australian Defence Force Ensign was proclaimed in 2000. This flag is used to represent the Defence Force when more than one branch of the military is involved, such as at the Australian Defence Force Academy, and by the Minister for Defence. The Legislative Instruments Act 2003 required the proclamations of these flags to be lodged in a Federal Register. Due to an administrative oversight they were not, and the proclamations were automatically repealed. The governor - general issued new proclamations dated 25 January 2008, with effect from 1 January 2008 (or 1 October 2006 in the case of the Defence Force Ensign). In addition to the seven flags declared under the Flags Act, there are two additional Commonwealth flags, the Australian Civil Aviation Ensign and Australian Border Force Flag, eight Vice-Regal flags and nine state and territory flags that are recognised as official flags through other means. There have been mild but persistent debates over whether or not the Union Flag should be removed from the canton of the Australian flag. This debate has culminated on several occasions, such as the period preceding the Australian Bicentenary in 1988, and during the Prime Ministership of Paul Keating, who publicly supported a change in the flag and said: I do not believe that the symbols and the expression of the full sovereignty of Australian nationhood can ever be complete while we have a flag with the flag of another country on the corner of it. There are two lobby groups involved in the flag debate: Ausflag (est. 1981), which supports changing the flag, and the Australian National Flag Association (ANFA) (est. 1983), which wants to keep the existing flag. The primary arguments for keeping the flag cite historic precedence, while those for changing the flag are based around the idea that the status quo does not accurately depict Australia 's status as an independent and multicultural nation, nor is its design unique enough to easily distinguish it from similar flags, such as that of New Zealand, Cook Islands and Tuvalu. The similarity between the flag of Australia and those of other countries is often derived from a common colonial history. Ausflag periodically campaigns for flag change in association with national events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics, and holds flag design competitions, while ANFA 's activities include promotion of the existing flag through events such as National Flag Day. A 2004 Newspoll that asked: "Are you personally in favour or against changing the Australian flag so as to remove the Union Jack emblem? '' was supported by 32 % of respondents and opposed by 57 %, with 11 % uncommitted. A 2010 Morgan Poll that asked: "Do you think Australia should have a new design for our National Flag? '' was supported by 29 % of respondents and opposed by 66 %, with 5 % uncommitted. The connection with the Australian flag is also notable the highest response to it is "extremely proud '' and it is the "most embraced Australian symbol. ''

why does canada still have a governor general

Governor general of Canada - Wikipedia Provincial and territorial executive councils Constitution The Governor General of Canada (French: Gouverneure générale du Canada) is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The person of the sovereign is shared equally both with the 15 other Commonwealth realms and the 10 provinces of Canada, but resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United Kingdom. Because of this, the Queen, on the advice of her Canadian prime minister, appoints a governor general to carry out most of her constitutional and ceremonial duties. The commission is for an unfixed period of time -- known as serving at Her Majesty 's pleasure -- though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents -- although many recent governors general have been bilingual. Once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time. The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown - appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries. Subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. The present incarnation of the office emerged with Canadian Confederation and the passing of the British North America Act, which defines the role of the governor general as "carrying on the Government of Canada on behalf and in the Name of the Queen, by whatever Title he is designated ''. Although the post initially still represented the government of the United Kingdom (that is, the monarch in his British council), the office was gradually Canadianized until, with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the establishment of a separate and uniquely Canadian monarchy, the governor general become the direct personal representative of the independently and uniquely Canadian sovereign, (the monarch in his Canadian council). Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities. For example, in 1904, the Militia Act granted permission for the governor general to use the title of Commander - in - Chief of the Canadian militia, in the name of the sovereign and actual Commander - in - Chief, and in 1927 the first official international visit by a governor general was made. Finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarch 's powers on his or her behalf. As a result, the day - to - day duties of the monarch are carried out by the governor general, although, as a matter of law, the governor general is not in the same constitutional position as the sovereign; the office itself does not independently possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative. In accordance with the Constitution Act, 1982, any constitutional amendment that affects the Crown, including the office of the Governor General, requires the unanimous consent of each provincial legislature as well as the federal parliament. The current governor general is Julie Payette, who has served since 2 October 2017; Prime Minister Justin Trudeau recommended her to succeed David Johnston. The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen. The Canadian media still often use the governor - general spelling. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized; thus, governors general, rather than governor generals. Moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbent 's name. The position of governor general is mandated by both the Constitution Act, 1867 (previously the British North America Act) and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister, the Canadian monarch appoints the governor general by commission issued under the royal sign - manual and Great Seal of Canada. That individual is, from then until being sworn - in, referred to as the governor general - designate. Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing - in of a governor general - designate. Though there may therefore be variations to the following, the appointee will generally travel to Ottawa, there receiving an official welcome and taking up residence at 7 Rideau Gate, and will begin preparations for their upcoming role, meeting with various high level officials to ensure a smooth transition between governors general. The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct both the governor general - designate and his or her spouse into the Order of Canada as Companions, as well as appointing the former as a Commander of both the Order of Military Merit and the Order of Merit of the Police Forces (should either person not have already received either of those honours). The swearing - in ceremony begins with the arrival at 7 Rideau Gate of one of the ministers of the Crown, who then accompanies the governor general - designate to Parliament Hill, where a Canadian Forces Guard of Honour (consisting of the Army Guard, Royal Canadian Air Force Guard, and Flag Party of the Royal Canadian Navy) awaits to give a general salute. From there, the party is led by the Queen 's parliamentary messenger -- the Usher of the Black Rod -- to the Senate chamber, wherein all justices of the Supreme Court, senators, members of parliament, and other guests are assembled. The Queen 's commission for the governor general - designate is then read aloud by the Secretary to the Governor General and the required oaths are administered to the appointee by either the chief justice or one of the puisne justices of the Supreme Court; the three oaths are: the Oath of Allegiance, the Oath of Office as Governor General and Commander - in - Chief, and the Oath as Keeper of the Great Seal of Canada. With the affixing of their signature to these three solemn promises, the individual is officially the governor general, and at that moment the Flag of the Governor General of Canada is raised on the Peace Tower, the Viceregal Salute is played by the Central Band of the Canadian Forces, and a 21 - gun salute is conducted by the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery. The governor general is seated on the throne while a prayer is read, and then receives the Great Seal of Canada (which is passed to the registrar general for protection), as well as the chains of both the Chancellor of the Order of Canada and of the Order of Military Merit. The governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a developed convention, and the governor general still technically acts at Her Majesty 's pleasure (or the Royal Pleasure). The prime minister may therefore recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time, sometimes upwards of more than seven years. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office. In such a circumstance, or if the governor general leaves the country for longer than one month, the Chief Justice of Canada (or, if that position is vacant or unavailable, the senior puisne justice of the Supreme Court) serves as Administrator of the Government and exercises all powers of the governor general. In a speech on the subject of confederation, made in 1866 to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, John A. Macdonald said of the planned governor: "We place no restriction on Her Majesty 's prerogative in the selection of her representative... The sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice... We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence. '' However, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also either members of the Peerage or sons of peers, and were born beyond Canada 's borders. These viceroys spent a relatively limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could "learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime. '' Still, though all Canadian nationals were as equally British subjects as their British counterparts prior to the implementation of the Canadian Citizenship Act in 1947, the idea of Canadian - born persons being appointed governor general was raised as early as 1919, when, at the Paris Peace Conference, Canadian prime minister Robert Borden consulted with Prime Minister of South Africa Louis Botha and the two agreed that the viceregal appointees should be long - term residents of their respective Dominions. Calls for just such an individual to be made viceroy came again in the late 1930s, but it was not until Vincent Massey 's appointment by King George VI in 1952 that the position was filled by a Canadian - born individual. Massey stated of this that "a Canadian (as governor general) makes it far easier to look on the Crown as our own and on the Sovereign as Queen of Canada. '' This practice continued until 1999, when Queen Elizabeth II commissioned as her representative Adrienne Clarkson, a Hong Kong - born refugee to Canada. Moreover, the practice of alternating between anglophone and francophone Canadians was instituted with the appointment of Georges Vanier, a francophone who succeeded the anglophone Massey. All persons whose names are put forward to the Queen for approval must first undergo background checks by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Canadian Security Intelligence Service. Although required by the tenets of constitutional monarchy to be nonpartisan while in office, governors general were frequently former politicians; a number held seats in the House of Lords by virtue of their inclusion in the peerage. Appointments of former ministers of the Crown in the 1980s and 1990s were criticized by Peter H. Russell, who stated in 2009: "much of (the) advantage of the monarchical system is lost in Canada when prime ministers recommend partisan colleagues to be appointed governor general and represent (the Queen). '' Clarkson was the first governor general in Canadian history without either a political or military background, as well as the first Asian - Canadian and the second woman, following on Jeanne Sauvé. The third woman to hold this position was also the first Caribbean - Canadian governor general, Michaëlle Jean. There have been, from time to time, proposals put forward for modifications to the selection process of the governor general. Most recently, the group Citizens for a Canadian Republic has advocated the election of the nominee to the Queen, either by popular or parliamentary vote; a proposal echoed by Adrienne Clarkson, who called for the prime minister 's choice to not only be vetted by a parliamentary committee, but also submit to a televised quiz on Canadiana. Constitutional scholars, editorial boards, and the Monarchist League of Canada have argued against any such constitutional tinkering with the viceregal appointment process, stating that the position being "not elected is an asset, not a handicap, '' and that an election would politicize the office, thereby undermining the impartiality necessary to the proper functioning of the governor general. A new approach was used in 2010 for the selection of David Johnston as governor general - designate. For the task, Prime Minister Stephen Harper convened a special search group -- the Governor General Consultation Committee -- was instructed to find a non-partisan candidate who would respect the monarchical aspects of the viceregal office and conducted extensive consultations with more than 200 people across the country. In 2012, the committee was made permanent and renamed as the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments, with a modified membership and its scope broadened to include the appointment of provincial lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners (though the latter are not personal representatives of the monarch). However, Justin Trudeau did not make use of a selection committee when he chose Julie Payette as Johnston 's successor in 2017. Canada shares the person of the sovereign equally with 15 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations and that individual, in his or her capacity as the Canadian sovereign, has 10 other legal personas within the Canadian federation. As the sovereign works and resides predominantly outside of Canada 's borders, the governor general 's primary task is to perform the monarch 's federal constitutional duties on his or her behalf. As such, the governor general carries "on the Government of Canada on behalf and in the name of the Sovereign ''. The governor general acts within the principles of parliamentary democracy and responsible government as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and as a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. For the most part, however, the powers of the Crown are exercised on a day - to - day basis by elected and appointed individuals, leaving the governor general to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign otherwise carries out when in the country; at such a moment, the governor general removes him or herself from public, though the presence of the monarch does not affect the governor general 's ability to perform governmental roles. Past governor general the Marquess of Lorne said of the job: "It is no easy thing to be a governor general of Canada. You must have the patience of a saint, the smile of a cherub, the generosity of an Indian prince, and the back of a camel, '' and the Earl of Dufferin stated that the governor general is "A representative of all that is august, stable, and sedate in the government, the history, and the traditions of the country; incapable of partizanship, and lifted far above the atmosphere of faction; without adherents to reward or opponents to oust from office; docile to the suggestions of his Ministers, and yet securing to the people the certainty of being able to get rid of an Administration or Parliament the moment either had forfeited their confidence. '' Though the monarch retains all executive, legislative, and judicial power in and over Canada, the governor general is permitted to exercise most of this, including the Royal Prerogative, in the sovereign 's name; some as outlined in the Constitution Act, 1867, and some through various letters patent issued over the decades, particularly those from 1947 that constitute the Office of Governor General of Canada; they state: "And We do hereby authorize and empower Our Governor General, with the advice of Our Privy Council for Canada or of any members thereof or individually, as the case requires, to exercise all powers and authorities lawfully belonging to Us in respect of Canada. '' The office itself does not, however, independently possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative, only exercising the Crown 's powers with its permission; a fact the Constitution Act, 1867 left unchanged. Among other duties, the monarch retains the sole right to appoint the governor general. It is also stipulated that the governor general may appoint deputies -- usually Supreme Court justices and the Secretary to the Governor General -- who can perform some of the viceroy 's constitutional duties in his or her stead, and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (or a puisne justice in the chief justice 's absence) will act as the Administrator of the Government upon the death or removal, as well as the incapacitation, or absence of the governor general for more than one month. It is the governor general who is required by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint for life persons to the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada, who are all theoretically tasked with tendering to the monarch and viceroy guidance on the exercise of the Royal Prerogative. Convention dictates, though, that the governor general must draw from the privy council an individual to act as prime minister -- in almost all cases the Member of Parliament who commands the confidence of the House of Commons. The prime minister then directs the governor general to appoint other members of parliament to a committee of the privy council known as the Cabinet, and it is in practice only from this group of ministers of the Crown that the Queen and governor general will take direction on the use of executive power; an arrangement called the Queen - in - Council or, more specifically, the Governor - in - Council. In this capacity, the governor general will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council. The Governor - in - Council is also specifically tasked by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint in the Queen 's name the lieutenant governors of the provinces (with the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments and the premiers of the provinces concerned playing an advisory role), senators, the Speaker of the Senate, supreme court justices, and superior and county court judges in each province, except those of the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The advice given by the Cabinet is, in order to ensure the stability of government, by political convention typically binding; both the Queen and her viceroy, however, may in exceptional circumstances invoke the reserve powers, which remain the Crown 's final check against a ministry 's abuse of power. The governor general, as the representative of the Canadian sovereign, carries out the parliamentary duties of the sovereign in their absence, such as summoning parliament, reading the Speech From the Throne, and proroguing and dissolving parliament. The governor general also grants Royal Assent in the Queen 's name; legally, he or she has three options: grant Royal Assent (making the bill law), withhold Royal Assent (vetoing the bill), or reserve the bill for the signification of the Queen 's pleasure (allowing the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent). If the governor general withholds the Queen 's assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No modern Canadian viceroy has denied Royal Assent to a bill. Provincial viceroys, however, are able to reserve Royal Assent to provincial bills for the governor general; this clause was last invoked in 1961 by the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan. With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the governor general acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. He or she will host members of Canada 's royal family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and will represent the Queen and country abroad on state visits to other nations, though the monarch 's permission is necessary, via the prime minister, for the viceroy to leave Canada. Also as part of international relations, the governor general issues letters of credence and of recall for Canadian ambassadors and receives the same from foreign ambassadors appointed to Canada. The governor general is also tasked with fostering national unity and pride. Queen Elizabeth II stated in 1959 to then Governor General Vincent Massey "maintain (ing) the right relationship between the Crown and the people of Canada (is) the most important function among the many duties of the appointment which you have held with such distinction. '' One way in which this is carried out is travelling the country and meeting with Canadians from all regions and ethnic groups in Canada, continuing the tradition begun in 1869 by Governor General the Lord Lisgar. He or she will also induct individuals into the various national orders and present national medals and decorations. Similarly, the viceroy administers and distributes the Governor General 's Awards, and will also give out awards associated with private organizations, some of which are named for past governors general. During a federal election, the governor general will curtail these public duties, so as not to appear as though they are involving themselves in political affairs. Although the constitution of Canada states that the "Command - in - Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen, '' the governor general acts in her place as Commander - in - Chief of the Canadian Forces and is permitted through the 1947 Letters Patent to use the title Commander - in - Chief in and over Canada. The position technically involves issuing commands for Canadian troops, airmen, and sailors, but is predominantly a ceremonial role in which the viceroy will visit Canadian Forces bases across Canada and abroad to take part in military ceremonies, see troops off to and return from active duty, and encourage excellence and morale amongst the forces. The governor general also serves as honorary Colonel of three household regiments: the Governor General 's Horse Guards, Governor General 's Foot Guards and Canadian Grenadier Guards. This ceremonial position is directly under that of Colonel - in - Chief, which is held by the Queen. Since 1910, the governor general was also always made the Chief Scout for Canada, which was renamed Chief Scout of Canada after 1946 and again in 2011 as Patron Scout. Rideau Hall, located in Ottawa, is the official residence of the Canadian monarch and of the governor general and is thus the location of the viceregal household and the Chancellery of Honours. For a part of each year since 1872, governors general have also resided at the Citadel (La Citadelle) in Quebec City, Quebec. A governor general 's wife is known as the chatelaine of Rideau Hall, though there is no equivalent term for a governor general 's husband. The viceregal household aids the governor general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by the Office of the Secretary to the Governor General. The Chancellery of Honours centres around the Queen and is thus also located at Rideau Hall and administered by the governor general. As such, the viceroy 's secretary ex officio holds the position of Herald Chancellor of Canada, overseeing the Canadian Heraldic Authority -- the mechanism of the Canadian honours system by which armorial bearings are granted to Canadians by the governor general in the name of the sovereign. These organized offices and support systems include aides - de-camp, press officers, financial managers, speech writers, trip organizers, event planners, protocol officers, chefs and other kitchen employees, waiters, and various cleaning staff, as well as visitors ' centre staff and tour guides at both official residences. In this official and bureaucratic capacity, the entire household is often referred to as Government House and its departments are funded through the normal federal budgetary process, as is the governor general 's salary of CAD $ 288,900, which has been taxed since 2013. Additional costs are incurred from separate ministries and organizations such as the National Capital Commission, the Department of National Defence, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The governor general 's air transportation is assigned to 412 Transport Squadron of the Royal Canadian Air Force. The squadron uses Bombardier Challenger 600 VIP jets to transport the governor general to locations within and outside of Canada. As the personal representative of the monarch, the governor general follows only the sovereign in the Canadian order of precedence, preceding even other members of the Royal Family. Though the federal viceroy is considered primus inter pares amongst his or her provincial counterparts, the governor general also outranks the lieutenant governors in the federal sphere; at provincial functions, however, the relevant lieutenant governor, as the Queen 's representative in the province, precedes the governor general. The incumbent governor general and his or her spouse are also the only people in Canada, other than serving Canadian ambassadors and high commissioners, entitled to the use of the style His or Her Excellency and the governor general is granted the additional honorific of The Right Honourable for their time in office and for life afterwards. Prior to 1952, all Governors General of Canada were members of the peerage. Typically, individuals appointed as federal viceroy were already a peer, either by inheriting the title, such as the Duke of Devonshire, or by prior elevation by the sovereign in their own right, as was the case with the Viscount Alexander of Tunis. None were life peers, the Life Peerages Act 1958 postdating the beginning of the tradition of appointing Canadian citizens as governor general. John Buchan was, in preparation for his appointment as governor general, made the Baron Tweedsmuir of Elsfield in the County of Oxford by King George V, six months before Buchan was sworn in as viceroy. The Leader of His Majesty 's Loyal Opposition at the time, William Lyon Mackenzie King, felt Buchan should serve as governor general as a commoner; however, George V insisted he be represented by a peer. With the appointment of Vincent Massey as governor general in 1952, governors general ceased to be members of the peerage; successive governments since that date have held to the non-binding and defeated (in 1934) principles of the 1919 Nickle Resolution. Under the orders ' constitutions, the governor general serves as the Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada, the Chancellor of the Order of Military Merit, and the Chancellor of the Order of Merit of the Police Forces. He or she also upon installation automatically becomes a Knight or Dame of Justice and the Prior and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem. As acting commander - in - chief, the governor general is further routinely granted the Canadian Forces Decoration by the Chief of the Defence Staff on behalf of the monarch. All of these honours are retained following an incumbent 's departure from office, with the individual remaining in the highest categories of the orders, and they may also be further distinguished with induction into other orders or the receipt of other awards. The Viceregal Salute -- composed of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem ("God Save the Queen '') followed by the first and last four bars of the national anthem ("O Canada '') -- is the salute used to greet the governor general upon arrival at, and mark his or her departure from most official events. To mark the viceroy 's presence at any building, ship, airplane, or car in Canada, the governor general 's flag is employed. The present form was adopted on 23 February 1981 and, in the federal jurisdiction, takes precedence over all other flags save the Queen 's personal Canadian standard. When the governor general undertakes a state visit, however, the national flag is generally employed to mark his or her presence. This flag is also, along with all flags on Canadian Forces property, flown at half - mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor general. The crest of the Royal Arms of Canada is employed as the badge of the governor general, appearing on the viceroy 's flag and on other objects associated with the person or the office. This is the fourth such incarnation of the governor general 's mark since confederation. French colonization of North America began in the 1580s and Aymar de Chaste was appointed in 1602 by King Henry IV as Viceroy of Canada. The explorer Samuel de Champlain became the first unofficial Governor of New France in the early 17th century, serving until Charles Huault de Montmagny was in 1636 formally appointed to the post by King Louis XIII. The French Company of One Hundred Associates then administered New France until King Louis XIV took control of the colony and appointed Augustin de Saffray de Mésy as the first governor general in 1663, after whom 12 more people served in the post. With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France relinquished most of its North American territories, including Canada, to Great Britain. King George III then issued in that same year a royal proclamation establishing, amongst other regulations, the Office of the Governor of Quebec to preside over the new Province of Quebec. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remained completely separate colonies, each with their own governor, until the cabinet of William Pitt adopted in the 1780s the idea that they, along with Quebec and Prince Edward Island, should have as their respective governors a single individual styled as Governor - in - Chief. The post was created in 1786, with The Lord Dorchester as its first occupant. However, the governor - in - chief directly governed only Quebec. It was not until the splitting in 1791 of the Province of Quebec, to accommodate the influx of United Empire Loyalists fleeing the American revolutionary war, that the king 's representative, with a change in title to Governor General, directly governed Lower Canada, while the other three colonies were each administered by a lieutenant governor in his stead. The Rebellions of 1837 brought about great changes to the role of the governor general, prompting, as they did, the British government to grant responsible government to the Canadian provinces. As a result, the viceroys became largely nominal heads, while the democratically elected legislatures and the premiers they supported exercised the authority belonging to the Crown; a concept first put to the test when, in 1849, Governor - General of the Province of Canada and Lieutenant - Governor of Canada East the Earl of Elgin granted Royal Assent to the Rebellion Losses Bill, despite his personal misgivings towards the legislation. This arrangement continued after the reunification in 1840 of Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, and the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. The governor general carried out in Canada all the parliamentary and ceremonial functions of a constitutional monarch -- amongst other things, granting Royal Assent, issuing Orders - in - Council, and taking advice from the Canadian privy council. However, the governor still remained not a viceroy, in the true sense of the word, being still a representative of and liaison to the British government -- the Queen in her British council of ministers -- who answered to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London and who, as a British observer of Canadian politics, held well into the First World War a suite of offices in the East Block of Parliament Hill. But, the new position of Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom, created in 1880, began to take over the governor general 's role as a link between the Canadian and British governments, leaving the viceroy increasingly as a personal representative of the monarch. As such, the governor general had to retain a sense of political neutrality; a skill that was put to the test when the Marquess of Lorne disagreed with his Canadian prime minister, John A. Macdonald, over the dismissal of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Luc Letellier de St - Just. On the advice of the Colonial Secretary, and to avoid conflict with the cabinet of Canada, the Marquess did eventually concede, and released St - Just from duty. The Governor General of Canada was then in May 1891 called upon to resolve the Dominion 's first cabinet crisis, wherein Prime Minister Macdonald died, leaving the Lord Stanley of Preston to select a new prime minister. As early as 1880, the viceregal family and court attracted minor ridicule from the Queen 's subjects: in July of that year, someone under the pseudonym Captain Mac included in a pamphlet called Canada: from the Lakes to the Gulf, a coarse satire of an investiture ceremony at Rideau Hall, in which a retired inn - keeper and his wife undergo the rigorous protocol of the royal household and sprawl on the floor before the Duke of Argyll so as to be granted the knighthood for which they had "paid in cold, hard cash. '' Later, prior to the arrival of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (the uncle of King George V), to take up the post of governor general, there was a "feeble undercurrent of criticism '' centring on worries about a rigid court at Rideau Hall; worries that turned out to be unfounded as the royal couple was actually more relaxed than their predecessors. During the First World War, into which Canada was drawn due to its association with the United Kingdom, the governor general 's role turned from one of cultural patron and state ceremony to one of military inspector and morale booster. Starting in 1914, Governor General Prince Arthur donned his Field Marshal 's uniform and put his efforts into raising contingents, inspecting army camps, and seeing troops off before their voyage to Europe. These actions, however, led to conflict with the Prince 's prime minister at the time, Robert Borden; though the latter placed blame on the Military Secretary Edward Stanton, he also opined that the Duke "laboured under the handicap of his position as a member of the Royal Family and never realized his limitations as Governor General. '' Prince Arthur 's successor, the Duke of Devonshire, faced the Conscription Crisis of 1917 and held discussions with his Canadian prime minister, as well as His Majesty 's Loyal Opposition members, on the matter. Once the government implemented conscription, Devonshire, after consulting on the pulse of the nation with Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Vincent Massey, Henri Bourassa, Archbishop of Montreal Paul Bruchési, Duncan Campbell Scott, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, and Stephen Leacock, made efforts to conciliate Quebec, though he had little real success. Canada 's national sentiment had gained fortitude through the country 's sacrifices on the battlefields of the First World War and, by war 's end, the interference of the British government in Canadian affairs was causing ever - increasing discontent amongst Canadian officials; in 1918, the Toronto Star was even advocating the end of the office. The governor general 's role was also morphing to focus less on the larger Empire and more on uniquely Canadian affairs, including the undertaking of official international visits on behalf of Canada, the first being that of the Marquess of Willingdon to the United States, where he was accorded by President Calvin Coolidge the full honours of representative of a head of state. It would be another decade, however, before the King - Byng Affair: another catalyst for change in the relationship between Canada -- indeed, all the Dominions -- and the United Kingdom, and thus the purpose of the governor general. In 1926, Liberal prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, facing a non-confidence vote in the House of Commons over a scandal in his party, requested that Governor General the Lord Byng of Vimy dissolve parliament and call an election. Byng, however, refused his Canadian prime minister 's advice, citing both the facts that King held the minority of seats in the house and that a general election had been held only months earlier; he thus called on Arthur Meighen to form a government. Within a week however, Meighen 's Conservative government lost its own non-confidence vote, forcing the Governor General to dissolve parliament and call elections that saw Mackenzie King returned to power. King then went on to the Imperial Conference that same year and there pushed for reorganizations that resulted in the Balfour Declaration, which declared formally the practical reality that had existed for some years: namely, that the Dominions were fully autonomous and equal in status to the United Kingdom. These new developments were codified in the Statute of Westminster, through the enactment of which on 11 December 1931, Canada, along with the Union of South Africa and the Irish Free State, immediately obtained formal legislative independence from the UK. In addition, the Balfour Declaration also held that the governor general would cease to act as the representative of the British government. Accordingly, in 1928, the United Kingdom appointed its first High Commissioner to Canada thus effectively ending the governor general 's diplomatic role as the British government 's envoy. The governor general thus became solely the representative of the King within Canadian jurisdiction, ceasing completely to be an agent of the British Cabinet, and as such would be appointed by the monarch granting his royal sign - manual under the Great Seal of Canada only on the advice of his Canadian prime minister. The Canadian Cabinet 's first recommendation under this new system was still, however, a British subject born outside of Canada: the Lord Tweedsmuir. His birthplace aside, though, the professional author took further than any of his predecessors the idea of a distinct Canadian identity, travelling the length and breadth of the country, including, for the first time for a governor general, the Arctic regions. Not all Canadians, however, shared Tweedsmuir 's views; the Baron raised the ire of imperialists when he said in Montreal in 1937: "a Canadian 's first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations, but to Canada and Canada 's King, '' a statement the Montreal Gazette dubbed as "disloyal. '' During Tweedsmuir 's time as viceroy, which started in 1935, calls began to emerge for a Canadian - born individual to be appointed as governor general; but Tweedsmuir died suddenly in office in 1940, while Canada was in the midst of the Second World War, and Prime Minister Mackenzie King did not feel it was the right time to search for a suitable Canadian. The Earl of Athlone was instead appointed by King George VI, Athlone 's nephew, to be his viceroy for the duration of the war. It was in 1952, a mere five days before King George VI 's death, that Vincent Massey became the first Canadian - born person to be appointed as a governor general in Canada since the Marquis de Vaudreuil - Cavagnal was made Governor General of New France on 1 January 1755, as well as the first not to be elevated to the peerage since Sir Edmund Walker Head in 1854. There was some trepidation about this departure from tradition and Massey was intended to be a compromise: he was known to embody loyalty, dignity, and formality, as expected from a viceroy. As his viceregal tenure neared an end, it was thought that Massey, an anglophone, should be followed by a francophone Canadian; and so, in spite of his Liberal Party attachments, Georges Vanier was chosen by Conservative prime minister John Diefenbaker as the next governor general. Vanier was subsequently appointed by Queen Elizabeth II in person at a meeting of her Canadian Cabinet, thus initiating the convention of alternating between individuals from Canada 's two main linguistic groups. This move did not, however, placate those who were fostering the new Quebec nationalist movement, for whom the monarchy and other federal institutions were a target for attack. Though Vanier was a native of Quebec and fostered biculturalism, he was not immune to the barbs of the province 's sovereigntists and, when he attended la Fête St - Jean - Baptiste in Montreal in 1964, a group of separatists held placards reading "Vanier vendu '' ("Vanier sold out '') and "Vanier fou de la Reine '' ("Vanier Queen 's jester ''). In light of this regional nationalism and a resultant change in attitudes towards Canadian identity, images and the role of the monarchy were cautiously downplayed, and Vanier 's successor, Roland Michener, was the last viceroy to practice many of the office 's ancient traditions, such as the wearing of the Windsor uniform, the requirement of court dress for state occasions, and expecting women to curtsey before the governor general. At the same time, he initiated new practices for the viceroy, including regular conferences with the lieutenant governors and the undertaking of state visits. He presided over Canada 's centennial celebrations and the coincidental Expo 67, to which French president Charles de Gaulle was invited. Michener was with de Gaulle when he made his infamous "Vive le Québec libre '' speech in Montreal and was cheered wildly by the gathered crowd while they booed and jeered Michener. With the additional recognition of the monarchy as a Canadian institution, the establishment of a distinct Canadian honours system, an increase of state visits coming with Canada 's growing role on the world stage, and the more prevalent use of television to visually broadcast ceremonial state affairs, the governor general became more publicly active in national life. The Cabinet in June 1978 put forward the constitutional amendment Bill C - 60, that, amongst other changes, vested executive authority directly in the governor general and renamed the position as First Canadian, but the proposal was thwarted by the provincial premiers. When the constitution was patriated four years later, the new amending formula for the documents outlined that any changes to the Crown, including the Office of the Governor General, would require the consent of all the provincial legislatures plus the federal parliament. By 1984, Canada 's first female governor general -- Jeanne Sauvé -- was appointed. While it was she who created the Canadian Heraldic Authority, as permitted by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth II, and who championed youth and world peace, Sauvé proved to be a controversial vicereine, closing to the public the grounds of the Queen 's residence and self - aggrandizingly breaching protocol on a number of occasions. Sarah, Duchess of York, said in 2009 that sometime during her marriage to Prince Andrew, Duke of York, her husband was offered the position of Governor General of Canada, and she speculated in hindsight that their agreement to refuse the commission may have been a contributing factor in their eventual break - up. Instead, Sauvé 's tenure as governor general was book - ended by a series of appointments -- Edward Schreyer, Ray Hnatyshyn, and Roméo LeBlanc -- that have been generally regarded as mere patronage postings for former politicians and friends of the incumbent prime minister at the time, and despite the duties they carried out, their combined time in the viceregal office is generally viewed as unremarkable, at best, damaging to the office, at worst; as David Smith described it: "Notwithstanding the personal qualities of the appointees, which have often been extraordinary, the Canadian governor general has become a hermetic head of state -- ignored by press, politicians and public. '' It was theorized by Peter Boyce that this was due, in part, to widespread misunderstanding about the governor general 's role coupled with a lack of public presence compared to the media coverage dedicated to the increasingly presidentialized prime minister. It was with the Queen 's appointment of Adrienne Clarkson, on the advice of then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, that a shift in the office took place. Clarkson was the first Canadian viceroy to have not previously held any political or military position -- coming as she did from a background of television journalism with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation -- was the first since 1952 to have been born outside of Canada, the first from a visible minority (she is of Chinese ancestry), and, by her being accompanied to Rideau Hall by her husband, author and philosopher John Ralston Saul, the official appointment brought an unofficial pair to the viceregal placement, in that the governor general would not be the only person actively exploring Canadian theory and culture. Clarkson managed to bring the viceregal office back into the collective consciousness of Canadians, winning praise for touring the country more than any of her predecessors, her inspiring speeches, and her dedication to the military in her role as the Commander - in - Chief 's representative. This did not come without a cost, however, as the attention also drew widespread criticism of the Governor General 's increased spending on state affairs, for which the office was symbolically rebuked by parliament when it voted in favour of cutting by 10 % the viceregal budget it had earlier supported, as well as for fostering the notion, through various demonstrations, that the governor general was ultimately the Canadian head of state above the Queen herself, an approach that was said by Jack Granatstein to have caused "a fury '' with the Queen on one occasion in 2004. This attitude was not unique to Clarkson, though; it had been observed that, for some decades, staff at Rideau Hall and various government departments in Ottawa had been pushing to present the governor general as head of state, part of a wider Liberal policy on the monarchy that had been in effect at least since the proposed constitutional changes in the 1970s, if not the 1964 Truncheon Saturday riot in Quebec City. Indeed, international observers opined that the viceroys had been, over the years, making deliberate attempts to distance themselves from the sovereign, for fear of being too closely associated with any "Britishness '' the monarch embodied. Prime Minister Paul Martin followed Chrétien 's example and, for Clarkson 's successor, put forward to the Queen the name of Michaëlle Jean, who was, like Clarkson, a woman, a refugee, a member of a visible minority, a CBC career journalist, and married to an intellectual husband who worked in the arts. Her appointment initially sparked accusations that she was a supporter of Quebec sovereignty, and it was observed that she had on a few occasions trodden into political matters, as well as continuing to foster the notion that the governor general had replaced the Queen as head of state, thereby "unbalancing... the federalist symmetry. '' But Jean ultimately won plaudits, particularly for her solidarity with the Canadian Forces and Canada 's Aboriginal peoples, as well as her role in the parliamentary dispute that took place between December 2008 and January 2009. With the appointment of academic David Johnston, former principal of McGill University and subsequently president of the University of Waterloo, there was a signalled emphasis for the Governor General to vigorously promote learning and innovation. Johnston stated in his inaugural address: "(We want to be) a society that innovates, embraces its talent and uses the knowledge of each of its citizens to improve the human condition for all. '' There was also a recognition of Johnston 's expertise in constitutional law, following the controversial prorogations of parliament in 2008 and 2009, which initiated some debate about the governor general 's role as the representative of Canada 's head of state. Retired governors general usually either withdraw from public life or go on to hold other public offices. Edward Schreyer, for instance, was appointed Canadian High Commissioner to Australia upon his departure from the viceregal role in 1984, and Michaëlle Jean became the UNESCO special envoy to Haiti and, later, the Secretary - General of the Francophonie. Schreyer also become the first former governor general to run for elected office in Canada when he unsuccessfully vied for a seat in the House of Commons as a New Democratic Party candidate. Prior to 1952, several former viceroys returned to political careers in the United Kingdom, sitting with party affiliations in the House of Lords and, in some cases, taking a position in the British Cabinet. John Campbell was elected a Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom in 1895, and remained so until he became the Duke of Argyll and took his seat in the House of Lords. Others were made governors in other countries or territories: the Viscount Monck was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Dublin, the Earl of Aberdeen was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and the Earl of Dufferin, the Marquess of Lansdowne, The Earl of Minto, and The Earl of Willingdon all subsequently served as Viceroy of India. An outgoing governor general may leave an eponymous award as a legacy, such as the Stanley Cup, the Clarkson Cup, the Vanier Cup, or the Grey Cup. They may found an institution, as Georges Vanier did with the Vanier Institute of the Family and Adrienne Clarkson with the Institute for Canadian Citizenship. Three former governors general have released memoirs: the Lord Tweedsmuir (Memory Hold - the - Door), Vincent Massey (On Being Canadian and What 's Past is Prologue), and Adrienne Clarkson (Heart Matters). Coucill, Irma (2005). Canada 's Prime Ministers, Governors General and Fathers of Confederation. Pembroke Publishers. ISBN 1 - 55138 - 185 - 0.

the christian topography of cosmas an egyptian monk

Christian Topography - wikipedia The Christian Topography (Ancient Greek: Χριστιανικὴ Τοπογραφία, Latin: Topographia Christiana) is a 6th - century work, one of the earliest essays in scientific geography written by a Christian author. It was originally written as five books by Cosmas Indicopleustes and expanded to ten to twelve books around 550 AD. While most of the Christians of the same period maintained that the Earth was a sphere the work advances the idea that the world is flat, and that the heavens form the shape of a box with a curved lid, and especially attacks the idea that the heavens were spherical and in motion, now known as the geocentric model of the universe. The author cites passages of scripture which he interprets originally in order to support his thesis, and attempts to argue down the idea of a spherical earth by stigmatizing it as "pagan ''. An early surviving reference to the work is by Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople in the 9th century AD. Photius condemns the style and syntax of the text as well as the honesty of the author. More recent authors tend to agree with Photius on the stylistic points, but do find the author generally reliable for geographical and historical references. Edward Gibbon, for example, said "the nonsense of the Monk was, nevertheless, mingled with the practical knowledge of the traveller '' and used it in writing The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. The Topography is often cited as evidence that Christianity introduced the idea of the flat - earth into the world, and brought in the age of ignorance. The latter pages of his work are devoted to rebutting the criticism of his fellow monks that what he was saying was wrong. He repeatedly denounces "those reprobate Christians who,..., prefer, through their perverse folly or downright wickedness, to adopt the miserable Pagan belief that earth and heaven are spherical, and that there are Antipodes on whom the rain must fall up. '' Raymond Beazley, in the first volume of The Dawn of Modern Geography (1897), said The place of Cosmas in history has been sometimes misconceived. His work is not, as it has been called (in the earlier years of this century), the chief authority of the Middle Ages in geography. For, on the whole, its influence is only slightly, and occasionally, traceable. Its author stated his position as an article of Christian faith, but even in those times there was anything but a general agreement with his positive conclusions... The subtleties of Cosmas were left to the Greeks, for the most part; the western geographers who pursued his line of thought were usually content to stop short at the merely negative dogmas of the Latin Fathers; and no great support was given to the constructive tabernacle system of the Indian merchant... Yet, after all, the Christian Topography. must always be remarkable. It is one of the earliest important essays in scientific or strictly theoretic geography, within the Christian aera (sic), written by a Christian thinker. Besides the cosmological elements of the book, Christian Topography provides insight into the geographical knowledge of 6th century Byzantium. "Indicopleustes '' means "Indian voyager ''. While it is known from classical literature that there had been trade between the Roman Empire and India, Cosmas was one of the individuals who had actually made the journey. Indeed, we learn from his book that he had travelled over much of the Red Sea coast, and as far as modern Sri Lanka. He described and sketched some of what he saw in his Topography. Some of these have been copied into the existing manuscripts. When not expounding his cosmology, Cosmas proves to be an interesting and reliable guide, providing a window into a world that has since disappeared. He happened to be in Ethiopia when the King of Axum was preparing a 522 or 525 AD military expedition to attack Jewish Arabs in Yemen. He recorded now - vanished inscriptions such as the Monumentum Adulitanum (which he mistakenly attributed to Ptolemy III Euergetes). Three nearly complete manuscripts are known to exist. The earliest and best is from the 9th century, and is in the Vatican Library. This text has only ten books. Two closely related manuscripts of the 11th century, one from the Saint Catherine 's Monastery and the other probably originally from the Iviron monastery of Mount Athos, contain twelve books and comment on the prophets in the same order that Theodore of Mopsuestia preferred rather than in Septuagint order. The eleventh and twelfth books may originally have been parts of other works by the same author. Portions of book five appear more frequently as a marginal commentary upon the psalms, and it is the name given to the author in these commentaries that is now used. David C. Lindberg asserts: "Cosmas was not particularly influential in Byzantium, but he is important for us because he has been commonly used to buttress the claim that all (or most) medieval people believed they lived on a flat earth. This claim... is totally false. Cosmas is, in fact, the only medieval European known to have defended a flat earth cosmology, whereas it is safe to assume that all educated Western Europeans (and almost one hundred percent of educated Byzantines), as well as sailors and travellers, believed in the earth 's sphericity. '' This article uses text taken from the Preface to the Online English translation of the Christian Topography, which is in the public domain.

what does er stand for on post boxes

Pillar box - wikipedia A pillar box is a type of free - standing post box. They are found in the United Kingdom and in most former nations of the British Empire, members of the Commonwealth of Nations and British overseas territories, such as Australia, Cyprus, India, Gibraltar, Hong Kong, the Republic of Ireland, Malta, New Zealand and Sri Lanka. Pillar boxes were provided in territories administered by the United Kingdom, such as Mandatory Palestine, and territories with agency postal services provided by the British Post Office such as Bahrain, Dubai, Kuwait and Morocco. The United Kingdom also exported pillar boxes to countries that ran their own postal services, such as Argentina, Portugal and Uruguay. Mail is deposited in pillar boxes to be collected by the Royal Mail, An Post or the appropriate postal operator and forwarded to the addressee. The boxes have been in use since 1852, just twelve years after the introduction of the first adhesive postage stamps (Penny Black) and uniform penny post. Mail may also be deposited in lamp boxes or wall boxes that serve the same purpose as pillar boxes but are attached to a post or set into a wall. According to the Letter Box Study Group, there are more than 150 recognised designs and varieties of pillar boxes and wall boxes, not all of which have known surviving examples. The red post box is regarded as a British cultural icon. Royal Mail estimates there are over 100,000 post boxes in the United Kingdom. Most traditional British pillar boxes produced after 1905 are made of cast iron and are cylindrical. Other shapes have been used: the hexagonal Penfolds, rectangular boxes that have not proved to be popular, and an oval shape that is used mainly for the large "double aperture '' boxes most often seen in large cities like London and Dublin. In recent years boxes manufactured in glass - fibre or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic have been produced that do not follow these general outlines. These are for use in secure indoor locations such as supermarkets. Cast iron pillar box construction comprises three distinct main parts: The cap sits on top of the carcass and is usually bolted down from inside. Some designs after 1965 do not have a separate cap. Caps can also be fitted with a separate bracket, normally of cast iron, which supports a Post Office Direction sign (POD) indicating the nearest Post Office. The door contains the aperture or posting slot. It is hinged, should display the royal cypher of the reigning monarch and may also be fitted with a collection plate showing the times of collection from that location. It is fitted with a brass security lock on the inside. The contractor for these locks has been the Chubb Locks company for many years. They are five - lever locks and each one can exhibit more than 6,500 combinations. There is no skeleton key for these locks. Each post box has its own set of keys and postal workers have to carry large bunches with them when clearing the boxes. The carcass or body of the box that supports the door and cap, and may protrude substantially down below ground level. This provides security and stability to the pillar box. There is a wirework cage inside to prevent mail falling out when the door is opened, a hinged letter chute to allow mail to fall into the collecting bag or sack and a serrated hand - guard to prevent unauthorised tampering with the mail through the aperture. Before the introduction of pillar boxes, in the UK, it was customary to take outgoing mail to the nearest letter - receiving house or post office. Such houses were usually coaching inns or turnpike houses where the Royal Mail coach would stop to pick up and set down mails and passengers. People took their letters, in person, to the receiver, or postmaster, purchased a stamp (after 1840) and handed over the letter. The advent of the British wayside letter box can be traced to Sir Rowland Hill, Secretary of the Post Office, and his Surveyor for the Western District, and noted novelist, Anthony Trollope. Hill sent Trollope to the Channel Islands to ascertain what could be done about the problem of collecting the mail on a pair of islands. The problems identified in the Channel Islands were caused by the irregular sailing times of the Royal Mail packet boats serving the islands due to weather and tides. Trollope subsequently arrived in Jersey in the early Spring of 1852 and proceeded to survey both islands. His recommendation back to Hill was to employ a device he may have seen in use in Paris: a "letter - receiving pillar ''. It was to be made of cast iron, about 1.5 metres high, octagonal in design and painted olive green. Trollope estimated that four would be needed for Guernsey and five for Jersey. The foundry of Vaudin & Son in Jersey was commissioned to produce them and the first four were erected in David Place, New Street, Cheapside and St Clement 's Road in Saint Helier and brought into public use on 23 November 1852. Guernsey received its first three pillar boxes on 8 February 1853. They were an instant success, despite some obvious problems with rainwater ingress. One Vaudin box still stands in Union Street, Saint Peter Port, Guernsey whilst another is in the British Postal Museum & Archive collection in London. The very first boxes erected in the UK are not recorded, but the designs varied from area to area as each district surveyor issued their own specifications and tendered to their own chosen foundries. The earliest ones were essentially experimental, including octagonal pillars or fluted columns, vertical slits instead of horizontal ones, and other unusual features. It is recorded in the Post Office archives that the first box in the UK was erected in Botchergate, Carlisle in 1853. This fact is commemorated today with a replica Penfold box, located between the Market Cross and the Old Town Hall, in Carlisle city centre. The first six in London were installed on 11 April 1855. The earliest surviving UK designs are four Butt boxes made in Gloucester for the Western Area. These are at Barnes Cross, near Sherborne, Dorset, inside the former Royal Naval Hospital, Stonehouse in Plymouth, in the Haverfordwest town museum (formerly at Merlin 's Bridge) and in the British Postal Museum & Archive store at Debden (formerly at Ventnor railway station, Isle of Wight). All date from 1853 -- 59, with Barnes Cross being one of the later batch. The oldest pillar boxes still in use by the Royal Mail are at Framlingham in Suffolk; this pair were founded by Andrew Handyside and Company of Derby in 1856 and are at Double Street and College Road. A third octagonal pillar of this type was at Gosberton in Lincolnshire and is now in the Museum of Lincolnshire Life in Lincoln. 1856 also saw various designs introduced in Scotland and the Midlands. The postbox believed to be the oldest in Scotland, is a wall box which sits on the front of the Golspie Inn (formerly the Sutherland Arms Hotel); it carries the royal cypher of Queen Victoria and dates back to 1861. The first design for London, by Grissel & Son of Hoxton Ironworks was rather stubby and rectangular, although surmounted by a decorative ball. Erected in 1855, they were replaced because people complained that they were ugly. One survived and was earmarked for preservation in the early part of the 20th century. It was unfortunately stored in a contractor 's yard in London which was subject to a direct hit from a German bomb during the Blitz, thus destroying forever some important boxes. A photograph of this Grissel box together with a Giant Fluted box and a Penfold in the contractor 's yard appeared in The Letter Box by Jean Young Farrugia. Standardisation of sorts came in 1857 with the deliberations of the Committee for Science & Art of the House of Lords. The committee designed a very ornate box festooned with Grecian - style decoration but, in a major oversight, devoid of any posting aperture, which meant they were hewn out of the cast iron locally, destroying the aesthetic of the box. Fifty were made for London and the big cities and three survive. One is in Salford Museum, Greater Manchester and the other two are at the BPMA in London. A similar, much - simplified version has survived painted green by An Post at the Cork Kent railway station, Ireland. Also to be found only in Ireland is one of the early boxes, now at the An Post exhibit on the history of the Irish postal service in the General Post Office, O'Connell Street, Dublin. It is the sole surviving "Ashworth '' box of 1855 for the Northern District, that included all of the island of Ireland. Prior to 1859 there was no standard colour, although there is evidence that the lettering and royal cypher were sometimes picked out in gold. In 1859, a bronze green colour became standard until 1874. Initially, it was thought that the green colour would be unobtrusive. Too unobtrusive, as it turned out -- people kept walking into them. Red became the standard colour in 1874, although ten more years elapsed before every box in the UK had been repainted. The first real standard design came in 1859 with the First National Standard box. These were also cast in two sizes for the first time to allow for heavier usage in big metropolitan areas. A number have survived across the UK, including Aberdeen, Brighton, Stoke, Worthing, London, World 's End Hambledon, Bristol, Congresbury, and Newport, Isle of Wight. Similar boxes have also survived in Mauritius. In the busy city of Liverpool, even these boxes could not provide the capacity and security required, so a special design was commissioned from the foundry of Cochrane Grove & Co of Dudley. Known as "Liverpool Specials '', three survive from a batch of six. Two of these are in Liverpool and the other is in the BPMA collection in London. Cochrane became the foundry that made all the Penfold boxes from 1866 to 1879. The most famous of the early designs is that named after the architect who designed it, John Penfold. Penfold boxes come in three sizes and altogether there are nine different types. They are very widespread, with the biggest accumulations in London and Cheltenham. Others are spread across England, Ireland, India (including locally made copies), British Guyana, Australia and New Zealand. An export order from the postal service of the Republic of Uruguay resulted in nine boxes of the Penfold design being exported there in 1879, of which six are believed extant, including one in the philatelic department of the central Post Office in Montevideo. In 1993 the Correo Uruguayo commemorated Penfold post boxes with a set of stamps of various denominations. There are no original Penfolds in Scotland, but 1989 - built replicas have been erected in these areas, as well as other deserving sites where they are suitable. The first replica Penfold was erected at Tower Bridge, in London, on the south embankment and carries a commemorative plaque. Genuine Penfolds can be seen at the British Postal Museum & Archive Museum Store in Debden, Essex, The Farm Museum in Normanby by Scunthorpe, the National Railway Museum at York, Beamish Open Air Museum, the Black Country Museum, Crich National Tramway Museum, Oakham Treasures, near Bristol (see link below), Carshalton Beeches in Surrey, The Isle of Wight Postal Museum near Newport, Isle of Wight and Milestones Living History Museum in Basingstoke. A rare large capacity original Penfold is in public use at the Pavilion Gardens in Buxton Derbyshire. The Severn Valley Railway, Blists Hill Victorian Town and the Talyllyn Railway have replica Penfolds. Penfolds, which are distinguished by their hexagonal construction and acanthus bud surmounting the cap, were originally exclusively city - based, but have now been installed rural areas as well. About 300 were made, of which 150 survive. Nearly 100 replicas, made at the end of the 1980s, have also been installed. The New Zealand boxes are the only Penfolds to bear the cypher of King Edward VII; all others in the former British controlled territories have the cypher of Queen Victoria. Penfold boxes in Uruguay bear the national coat of arms of Uruguay and are painted either yellow or black with a yellow band. Boxes made in Madras, India for the kingdom of Travancore carry that kingdom 's emblem of a stylised Turbinella pyrum seashell. The acanthus bud and leaves decoration on the top of Penfold boxes was also emulated in a design of cylindrical post boxes for New Zealand and Australia. Penfold Type PB8 / 1 at King 's Parade, Cambridge. Replica Penfold, erected at Tower Bridge in 1989. Disused green Penfold PB8 / 1 outside Brecon Museum, Wales. Original bronze - green livery Penfold on High St Rochester, Kent showing enamel Letters flap. Queen Victoria Coat of Arms details from Penfold at the former Neyland railway station, Wales. Large size Penfold box type PB9 / 1 in public use at Buxton, Derbyshire, England. Edward VII Penfold PB8 in Dunedin, New Zealand Pillar box in Perumbavoor, Kerala, made in Madras for the Indian kingdom of Travancore Gold postbox in Lincoln, painted in honour of the gold medal won by Sophie Wells A return to cylindrical boxes followed with the so - called Anonymous boxes of 1879. Andrew Handyside of Derby was the foundry, but omitted the royal cypher and the words "Post Office '' leading to the Anonymous sobriquet. It took 13 years before this change was reversed, even though the box had undergone a major design change during that time. This involved lowering the position of the aperture relative to the top of the box. The original "High Aperture '' design was prone to mail becoming caught under the rim of the cap. This was solved by lowering the aperture so that it falls centrally between the two raised beading lines. Consequently, the second style is known as "Low Aperture ''. The Portuguese post office adopted the original high - aperture design, which were made for it by Andrew Handyside & Co. Portugal later adopted its own modified design based on Types A and B. Numerous examples of each design remain in use. New post box designs were ordered in 1887 for the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria. For the first time there was a lamp - post mounted letter box for use in London squares, but which soon established themselves in rural areas (see lamp boxes). For the big cities, a double - aperture oval - shaped pillar (designated Type C) was introduced, partly to increase capacity and certainly in London, to allow mail to be pre-sorted by region, normally with apertures marked separately for "London '' and "Country ''. All pillar and lamp boxes now had the distinctive Imperial cypher of Victoria Regina, whilst the wall - mounted boxes continued to show only a block cypher VR. The new pillar box design saw out the reign and remained little changed until 1905, when the basic design was refined. The Edward VII boxes now had the posting aperture as part of the door, rather than the body of the box. That eliminated the chance for mail to get caught up in the top of the box. This basic design remains the same today, having served well throughout the reigns of George V, Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II. An experiment of 1932 was the addition of a stamp vending machine to the end of the post box. This necessitated an oval planform for the box even though it was only provided with a single posting aperture. At one end of the oval is the stamp machine and at the other is the posting aperture. The boxes have two doors; one for clearance of mail and one for emptying the cash and reloading the stamp machines. The machines were set to vend two halfpenny stamps in exchange for one old penny, the stamps being supplied in a long continuously wound roll known as a coil. Boxes were again made in two sizes, designated Type D and Type E, and carried raised lettering on the castings indicating the position of the stamp vending machine, as well as an array of small enamel plates warning users of the danger of bent coins and the need to wait for stamps to be issued before inserting more money. Several of each have survived in use in England and in the Isle of Man. Type B ' Anonymous ' pillar box in Buxton, Derbyshire, England. VR Type B pillar box in Hull. A double aperture pillar box in Fleet Street, London. This pillar box was made between 1887 and 1901, as it bears the Royal cypher ' VR ' for Queen Victoria. VR pillar box in Oxford, cast by A. Handyside. Edward VII pillar box in front of a K6 Telephone box. Father and daughter pair: George VI and Elizabeth II pillar boxes at Bembridge Post Office Isle of Wight. One was for local mail and the other for off - island post. PB27 / 1 pillar of George V, fitted with a Post Office Direction Sign (POD) at the Colne Valley Postal History Museum, Essex 1932 Type E pillar box with integral stamp vending machine at Ealing Village Rare Edward VIII Type ' A ' pillar box in Ramsgate, Kent, England. King George V post box by Carron Company. Glasgow, Arden, Kilmuir Crescent. Commercial Air Mail service commenced in the United Kingdom in 1919. By the early 1930s Imperial Airways was operating regular airmail services to Europe and the British colonies and dominions. To facilitate easy collection of air mail and its speedy onward transmission, a fleet of special vehicles and dedicated postboxes were introduced. To distinguish them from regular post boxes, they were painted Air Force blue, with prominent royal blue signage. The service ran successfully until the outbreak of war in 1939, when it was suspended. Although Air Mail re-commenced after the War, the postboxes and vehicles were no longer identifiable, as Air Mail could now be posted anywhere. Following the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, existing UK pillar boxes were retained and painted green. Many of these are extant around the country, retaining the monogram of the monarch at the time of the box 's installation. The Department of Posts and Telegraphs continued installing similar pillar boxes and wall boxes, but with the initials SÉ (for Saorstát Éireann), a harp or the Department of Posts and Telegraphs P ⁊ T logo, instead of a monarch 's monogram. Since 1984 An Post, the current Irish postal administration, uses the An Post logo to adorn its posting boxes. Many counties, such as County Wicklow, have placed all existing British - era pillar boxes on the record of protected structures meaning they can not be replaced without being granted special planning permission. In 1939 the IRA, as part of their S - Plan campaign, placed a number of bombs in post boxes in Britain. Later the Provisional IRA did so again in 1974. The next major design change came in 1968 with the introduction of the Type F pillar box. This was conceived by Vandyke Engineering and proposed to the Post Office as a cheaper alternative to the traditional cast box. It was fabricated in sheet steel with welded construction. Unfortunately, the British climate did not suit the use of galvanised steel (a problem often seen with the 1940 and 1988 pattern of lamp box) and the Vandyke pillars soon began to rust badly. The very last one was removed from service at Colmore Row in Birmingham in 2002. In 1974 the Post Office experimented with a similar rectangular design known as Type G. This was made in traditional cast iron by the foundry of Carron Company in Stirling, Scotland. It was an operational success, but the public disliked the "square '' designs and petitioned the Post Office for a return to cylindrical boxes. The Post Office commissioned a new design of pillar box in 1980 from a panel of three competing designers. The competition was won by Tony Gibbs and his design, which was thought to be ultra-modern at the time, was designated Type K by the Post Office. Made in traditional cast iron, it stayed in production until 2000. Notable features included: replaceable lifting ring screwed into the dome of the box, body and roof of box cast as one piece, large easy - to - read collection time plate, all surface details and collection plate window recessed to give a perfect cylindrical outline, integral restrictor plate, know colloquially as a "Belfast Flap '' to restrict posting to letters only and a flanged shallow base suitable for installation in modern buildings, shopping centres and other urban areas. These boxes were thus much easier to move and handle as they could be rolled over level ground or lifted by crane into position. The design had one major flaw in the area of the door hinge, which is prone to snap under stress and the K type pillar boxes are no longer being installed. All new pillar boxes for use in the UK are Type A traditional pillars or Type C oval pillars from the foundry of Machan Engineering, Denny, Falkirk, Scotland. Exceptions to this are the Supermarket or "Inside '' boxes supplied by Broadwater Mouldings Ltd of Eye, Suffolk and the sheet steel "Garage '' boxes supplied directly by Romec Ltd. EIIR Type B pillar box in Scarborough, North Yorkshire. Elizabeth II Type B pillar box (Nigerian pattern) in Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, England. Modern Royal Mail branded EiiR Type C double aperture pillar box, Menai Bridge. Type K pillar box of Elizabeth II fitted with a "Post Office Direction '' sign Unusual bracket carrying a Post Office "Lozenge '' fitted to a Type K pillar at Easter Compton, S. Gloucs A rare double Type F pillar box by Vandyke Engineering (1968) at the BPMA Store, Debden, Essex. Type G (square) pillar box in Cambridge A prototype Post Office Suite by Ideo Design from 1989, now in the BPMA store, London A glass - fibre type PB58 pillar box of the type frequently seen in British supermarkets, made by Broadwater Mouldings Ltd of Eye, Suffolk. Box at Terminal 5, Heathrow Airport. The transparent panel allows visual inspection of the contents, for security purposes. Installing a used Type K in Swindon In Scotland there were protests when the first boxes made in the reign of Elizabeth II were produced. These bore the cypher "E II R '' but there were objections because Queen Elizabeth is the first Queen of Scotland and of the United Kingdom to bear that name, Elizabeth I having been Queen of England only. After several E II R pillar boxes were blown up by improvised explosive devices, the General Post Office (as it was at that time) replaced them with ones which only bore the Crown of Scotland and no royal cypher. Red telephone boxes or kiosks of type K6 were also treated in the same way. To mark the 2012 Summer Olympics, Royal Mail, Isle of Man Post and Guernsey Post painted a pillar box gold in the home town of each Great Britain team member who won a gold medal, as well as a demonstration model near Westminster Abbey. A website mapping the gold boxes was provided. The boxes, originally intended to be repainted to the traditional red in due course, will remain gold painted permanently. To reflect the iconic nature of the British post box and the heritage attached to them; out - of - use post boxes (especially older models) are rarely removed and instead painted black and sealed to signify to members of the public the box is no longer in use. Examples of ' black post boxes ' can be seen outside former post-offices and in conservation areas. Pillar box in Buenos Aires, Argentina Australian - made Edward VII pillar box at the Western Australian Rail Transport Museum, Bassendean Pillar boxes in Cyprus were painted yellow after independence, and are still in use George V pillar box in Gibraltar A Guernsey Post Elizabeth II Type C double pillar box Colonial - era post box in Hong Kong, a Scottish Crown Type C in Central A modern pillar box in Dublin, Ireland Pillar box in Shimla, India, of a design pioneered by Suttie & Co of Greenock, Scotland Last red pillar box in Al Ahmadi, Kuwait, about 1976 Macanese pillar box from the Portuguese colonial era in the Museum of Macau A red pillar box in Vittoriosa, Malta. Shortly after independence, royal cyphers were ground off the pillar boxes in Valletta and Floriana, but most others remained intact. Early pillar box in Thames, New Zealand Elizabeth II pillar box in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus British postboxes in old Tel Aviv, Israel, are a remnant of the Palestine Mandate. The British royal cyphers were ground off the cast - iron doors after the Israeli war of independence British - made "high - aperture '' box in Sintra, Portugal Two variations of Portuguese pillar boxes in Porto, Portugal Replica Penfold in Singapore for collecting special Christmas post Post box in Spain Maru ("Round '') Post Japan Post boxes are emptied ("cleared '') at times usually listed on the box in a TOC (Times of Collection), plate affixed to the box. Since 2005, most British post boxes have had the time of only the last collection of the day listed on the box, with no indication of whether the box is cleared at other times earlier in the day. The reason given for this by the Royal Mail is that they needed to increase the font size of the wording on the "plate '' listing the collection times to improve legibility for those with poor sight and that consequently there was insufficient room for listing all collection times throughout the day. The "Next Collection '' tablet, where fitted, was usually retained in these cases, but tablets now merely show the day of the week, indicating whether or not the last collection has been cleared that day. In the novel He Knew He Was Right author Anthony Trollope makes fun of his invention through his character Miss Stanbury. She regards pillar boxes as "a most hateful thing '' for "She could not understand why people should not walk with their letters to a respectable post-office instead of chucking them into an iron stump ''. British songwriting duo Flanders and Swann included a song, "Pillar to Post '' on their album And Then We Wrote (1975). In The Beatles ' film Help! (1965), a member of the cult tries to obtain the ring while hiding in a pillar box. Two Walt Disney films set in London feature a very accurate wooden prop pillar box of the Penfold type. It appears in several scenes of Mary Poppins (1964) and in the Portobello Market scene of Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971). In the John Wayne crime action film, Brannigan (1975), a blind ransom drop is made into a London pillar box. The extortionists have installed a hatch at the bottom of the pillar box, to allow them to access the pillar box from the sewer and switch the ransom with worthless newspaper for the police to follow. Mr Neutron, the penultimate episode of the fourth series of the BBC Television show Monty Python 's Flying Circus (1969), features GPO officials opening a long line of pillar boxes that starts in the Ruislip suburb of London, goes on to encircle the Gobi Desert and leads the GPO to world domination. In the universe of Red Dwarf, the interstellar ' post pods ' that continually follow the mining vessel Red Dwarf and deliver mail and other packages, are made to resemble pillar boxes that happen to fly through space. The 1980s and 90s British animated cartoon series Danger Mouse featured the title character and his assistant living in a red pillar box in London. The sidekick is named Penfold, supposedly an intentional reference, though the pillar box did not resemble the Penfold hexagonal type. In the sixth episode of Mr. Bean, ' Mr. Bean Rides Again ', the title character is seen inside a pillar box to hide from a lady who he had stolen a stamp from in a failed attempt to post his own letter. He then presumably stays inside it all night until the next day 's first collection. In 1999 McDonald 's Restaurants issued a promotional toy featuring British DC Thomson comic strip cartoon character Roger the Dodger hiding inside a red pillar box. Another DC Thomson character, Desperate Dan, has been shown posting a letter in a pillar box, although his comic strip is set in the American frontier, and pillar boxes were not used in the USA.